Student Reference3

70-1805-S
Module 5: Steering and Suspension Systems
Automotive Technology Curriculum
2006 Edition Student Reference
STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
Automotive Technology Module 5: Steering and Suspension Systems Student Reference

Technical Consultants: Roger Donovan Robin Ferguson
Project Coordinator: Erica Kassel
Editor: Janis Levsen
Produced by the Instructional Materials Laboratory 1400 Rock Quarry Center University of Missouri-Columbia Columbia, MO 65211 (800) 669-2465 http://www.iml.missouri.edu 2006 Edition Catalog no. 70-1805-S 2006. The Curators of the University of Missouri. All Rights Reserved.
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Graphic Artists: Chris Benedict Jacqueline Craig
AUTOMOTIVE TECHNOLOGY
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The 2006 revision of Steering and Suspension Systems represents the Instructional Materials Laboratorys commitment to the continual improvement of the Automotive Technology Curriculum. Steering and Suspension Systems is the fifth in the nine-module series. The other modules are as follows: Module Module Module Module Module Module Module Module Module Module 1 2 3 3 3 4 6 7 8 9 Introduction to Automotive Technology Electrical Systems Engine Performance, Section 1: Ignition Systems Engine Performance, Section 2: Fuel and Exhaust Systems Engine Performance, Section 3: Emission Control Systems Engine Repair Brakes Manual Drive Train and Axles Automatic Transmissions and Transaxles Heating and Air Conditioning
All modules are based on the National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation (NATEF) task list. For years the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE) has set the professional standards for automotive technicians. A strong NATEF orientation makes the nine curriculum guides an effective tool for preparing students to enter the technologically advanced field of automotive technology. IML gratefully acknowledges the important contribution of the advisory committee: Roger Donovan, Illinois Central College, East Peoria, IL Ken Estes, Grand River Technical School, Chillicothe, MO Robin Ferguson, Kirksville Vocational Technical School, Kirksville, MO Sam Jeanrenaud, Lees Summit, MO Keith Kendrick, John A. Logan College, Carterville, IL Steve Reese, Lewis and Clark Vocational Technical School, St. Charles, MO Ron Tuetken, Lewis and Clark Community College, Godfrey, IL John Walker, Hannibal Area Vocational Technical School, Hannibal, MO Rodney Wolken, Eldon Career Center, Eldon, MO
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction ................................................................................................................i Title Page .............................................................................................. i Acknowledgments ............................................................................ iii Components ....................................................................................... ix References ............................................................................................ x Unit I General Steering and Suspension Systems Diagnosis ........................................................................................ S 1 Lesson 1: Steering and Suspension Systems Overview ......... S 5 Lesson 2: Work Orders and General Diagnosis .................... S 11 Unit II Steering System Design and Fluid Service .......................... S 15 Lesson 1: Introduction to Steering Systems ........................... S 21 Lesson 2: Conventional Steering System Components and Operation .............................................................................. S 29 Lesson 3: Rack-and-Pinion Steering System Components and Operation ...................................................... S 57 Lesson 4: Servicing Steering Fluids and Diagnosing Leaks ............................................................................................... S 65 Unit III Steering Gear and Linkage Diagnosis and Repair ............ S 75 Lesson 1: Diagnosing the Steering Gear ................................. S 81 Lesson 2: Repairing a Manual Steering Gear ........................ S 93 Lesson 3: Repairing an Integrated Power Steering Gear .............................................................................. S 101 Lesson 4: Inspecting and Replacing Linkages ..................... S 109
Unit IV Rack-and-Pinion Steering Diagnosis and Repair .........S 123 Lesson 1: Diagnosing and Repairing a Manual Rack-and-Pinion Steering Gear ............................................ S 127 Lesson 2: Diagnosing and Repairing a Power Rack-and-Pinion Steering Gear ............................................ S 137 Lesson 3: Repairing Rack-and-Pinion Steering External Components ............................................................ S 147 Unit V Power Steering System Diagnosis and Repair ..............S 151 Lesson 1: Pressure Testing Power Steering Systems ..................................................................................... S 155 Lesson 2: Replacing and Servicing Power Steering Components ............................................................. S 161 Unit VI Steering Column Diagnosis and Repair ..........................S 177 Lesson 1: Energy-Absorbing Steering Column Design and Operation ............................................ S 181 Lesson 2: Air Bag System Design and Operation ................................................................................. S 189 Lesson 3: Diagnosing and Repairing the Steering Column ..................................................................... S 195 Unit VII Suspension System Designs ...............................................S 205 Lesson 1: Introduction to Suspension Systems ................ S 209 Lesson 2: Front Suspension System Types and Components ..................................................................... S 215 Lesson 3: Rear Suspension System Types and Components ..................................................................... S 243 Unit VIII Front Suspension Diagnosis and Repair .........................S 249 Lesson 1: Diagnosing and Servicing a Front Suspension System .................................................................. S 255
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Lesson 2: Inspecting and Replacing Front Suspension Control Components ........................................... S 265 Lesson 3: Inspecting and Replacing Front Suspension Springs, Ball Joints, and Control Arms ............ S 275 Lesson 4: Servicing Front Strut Suspensions ....................... S 291 Unit IX Rear Suspension Diagnosis and Repair ............................. S 301 Lesson 1: Diagnosing and Repairing Rear Suspension Systems ................................................................... S 305 Unit X Electronic Suspension Control Systems Diagnosis and Repair .............................................................. S 317 Lesson 1: Electronic Suspension Control Systems Design ........................................................................... S 321 Lesson 2: Diagnosing and Repairing Electronic Suspension Control Systems .................................................... S 329 Unit XI Wheel Bearing and Spindle Diagnosis and Repair .................................................................................. S 339 Lesson 1: Wheel Bearing and Spindle Design ..................... S 343 Lesson 2: Diagnosing and Repairing Wheel Bearings and Spindles ............................................................... S 347 Unit XII Wheel and Tire Design ........................................................... S 359 Lesson 1: Wheel Design ........................................................... S 363 Lesson 2: Tire Design ............................................................... S 371 Unit XIII Wheel and Tire Diagnosis and Repair ............................... S 383 Lesson 1: Inspecting and Rotating Tires ............................... S 387 Lesson 2: Mounting Tires and Repairing Punctures ..................................................................................... S 395 Lesson 3: Principles of Wheel Balance and Runout ................................................................................. S 409
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Lesson 4: Testing for and Correcting Wheeland-Tire Assembly Runout and Imbalance ....................... S 413 Unit XIV Wheel Alignment Diagnosis, Adjustment, and Repair ...............................................................................S 421 Lesson 1: Diagnosing Various Steering, Suspension, and Wheel Alignment Problems ................... S 425 Lesson 2: Principles of Wheel Alignment .......................... S 431 Lesson 3: Measuring and Correcting Wheel Alignment .................................................................... S 441
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COMPONENTS
I. Objectives Each unit is based on objectives that state the measurable unit and specific behavioral or performance objectives that the student is expected to achieve. Because the objectives of the unit provide direction for the teaching-learning process, the teacher and student need a common understanding of the intent of the objectives. Information sheets Presented in outline format, the information sheets provide content essential for meeting the cognitive (knowledge) objectives in the unit. The student should study the information sheets before any class discussion or completion of the assignment sheets. The corresponding student reference page numbers appear in the upper corner of the Instructor Guide.
II.
III. Assignment Sheets The assignment sheets allow the student to respond to cognitive questions in writing. IV. Job Sheets The job sheets are designed to guide the student through various key tasks and provide a means for the instructor to evaluate a student's performance of the task. V. Unit Tests The unit tests evaluate the students knowledge of the material.
VI. Priority Item Crosswalk Chart This chart cross-references the job sheets to the NATEF task list. A listing of the required percentages of a P-1, P-2, or P-3 item covered by the curriculum is also provided. ATech Training, Inc. has various training products that can be used to complete the job sheets. Refer to the ATech Trainers column for the specific model number. VII. Student Workbook and Student Test Packet Tracking Sheets These provide the instructor with an effective way to track student progress on the assignment sheets, job sheets, and unit tests.
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REFERENCES
ALLDATA. www.alldata.com. American Honda Motor Company. www.honda.com. Automotive Excellence. Vol. 1. Peoria, IL: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, 2000. Automotive Glossary. Carlist.com. www.carlist.com. Dictionary of Automotive Terms. www.motorera.com/dictionary/cardic.htm. Dodge. www.dodge.com. Duffy, James E. Modern Automotive Technology. Tinley Park, IL: The Goodheart-Willcox Company, Inc., 2004. Erjavec, Jack. Automotive Technology: A Systems Approach. 3rd ed. Albany, NY: Delmar Thomson Learning, 2000. Ford Motor Company. www.ford.com. General Motors. www.gm.com. I-Car (Inter-Industry Conference on Auto Collision Repair). Uniform Procedures for Collision Repair. www.i-car.com. Kahane, Charles J. Fatality Reduction by Air Bags: Analyses of Accident Data Through Early 1996. U.S. Department of Transportaion. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. www.nhtsa.dot.gov. National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation (NATEF). www.natef.org. National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE). www.asecert.org. Tire Pressure Monitoring System, FMVSS No. 138. U.S. Department of Transportaion. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. www.nhtsa.dot.gov. Tobolt, William K, Larry Johnson, and W. Scott Gauthier. Automotive Encyclopedia. Tinley Park, IL: The Goodheart-Willcox Company, Inc., 2000. What Every Driver Should Know About Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems. Tire Tech/General Tire Info. www.tirerack.com.

UNIT I: GENERAL STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS DIAGNOSIS CONTENTS OF THIS UNIT
I. II. Unit objective Lesson plans A. Lesson 1: Steering and Suspension Systems Overview 1. 2. Information outline Assignment sheet a. B. AS1-L1-UI: Steering and Suspension Systems
Lesson 2: Work Orders and General Diagnosis 1. 2. Information outline Job sheets a. b. JS1-L2-UI: Complete a Work Order With Concern, Cause, and Correction JS2-L2-UI: Identify and Interpret a Steering and Suspension Concern
III.
Unit I Test
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UNIT I: GENERAL STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS DIAGNOSIS UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completing this unit, students should be able to explain the basic history of steering and suspension systems and identify the skills required to maintain the systems. They should also be able to explain the functions of a work order and how to identify and interpret a steering and suspension system concern. Students will demonstrate mastery of the material by completing the assignment sheet, successfully performing specific tasks on the job sheets, and achieving a score of _____ on the Unit I Test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
After completing the lessons in this unit, students should be able to: Lesson 1 I. II. III. IV. V. Explain the history of steering and suspension systems. Explain the relationship between the steering system and suspension system. Identify skills a technician needs to service the steering and suspension systems. Identify the functions of a technician in servicing the steering and suspension systems. Complete the assignment sheet on steering and suspension systems (AS1-L1-UI).
Lesson 2 I. II. III. Identify the functions and components of a work order. Explain the procedure for identifying and interpreting a steering and suspension concern. Demonstrate the ability to: A. Complete a work order with concern, cause, and correction (JS1-L2-UI).
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B. Identify and interpret a steering and suspension concern (JS2-L2-UI).
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UNIT I: GENERAL STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS DIAGNOSIS LESSON 1: STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS OVERVIEW
I. History of steering and suspension systems A. Era of horse-drawn carriages 1. Created centuries ago, the first steering and suspension system consisted of horse-drawn carriages that used various springs that made the ride smoother. The driver steered the carriage by pulling on the horse's reins in the desired direction. The wheels were able to turn because a front axle pivoted on a pin. To further help the driver turn and hold the wheels straight, a rod and lever were connected to the middle of the axle. Even horseless carriages used this design. But the wheels wore out rapidly and driving was not precise.
2. 3. 4.
5. B.
Rudolf Ackerman's design 1. 2. 3. In the early 1800s, Rudolf Ackerman designed a steering system made of knuckles and angled steering arms. These two components enabled both front wheels to turn in their own path (also called an arc). Because the inner wheel turned at a sharper angle, both wheels turned at the same point. This minimized tire wear.
C.
Development of various steering and suspension systems 1. The independent suspension system improved control of the vehicle when the wheels went over bumps or into holes in the road.
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a. But Ackerman's steering system of knuckles and angled steering arms was not compatible with the independent suspension system. In Ackerman's design, each wheel moved separately. As a result, the connecting rod between the front knuckles could not compensate for a change in just one wheel. Later refinements to the independent suspension system not only cushioned the vehicle against shocks, they also provided the following enhancements. 2. Directional control Superior ride quality Ease of handling Safety Service life
b.
c.
Parallelogram steering system a. Developed in the late 1800s, the parallelogram steering structure allowed the steering wheel and suspension system to work at the same time. A tie-rod was added at each wheel. The steering system could now compensate for the independent motion of the front wheels.
b. c. 3. 4. D.
Recirculating-ball steering gears were introduced in 1923 and are still used today. Rack-and-pinion steering gears improved ride quality and handling.
Modern steering and suspension systems 1. Refinements in today's steering and suspension systems reflect developments in the computer, electronics, and communication industries. For example, today's airplanes apply some advanced automotive technology into their steering and flight controls.
2.
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II. Relationship between the steering system and suspension system A. The steering system and suspension system interact continuously and are closely related. 1. 2. The integrity of one system affects the operation of the other system. Any condition that causes a change in a component within the suspension system can cause one or more wheel alignment angles to change. Changes of the various alignment angles ultimately affect ride quality and directional control. Because both systems are closely related, the steering system and the suspension system are serviced at the same time.
3. 4. B. III.
Correct operation of steering and suspension systems ensures proper control and stability.
Skills required to service the steering and suspension systems A. B. C. D. Understand the function and operation of all components in the steering and suspension systems. Know and be able to perform the proper inspection and repair procedures to ensure the integrity and reliability of the vehicle. Maintain the vehicle at an acceptable level of performance. Diagnose and repair electrical and electronic problems related to the following systems. 1. 2. 3. E. Active suspension Electronic variable-assist steering Electronic systems that apply one or more brakes to improve a vehicle's steering characteristics
Understand how the vehicle's electronic systems operate. Many modern steering and suspension systems generate diagnostic codes that communicate with two or more of the vehicle's on-board computer systems. Upgrade skills as automotive technology changes.
F.
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IV. Functions required to service the steering and suspension systems A. Adhere to the basic rules of undercar service. 1. 2. Maintaining proper tire pressure is critical to controlling tire wear and providing directional control. It is not possible to align a vehicle that is not at correct ride height without compromising its ride quality and directional control. It is not possible to align a vehicle that has worn suspension or steering components without compromising its ride quality and directional control. Always address the driver's perception of the problem so he or she can accept the repair or explanation of what is occurring.
3.
4. B.
Perform primary functions. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Diagnosis Disassembly Measurement Repair Assembly Adjustment
C.
Ensure that the vehicle is safe. 1. Provide the driver with a safe vehicle that has the following characteristics. a. b. c. d. 2. Minimal tire wear Good directional control Relatively comfortable ride Ability to easily negotiate roads and corners
Perform a comprehensive four-wheel alignment on a structurally sound vehicle.
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3. Use a state-of-the-art computerized alignment center to measure and correct the critical alignment angles at all four wheels in relationship to the vehicle's geometric centerline. NOTE: Formerly, two-wheel (front end) alignments on vehicles were performed. D. Apply and extend skills in order to diagnose and repair electrical and electronic problems related to the following systems. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Active suspension Electronic variable-assist steering Electronic systems that apply one or more brakes to improve the vehicle's steering characteristics Diagnostic codes generated by an on-board computer Tire pressure monitoring system
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UNIT I: GENERAL STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS DIAGNOSIS LESSON 2: WORK ORDERS AND GENERAL DIAGNOSIS
I. The automotive technician needs to be familiar with the functions and components of a work order. NOTE: See JS1-L2-UI for a sample work order. A. The work order serves several functions. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. B. Itemizes the repairs by listing the cost of parts and labor Can be used to authorize the repair Has the necessary information on how to contact the owner and serves as documentation for future reference May also specify limited warranties and liabilities of the shop May serve as a reference for recent service history for warranty or legal purposes
A work order typically has the following components. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Customer name, address, and phone number (home or work with extension number) Date Invoice number Year, make, model, vehicle identification number (VIN), and mileage of the vehicle Name/initials of the service writer and technician Customer authorization signature to allow repairs Description of customer concern Vehicle service history information Related technical service bulletins (TSBs)
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10. Technician's notes that include diagnostic procedures performed, the results of diagnosis, and any important observations or remarks Component or system defect responsible for the concern Service performed to successfully correct the concern Labor procedures and costs based on the parts and labor estimation guides Outside labor procedures and costs that include if a shop sent a particular part out to another shop for repairs Listing of each part that includes name, description, and cost Sales tax, which is usually calculated on parts only Total that represents the final price that the customer will pay for all charges related to the repair
11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. C. D.
Work orders may be handwritten or prepared by entering codes in a computer terminal and then printed. Depending on the part, the following information may be required for ordering repair parts. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Make, model, and model year (found on the drivers side door jamb) of the vehicle VIN Engine information that includes engine size, in cubic inches or liters, the number of cylinders, and the type of fuel system Wheelbase Number of doors
II.
Procedure for identifying and interpreting a steering and suspension concern A. Identify the concern. If possible, ask the owner/driver the following questions. 1. Under what conditions does the problem occur?
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2. 3. 4. 5. B. Are there unusual sounds? Are there vibrations in the steering and suspension systems? Does the vehicle pull to one side or wander? How long has the problem existed? Is it getting worse?
Test drive the vehicle under the conditions that the problem has been observed. CAUTION: Always obtain the instructor's approval before conducting a road test. Conduct the road test in an area with little or no traffic. Never exceed the legal speed limit during the road test. Always wear safety belts. An assistant should record all observations made during the road test. Do not attempt to drive and record results at the same time. 1. 2. The road test should be performed by the individual who will perform the repairs. Ask the owner/driver to ride along during the road test. The owner/driver can assist in identifying the source of any problems.
C.
Isolate the cause of the problem. 1. Locate and interpret vehicle and major component identification numbers. a. b. c. 2. VIN Vehicle certification labels Calibration decals
Research applicable vehicle and service information. a. b. c. d. Steering and suspension components and their operation Vehicle service history Service precautions Technical service bulletins
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3. Perform a visual inspection of the steering and suspension system. a. b. c. d. 4. 5. D. Look for damaged or broken components. Look for worn or misaligned components. Check fluid levels. Inspect related electrical sensors, corrector, controls, and wiring.
Connect a scan tool and check for stored diagnostic trouble codes (DTCs). Test the systems and components that could cause the problem. Eliminate good components until the cause is found.
Determine the necessary action.
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UNIT II: STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN AND FLUID SERVICE CONTENTS OF THE UNIT
I. II. Unit objective Lesson plans A. Lesson 1: Introduction to Steering Systems 1. 2. Information outline Assignment sheet a. B. AS1-L1-UII: Types of Steering Systems
Lesson 2: Conventional Steering System Components and Operation 1. 2. Information outline Assignment sheet a. AS1-L2-UII: Conventional Steering System Components
C.
Lesson 3: Rack-and-Pinion Steering System Components and Operation 1. 2. Information outline Assignment sheet a. AS1-L3-UII: Rack-and-Pinion Steering Systems
D.
Lesson 4: Servicing Steering Fluids and Diagnosing Leaks 1. 2. Information outline Job sheets a. b. JS1-L4-UII: Inspect and Adjust Manual Steering Gear Lubricant Level JS2-L4-UII: Inspect and Adjust Power Steering Fluid Levels
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c. III. Unit II Test JS3-L4-UII: Diagnose Fluid Leaks in the Power Steering System
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UNIT II: STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN AND FLUID SERVICE UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completing this unit, students should be able to identify the components and operating principles of different types of steering systems as well as service the fluids in these systems. Students will demonstrate mastery of the material by completing the assignment sheets, successfully performing specific tasks on the job sheets, and achieving a score of _____ on the Unit II Test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
After completing the lessons in this unit, students should be able to: Lesson 1 I. II. III. IV. V. Identify terms and definitions associated with steering systems. Identify different conventional (linkage) steering designs. Identify types of conventional steering gears. Identify the components and function of manual and power rack-andpinion steering systems. Complete the assignment sheet on types of steering systems (AS1-L1-UII).
Lesson 2 I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Identify the major components of a conventional steering system. Identify the components and operation of a manual steering gear. Identify the components and location of the pitman arm. Identify the location and function of the center link. Identify the components of the idler arm. Identify the components of tie-rod ends.
VII. Identify the components and operation of tie-rod adjustment sleeves. VIII. Identify the components and location of the steering damper.
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IX. X. XI. Explain the principles of hydraulics and how they relate to power steering operation. Identify the components and operation of the power steering pump. Identify the components and operation of the rotary valve integrated power steering system.
XII. Identify the components and operation of linkage-type power steering. XIII. Complete the assignment sheet on conventional steering system components (AS1-L2-UII). Lesson 3 I. II. III. IV. Identify the components and operation of the manual rack-and-pinion steering system. Identify the components and operation of the power rack-and-pinion steering system. Identify other rack-and-pinion power steering designs. Complete the assignment sheet on rack-and-pinion steering systems (AS1-L3-UII).
Lesson 4 I. II. III. Explain the procedure for checking and adjusting manual steering fluid levels. Identify factors about servicing lubricant in the manual rack-and-pinion steering gear. Explain procedures for inspecting the level and condition of fluid in conventional power steering and power rack-and-pinion steering systems. Explain the procedure for bleeding the power steering system. Explain the procedure for diagnosing leaks in power steering pumps. Explain the procedure for diagnosing leaks in a conventional power steering gear.
IV. V. VI.
VII. Explain the procedure for diagnosing leaks in power rack-and-pinion systems.
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VIII. Explain the procedure for diagnosing leaks in power steering hoses. IX. Demonstrate the ability to: A. B. C. Inspect and adjust manual steering gear lubricant level (JS1-L4-UII). Inspect and adjust power steering fluid levels (JS2-L4-UII). Diagnose fluid leaks in the power steering system (JS3-L4-UII).
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UNIT II: STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN AND FLUID SERVICE LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO STEERING SYSTEMS
I. Terms and definitions A. Ball socket In a steering system, a movable joint that tilts and rotates. The ball socket consists of a stud with a ball on one end. The ball fits securely in a socket assembly. Center link (drag link or relay rod) A rod that transfers motion from the pitman arm to the left and right tie-rods. The center link is held in position by the idler arm. Control valve A valve assembly that controls the flow of pressurized power steering fluid to the power cylinder. Conventional (linkage) steering system A system that uses a steering gear to transfer the movement of the steering wheel to a linkage that is connected to the steering knuckles and wheels. Idler arm An arm that connects to the vehicle frame on one end and to the steering linkage on the other. The idler arm supports the center link and directs the steering motion to the tie-rods. Pitman arm The connecting link between the steering gear and the linkage. Power cylinder A hydraulic cylinder that connects to the steering linkage. When pressurized, the power cylinder assists the driver in turning the wheels. Power steering A steering system that uses hydraulic pressure to make steering easier. Rack-and-pinion steering system A steering gear with a pinion gear connected to the steering shaft. The pinion gear runs in a rack (a long bar with gear teeth), which connects to the wheels by tie-rod assemblies. A rack-and-pinion system omits pitman arms, idler arms, and center links and is commonly used with struts. Steering box The steering box is the housing for the steering gears. Steering box designs can consist of a manual steering gear, integrated power steering gear, and linkage-type power steering gear.
B.
C. D.
E.
F. G.
H. I.
J.
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K. Steering column An assembly that contains the steering shaft. (The steering shaft connects the steering wheel and steering gear.) The steering column is mounted under (and usually supported by) the instrument panel. The steering column may contain portions of the gear shift mechanism and/or electrical wiring for various components. Steering damper An assembly that resembles a shock absorber in appearance and operation. Steering gear The gear is mounted in a housing at the lower end of the steering column. A steering gear reduces the effort needed to turn the steering wheel. Steering knuckle The inner portion of the spindle. The steering knuckle is supported by and pivots on either the upper and lower ball joints or on a king pin. The steering knuckle may be either integrated with the spindle or simply bolted to it. Steering linkage Through the use of connecting parts and pivoting mechanisms, the steering linkage is part of the steering system that transfers the motion from the steering gear (e.g., sector shaft) to the steering arms (e.g., pitman arm, idler arm, center link, tie-end rods) to control the direction of the vehicle. Steering pump A hydraulic pump that pressurizes and circulates power steering fluid. The pump is usually driven by a belt that runs from the crankshaft pulley to another pulley that connects to the pump shaft. Tie-rod adjustment sleeve A split tube with internal threads. The tie-rod adjustment sleeve connects two tie-rods and allows for toe settings. The tie-rod adjustment sleeve is held in place with clamps. Tie-rod assembly A term used to describe the tie-rod ends and adjustment sleeve. Tie-rod end A ball socket assembly that connects the center link to the steering knuckle.
L. M.
N.
O.
P.
Q.
R. S.
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II. Conventional (linkage) steering designs A. The parallelogram linkage design uses two tie-rod assemblies of equal length, a pitman arm, idler arm, and center link.
1.
Before rack-and-pinion systems were overwhelmingly implemented in the 1980s, the parallelogram linkage design was the most common type used on passenger cars. Parallelogram systems, however, are still common in trucks. Parallelogram steering systems provide good steering geometry, directional stability, and control.
2.
B.
The center point linkage design consists of one long and one short tie-rod assembly with a center steering (pitman) arm. A steering damper is used in center-point linkage designs.
C.
Truck straight axle and four-wheel-drive axle steering linkage designs commonly use one long tie-rod assembly that connects to both steering knuckles. 1. A second arm is located on the rear of the left steering knuckle. A drag link (short tie-rod assembly) connects this second arm to the pitman arm.
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2. A truck straight axle and a four-wheel-drive axle steering linkage sometimes include a damper.
D.
The twin I-beam axle steering linkage design uses a long tie-rod assembly that runs from the pitman arm to the right steering knuckle. A shorter tie-rod assembly extends from a point on the longer tie-rod to the left knuckle.
III.
Types of conventional steering gears A. Manual steering gear 1. Most manual steering gears have a recirculating-ball nut design. a. This design uses steel balls between a worm gear and a rack gear, which is machined into a ball nut.
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b. 2. The steel balls act as a rolling thread to provide minimum friction when turning.
The average gear ratio of a manual steering gear is about 24 to 1. a. The steering wheel and steering shaft are coupled to the worm gear shaft. At this ratio, they must turn 24 times in order to turn the output or sector shaft once. Such a large ratio greatly reduces the effort required to turn the steering wheel.
b. B.
Integrated power steering gear 1. The typical integrated power steering gear has many components similar to those in a manual steering gear. a. b. 2. Both use a worm shaft and a sector or pitman shaft. Many integrated power steering gears use a recirculating-ball nut similar to those in the manual gear.
A unique component of the power steering gear is a hydraulic power piston and control valve. The power piston uses hydraulic oil pressure to provide most of the force needed to turn the wheels. a. The average power steering gear ratio is about 15 to 1. This ratio provides the driver with quicker turning response.
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b. If the hydraulic steering system fails or if the engine stalls, the driver can steer the vehicle, although this requires extra effort.
C.
Linkage-type power steering gear 1. A linkage-type power steering system uses an external, double-acting hydraulic cylinder and control valve. One end of the cylinder connects to the steering linkage under the vehicle; the other end connects to the vehicle's frame. When the steering wheel turns, the hydraulic cylinder pressurizes and provides some of the force needed to turn the wheels. a. b. The linkage-type power steering uses a manual-style steering gearbox. If the pump or another part of the hydraulic steering system fails or if the engine stalls, the driver can still steer the vehicle, although this requires extra effort.
2.
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IV. Rack-and-pinion steering (manual and power steering) A. Manual rack-and-pinion steering consists of a pinion gear that meshes with a long rack gear.
1. 2. 3.
When the steering wheel turns, the pinion drives the rack to the left or right. Inner and outer tie-rod assemblies connect the rack to the wheels. Rack-and-pinion steering offers the following advantages. a. The rack-and-pinion steering system is relatively smaller than conventional systems so it weighs less. The small size of the rack-and-pinion system is also well suited to today's smaller cars. In rack-and-pinion systems, the steering gear is located under the car (not in the engine compartment). This provides more room in the engine compartment. A rack-and-pinion system has fewer steering linkage components than a parallelogram because it omits the pitman arm, idler arm, and center link.
b.
c.
B.
A power rack-and-pinion steering system functions like a manual system. However, the power system integrates a double-acting power piston into the rack. 1. A valve on the pinion gear shaft controls fluid flow.
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2. The power rack-and-pinion steering system is also compact and lightweight. However, the system's housing must be larger to accommodate the extra power-assistance components.
NOTE: The pump used to operate a power rack-and-pinion steering unit is similar to the one that conventional power steering systems use.
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UNIT II: STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN AND FLUID SERVICE LESSON 2: CONVENTIONAL STEERING SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND OPERATION
I. Major components overview
A. B. C.
Steering wheel Used by the driver to turn the steering gear in order to control the direction of the front wheels Steering column Supports and houses the steering shaft and steering wheel Steering gear (See Section II for more detail.) 1. 2. 3. 4. Changes the rotating motion of the steering wheel to straight-line motion so that the wheels can turn left or right Reduces the effort required to turn the steering wheel Located at the lower end of the steering shaft Average gear ratio of a manual steering gear is about 24:1
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D. Pitman arm (See Section III for more detail.) 1. 2. E. Connects the steering gearbox to the steering linkage Transfers the gearbox movement to the linkage
Center link (See Section IV for more detail.) 1. 2. A bar or rod that connects both sides of the steering linkage Transfers motion from the pitman arm to the left and right tierods
F.
Idler arm Supports the center link on the passenger side and directs the steering motion to the tie-rods (See Section V for more detail.) Tie-rod assembly (See Sections VI and VII for more detail.) 1. 2. Connects the center link to the steering knuckle Usually consists of tie-rod ends and an adjustment sleeve
G.
H.
Steering knuckle
1. 2. 3. 4.
The inner portion of the spindle that is supported by and pivots on either the upper and lower ball joints or a king pin May be either integrated with the spindle or simply bolted to it Along with the spindle, provides the support for the wheel bearing, hub, and wheel-and-tire assembly Moves when force is transferred to it by the tie-rod, which causes vehicle steering action to take place
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I. Steering damper (See Section VIII for more detail.) 1. 2. 3. II. Connects between the center link and vehicle frame Resembles and functions similar to a shock absorber Reduces steering shimmy and steering wheel kickback
Manual steering gear A. The worm shaft and recirculating-ball nut assembly are the input shaft of the steering gear. Adjustable ball thrust bearings support the worm shaft and the recirculating-ball nut assembly in the gear housing. 1. The inner surface of each thrust bearing and the special spiral grooves are machined into the worm shaft. These grooves are used instead of the teeth found on a common worm gear. The grooves provide a rolling surface for the steel balls in the ball nut. Splines on the worm shaft's upper or exposed end connect the worm shaft to the steering shaft, usually through a flexible coupling. The recirculating-ball nut assembly works like a common nut. As the worm shaft turns, the ball nut screws up or down the shaft. The following is a description of how the recirculating-ball nut differs from a common nut. a. Instead of conventional threads, the recirculating-ball nut assembly has internal grooves that match the external worm shaft grooves. Steel balls roll in these grooves, resulting in a rolling thread.
2.
3.
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b. Manual steering gears generally have two sets of balls (containing about 20 balls to 30 balls per set). Each set rolls in its individual circuit, which consists of the ball nut and worm shaft grooves and special tubes called ball return guides. These guides connect to the outside of the nut.
c.
If the steering wheel turns to the left, the worm shaft also turns. As a result, the balls roll through their circuit between the worm shaft and ball nut. This in turn moves the ball nut up or down the shaft. As the balls roll to the end of the ball nut, they move through a drilled passage and enter a ball return guide (located on the outside of the nut). Upon leaving the return guide, the balls reenter the nut through another drilled passage and then repeat the circuit. If the steering wheel turns to the right, the balls circulate in the opposite direction. This causes the ball nut to move in the opposite direction on the worm shaft. NOTE: The recirculating-ball nut assembly creates less friction, resulting in easier steering and less steering gear wear.
d.
e.
B.
The sector shaft serves as the output shaft of the steering gear. The sector shaft's rotary motion transfers directly to the steering linkage via the pitman arm. (The sector shaft is also referred to as the pitman shaft.)
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1. The sector shaft is made of heavy steel. Support for the sector shaft in the gear housing comes from needle bearings or bronze bushings that press into the gear housing. a. b. Splines are machined into the output end of the sector shaft. The output end threads below the splines. The pitman arm fits tightly onto the splines; a nut screwed onto the threads firmly holds the pitman arm in place. A sector gear (a special coarse-toothed gear) is integrated with the sector shaft. The sector gear meshes with the rack teeth on the ball nut. The sector shaft is not required to make a complete revolution. The sector shaft must move only far enough to cause adequate lateral pitman arm movement to steer the vehicle. Therefore, only a few sector gear teeth surround the circumference of the sector shaft. The sector gear teeth are slightly tapered. To adjust the gear lash (clearance) between the sector gear and the sector shaft, raise or lower the sector shaft in its housing. The upper end of the sector shaft has a slot for inserting an adjusting screw. The adjusting screw threads into a portion of the gear housing. Turning the adjusting screw changes the gear mesh.
c.
d.
e.
f.
2.
When the steering wheel turns, the worm shaft also turns, causing the ball nut to move. Upon moving, the ball nut's rack teeth exert force against the sector shaft teeth, causing the sector shaft to rotate.
C.
The gear housing is usually made from either die-cast aluminum or cast iron. The housing holds and supports both the worm shaft and the sector shaft. Within the housing there is also a lubricant. 1. Most gear housings have a machined opening for bearing cups and bushings, which are used in the worm shaft and sector shaft. a. Cap screws hold the sector shaft cover to the gear housing. This cover conceals an opening through which the sector shaft can be removed.
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b. The sector shaft cover contains a bearing, or bushing, that also supports the sector shaft. A threaded hole in the cover accepts the sector shaft adjusting screw.
2.
A threaded hole in the gear housing (opposite the worm shaft bearing cup) allows for removal of the worm shaft. The worm shaft bearing adjuster screws into this hole. a. b. The adjuster contains the second worm shaft bearing cup. The worm shaft bearing adjuster is usually found on the upper end (or steering shaft end) of the gear housing. However, the adjuster is sometimes located on the opposite end.
3.
A seal in the gear housing retains oil at the sector shaft. Another oil seal is located either in the gear housing or worm shaft adjuster at the worm shaft opening. The gear housing bolts to the vehicle's frame. The steering gear assembly is usually designed so that the sector shaft is positioned vertically. In some assembly designs, the sector shaft is positioned horizontally.
4.
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5. Variable- and constant-ratio steering a. A variable-ratio gearbox changes the internal gear ratio as the front wheels turn from the center position. Most modern recirculating-ball gearboxes are variable ratio. Variable-ratio steering is faster when cornering and requires fewer turns of the steering wheel from full right to full left. It also provides better control and response when maneuvering. Variable-ratio steering is accomplished by changing the length of the gear teeth on the sector shaft gear. This changes the effective lever arm action between the gears. Many manual steering gearboxes and most power steering gearboxes are variable ratio. A constant-ratio gearbox has the same gear reduction from full left to full right. The sector gear teeth are the same length.
b.
c.
d.
III.
Pitman arm A. The pitman arm is splined at one end to the sector shaft and held in place with a hex nut or pinch bolt.
B. IV.
A ball and socket connects the other end to the center link. The ball and socket may be on the pitman arm or the center link.
Center link (drag link or relay rod) A. The center link connects to the pitman arm and runs horizontally from left to right of the vehicle where it connects to the idler arm.
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B. C. V. The inside end of each tie-rod connects to the center link. Movement of the pitman arm moves the center link, which in turn moves the tie-rod assemblies.
Idler arm A. One type of idler arm uses a metal and rubber bushing assembly. 1. A steel outer shell press-fits in the idler arm. A rubber insert bonds to the inside of the outer shell and to a steel sleeve inside the rubber insert. This assembly bolts securely to the idler arm support bracket through the inner sleeve. When the steering linkage moves, the rubber insert twists in the metal shell. The idler arm may connect to the steering linkage through another bushing arrangement or a ball socket.
2.
3. B.
Another type of idler arm has a threaded bushing arrangement. 1. 2. The lower end of the support for this idler arm has external threads that match internal threads in the arm. Linkage movement causes the arm to turn on the threads. There is a grease fitting for lubrication.
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VI. Tie-rod ends A. A conventional tie-rod end consists of a tapered ball stud that inserts in a steel or nylon-bearing socket. A spring or plastic spacer holds the ball in position in the socket.
B.
A forged outer shell encases the socket assembly. 1. Some outer shells have a threaded hole that accepts grease fittings for lubrication. For other outer shells, the sockets are lubed and sealed during assembly and require no additional lubrication. A threaded rod is an integrated part of the outer shell. The rod may have right- or left-handed threads, depending on its location in the steering linkage. A rubber dust cover fits over the ball stud and shields the ball socket from dirt and moisture. Ball sockets similar to those used in tie-rod ends are sometimes used at other steering linkage connecting points.
2.
3.
C.
A rubber-bonded socket tie-rod end consists of a tapered ball stud with a molded rubber element on one end and a tie-rod housing on the other. 1. 2. The stud presses into the housing; a lip rolls over to hold the housing in place. The tight fit of the rubber element prevents it from turning in the socket. The joint has no moving surfaces and therefore requires no lubrication.
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3. The joint moves as a result of the twisting action in the rubber element.
VII. Tie-rod adjustment sleeve A. B. C. D. A tie-rod adjustment sleeve is an internally threaded tube that screws over and connects two tie-rod ends. The tie-rod sleeve is threaded with left-handed threads on one end and right-handed threads on the other. Turning the sleeve moves the tie-rod ends closer together or farther apart, thereby providing a means for toe adjustment. A clamp splits and surrounds the ends of the sleeve. When tightened, the clamp squeezes the sleeve and holds it in position on the tie-rod end.
VIII. Steering damper A. Some vehicles use a steering damper to absorb steering wheel oscillations (shimmy). The damper can be installed during manufacture or added later.
B. C. D.
The damper is mounted from the vehicle frame to the steering linkage. Mounting hardware includes rubber grommets that reduce noise and vibration. The damper uses a rod with a piston that connects to one end. The piston travels back and forth in an oil-filled cylinder as the vehicle's wheels turn.
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E. Special orifices allow oil to flow in and out of the piston chambers at a controlled rate, thus preventing the steering linkage from moving rapidly back and forth.
IX.
Principles of hydraulics and power steering operation A. Pascal's law 1. According to Pascal's law, liquids (unlike gases) cannot be compressed. Pressure applied to a confined liquid transmits equally and undiminished in all directions. Therefore, liquid under pressure can be used like a mechanical lever.
2.
Pascal's law defines pressure as force divided over the area where it is distributed. Pressure is measured in pounds per square inch (psi) or kilopascals (kPa).
B.
Pascal's law in relation to fluid motion and multiplying force 1. In systems where the input and output pistons are the same size, the force and motion that the input piston generates are equal to the force and motion that the output piston generates.
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2. In systems where the input piston is smaller than the output piston, force multiplies and the motion of the output piston decreases.
3.
In systems where the input piston is larger than the output piston, force decreases and the motion of the output piston increases.
4.
The distance that the output piston travels is inversely proportional to its surface area (as the surface area compares to the input piston).
C.
Pascal's law applies to the power steering system. 1. 2. The power steering pump transfers the hydraulic pressure through a hose or line in order to move the power piston. The power steering pump converts mechanical force from the vehicle's engine into hydraulic force and transfers it to the power piston. By its movement, the power piston converts the hydraulic force back to mechanical force. Because force moves through liquid undiminished, the pump can move the piston with great efficiency.
3.
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X. Power steering pump A. The power steering pump pressurizes and circulates power steering fluid. 1. 2. Power steering pumps are capable of producing pressure ranging from 1,000 pounds per square inch (psi) to 1,500 psi. Never run the power steering pump when the fluid level is significantly low. Always check the power steering fluid regularly. NOTE: Most late-model vehicles with power steering must use the approved power steering fluid. B. The three common types of power steering pumps are the vane, slipper, and roller. All three types operate similarly. These pumps are discussed in more detail later in this lesson. A V-belt or a serpentine belt normally drives the power steering pump.
C.
1. 2.
The cross-section of the cogged V-type belt looks like the letter V, as shown below. The serpentine belt is flat and has multiple ribs/grooves (usually four to seven).
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a. b. c. The serpentine belt gets its name because it usually "snakes" around many components. The wider and greater number of grooves on a serpentine belt, the more load it can handle. The serpentine belt's strength comes from the fabric, rubber, and steel cores.
D.
Power steering hoses transfer hydraulic pressure from the power steering pump to the gear assembly and back to the pump.
1. 2.
Power steering hoses are usually constructed of reinforced synthetic rubber or a similar material. The hoses are coupled to metal tubing at connecting points.
CAUTION: Always wear eye protection to shield eyes from pressurized oil. Always use a hose capable of handling system pressure.
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E. Power steering pump components 1. The pump housing contains the entire pump assembly except for the fluid reservoir. The housing supports the input shaft on a bushing, which presses into the housing's shaft bore. a. An oil seal at the shaft bore prevents the escape of fluid. Threaded mounting holes in the housing allow the pump to connect to the vehicle. Cap screws or a retaining ring holds a separate rear cover in place. This rear cover encloses the back opening of the housing.
b.
2.
A bronze bushing supports the steel pump shaft in the pump housing. a. b. A pulley connects to the portion of the shaft extending outside the pump. The pulley is either press-fit between the shaft and pulley or it threads onto the end of the shaft with a shaft key and nut.
3.
The pump's rotor connects to the portion of the shaft located inside the housing. a. b. The rotor is either press-fit to the shaft or connects to it by splines and a retaining ring. Either vanes, spring-loaded slippers, or steel rollers are contained in each of the slots or grooves around the rotor's circumference.
4.
The pump's cam ring is a steel plate with a cam-shaped (or eccentrically shaped) center hole. a. b. c. The rotor turns inside the cam ring. The action of the vanes running against the cam's surface draws hydraulic fluid from the pump reservoir. The pump then discharges the fluid under pressure.
NOTE: A pump using slippers or rollers in the rotor produces similar results.
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5. The pump's pressure plate, constructed of flat, ground-steel, is located against the sides of the cam ring. a. The pressure plate retains the fluid in the cam ring. This plate also has special passages that direct the fluid in and out of the cam ring/rotor assembly. Steel dowel pins hold the cam ring and pressure plates in position. A spring behind the rear pressure plate holds the cam ring and pressure plate assembly firmly together.
b.
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6. The pump's flow control valve (a spool valve) reduces the amount of fluid that the pump delivers to the steering gear assembly during excessive pump output (such as during high-speed driving). The valve therefore reduces fluid temperatures and conserves engine power.
a.
Spring pressure in the valve reduces fluid flow. With the engine running and no pressure demand from the gear, the pump flow overcomes the spring pressure and opens the valve. An orifice directs a metered amount of fluid from the pump to the spring side of the flow valve. As the pump output increases, so does pressure on the spring side of the valve. This maintains a regulated flow from the pump. The pressure is always lower on the spring side of the pump due to a pressure drop that occurs as fluid travels through the orifice. The flow control valve includes a built-in pressure relief valve that limits pump output pressure to a predetermined level. When the predetermined level is reached (during parking, for example), a steel ball lifts off its seat against spring pressure and sends fluid back into the reservoir until the output pressure is acceptable.
b. c.
d.
e.
f.
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7. The pump reservoir is usually fitted over the outer circumference of the pump housing. The pump is constructed of either stamped steel or fiberglass-reinforced nylon. a. b. Studs or bolts usually hold the reservoir in place. A rubber O-ring seals the pump to the reservoir. Most reservoirs have a dipstick connected to the reservoir fluid filler cap.
NOTE: On some pumps, the reservoir is mounted at a remote location above the pump. A hose connects the reservoir to the pump inlet. F. Operation of the vane power steering pump
1.
As the rotor begins to turn, centrifugal force moves the vanes out against the cam ring. The vanes form spaces between the rotor and cam ring. Fluid is drawn from the pump's intake port into these spaces. The spaces between the rotor and cam ring become smaller as the rotor continues to turn. The fluid in the spaces is therefore pressurized and it is forced out through discharge ports in the pressure plate.
2.
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3. As the pressure starts to build in the pump, pressurized fluid is directed under each vane in the rotor slots, forcing the vanes tight against the inside oval surface of the cam ring. The pressurized fluid is then directed through the flow control valve and discharges from the pump.
G.
Slipper power steering pumps operate in basically the same manner as vane pumps. In the slipper pump, however, spring-loaded slippers (not rectangular vanes) ride against the cam ring.
H.
Roller power steering pumps operate in basically the same manner as vane pumps. In the roller pump, however, steel rollers fit into each rotor segment and move out against the cam ring as the rotor turns.
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XI. Rotary valve integrated power steering system NOTE: The two common power steering gear designs are the rotary valve and spool valve designs. The rotary valve design, discussed below, is used most frequently and is similar to the spool valve design. A. Many power steering gears use a recirculating-ball nut similar to that found in manual steering gears. The hydraulic power piston is integrated with the recirculating-ball nut. The power piston travels in a machined bore within the gear housing. The piston and the gear housing allow pressurized fluid to reach either side of the piston. 1. A Teflon sealing ring fits into a ring groove that is machined into the piston's outer circumference. The ring acts as a seal between the piston and housing. A rubber O-ring is installed under the Teflon ring to reinforce the seal. When the rotary control valve admits pressurized fluid to the piston nut, hydraulic force applies to one of the piston surfaces. This force assists in moving the piston nut up or down the worm shaft.
B.
2.
C.
Unlike nonpower steering units, the worm shaft does not extend through the end of the steering gear case. A stub shaft connects the worm gear to the steering wheel and steering shaft via a flexible coupling at the base of the steering column. The stub shaft extends into the steering gear housing and connects to the worm shaft by a torsion bar. (A torsion bar is a spring steel rod. One end is anchored and the other end is free to twist.) Some manufacturers make the ball groove more shallow toward the center of the worm shaft. 1. This allows for a slight preload to the balls between the worm and piston nut while the steering wheel is in the straightahead position. This design (referred to as high center) gives the vehicle more steering stability. Other manufacturers achieve steering stability by providing a tighter fit between the rack and sector gear.
D.
E.
2.
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F. The worm shaft receives end thrust as the rack piston moves up or down. Thrust bearings on both ends of the worm shaft control the end thrust. Gear housing of the integrated rotary valve power steering system 1. The sector shaft, piston ball nut, and worm shaft are contained in the gear housing. a. In some cases, the housing also contains the rotary control valve assembly. Sometimes a separate control valve housing connects directly to the upper end of the gear housing. The gear housing supports the stub shaft with a bearing that is located either at the upper end of the gear housing or at the control valve housing.
G.
b.
2.
A fluid seal is located at both the stub shaft opening and the sector shaft. a. Most gear housings have a double-seal arrangement at the sector shaft. It is important to fill the gear housing with fluid at all times. In addition to providing lubrication, the fluid absorbs road shocks and vibration, which might affect the steering gear. A check valve, which is located in the inlet pressure port of the gear housing, reduces steering wheel kickback. Kickback occurs when a bump in the road knocks the vehicle's front tires in an undesirable direction. Kickback can transfer from the tires, through the steering linkage, into the steering gear, and finally up to the steering wheel. Upon reaching the power piston, kickback attempts to force the surrounding fluid back through the rotary control valve and out of the pressure port. The check valve located in the gear housing pressure port prevents the fluid from being forced back. If the fluid forces back, the steering wheel moves abruptly in the driver's hands.
b.
c.
d.
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H. In the integrated rotary valve power steering system, the sector shaft is integrated with the sector gear. The design and function of the sector shaft do not differ very much from the manual steering gear sector shafts. The rotary valve 1. In the integrated rotary valve power steering system, the rotary valve directs the pressurized fluid to the proper side of the power piston during turning. a. The rotary valve also stops fluid flow to the rack piston when there is no need for power assistance. The rotary valve is located in the upper (or input) end of the gear housing. Some gear designs contain the control valve in the main gear housing. Others have a separate control valve housing that bolts to the main gear housing. Neither design uses exterior fluid lines except for a pressure line that reaches from the pump to the gear inlet and back.
I.
b.
2. 3.
The twisting of the torsion bar opens and closes the rotary valve. The rotary valve assembly consists of a stub shaft, valve body, spool valve, and worm shaft. A torsion bar connects all these components. Outlined below is a description of the rotary valve's operation.
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a. A pin through the outside diameter of the stub shaft connects the stub shaft (which connects to the steering wheel through the steering shaft) to the spool valve. A pin connects the outer end of the stub shaft to the torsion bar. The valve body is pinned to the body cap and torsion bar. The worm shaft is pinned to the valve body.
b.
When the driver turns the steering wheel, the torsion bar twists. The twisting force acts upon the stub shaft. However, the vehicle's weight resists this force. The force then transfers from the wheels, through the steering linkage, to the sector gear, to the piston nut, and finally to the worm gear.
c.
Because the worm gear resists the turning force that the driver applies, the torsion bar twists. This causes the stub shaft and spool valve, located inside the valve body, to rotate. The rotation of the spool valve directs the fluid to one side of the piston nut, thus assisting the driver in turning the steering wheel. The harder the driver turns the steering wheel, the more the valve opens. The twisting action of the torsion bar gives the driver a feel for the road. The amount the torsion bar can twist is limited by two tangs connected to the upper end of the worm shaft. These tangs fit through slots in the valve body cap and stub shaft.
d.
e.
f.
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NOTE: If the engine stalls or the power steering pressure is lost, the slots and tangs still maintain contact, thus providing manual steering. 4. The interaction between the valve body and the spool valve (rotating inside the body) opens and closes passages and thereby directs fluid flow. a. The valve body has two large grooves machined into its outer diameter. In the gear housing, one of the grooves lines up with the inlet pressure port and the other connects with a gear housing passage that directs fluid to the right-turn chamber. The grooves are four holes drilled into the inside diameter of the valve body. The grooves are sealed with Teflon rings, which are inserted in the valve body's ring grooves. Eight slots are machined into the inside diameter of the valve body. Four holes, which are drilled through the valve body, connect four slots to the return port in the gear housing through the spool valve. The other four slots connect to the return port in the gear housing through the spool valve.
b.
c.
d. e. f.
Within the valve body, four more holes direct fluid through a gear housing passage to the left-turn chamber. The spool valve fits tightly inside the valve body, thus eliminating the need for sealing rings. Four holes in the spool valve line up with the four return slots in the valve body. Fluid flows through the return slots, through the spool valve holes, through the spool's center, and finally reaches the housing's return port. The outer diameter of the spool valve has eight slots. When the steering wheel moves, these slots open either the right or left holes to the pressure port or to the return port.
g.
5.
Described below is the path that fluid takes through a common rotary valve when the steering wheel is in a straight-ahead position or when it turns right or left.
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a. When the steering is positioned straight ahead, fluid flows from the pump, into the gear inlet port, through the control valve, and back to the pump. No fluid flows to either side of the rack piston, although each side is full of fluid and the pressure on both sides of the piston is equal. When the steering wheel turns right, the torsion bar twists and opens the valve's right-turn passage. The left-turn passage closes off to pressure and opens to return oil flow. The piston nut's right-turn side is therefore pressurized and the piston nut forces upward. As the nut moves up, fluid forces out of the left-turn side and back to the pump reservoir through the return port.
b.
c.
d.
When the steering wheel turns left, the torsion bar twists and opens the valve's left-turn passage. The right-turn passage closes off to pressure and opens to return fluid flow. The piston nut's left-turn side is therefore pressurized and the piston nut forces downward. As the nut moves down, fluid forces out of the right-turn side and back to the pump reservoir through the return port.
6.
In a variation of the rotary valve design, the spool valve is integrated with the input shaft. a. b. The torsion bar connects the stub shaft to the worm. The worm and the valve body rotate together.
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c. Operating this design is similar to operating the rotary valve design as previously discussed.
XII. Linkage-type power steering A. Major components of a linkage-type power steering system include a manual steering gear, steering control valve, double-acting power cylinder, and power steering pump. 1. 2. B. No hydraulic power applies directly to the steering gear. However, hydraulic pressure exerts indirectly on the steering linkage via the power cylinder.
The steering assembly used with linkage power steering is similar to that used with a manual steering system. The gear ratio is similar to that used in integrated power steering systems. The linkage system's power steering pump is similar to pumps used in other power steering designs. The linkage system uses a double-acting power cylinder. 1. Two fluid ports admit or discharge fluid from both sides of the cylinder. The cylinder is mounted under the vehicle from the steering linkage to the vehicle's frame.
C. D.
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2. When the steering wheel turns, the steering control valve admits fluid to one side of the power cylinder. At the same time, the control valve allows fluid to discharge from the opposing side of the cylinder and return to the pump reservoir.
E.
The linkage system's control valve assembly 1. The control valve housing includes a control valve, centering springs, and ball socket assembly. a. Two fluid ports on the valve housing direct fluid to and from the pump. Two additional ports direct fluid in and out of the power cylinder. The valve housing connects to the pitman arm via a tapered ball stud. The other end of the housing threads onto the steering linkage.
b.
2.
The control valve itself is a spool-type valve that is held in the centered position by springs. a. When the valve is in the centered position, fluid can move from the pump, through the spool, and to both sides of the power cylinder. This places equal pressure on both sides of the power piston.
b. 3.
When the steering wheel turns hard enough, the ball socket exerts adequate pressure on the control valve to overcome spring pressure. a. The valve then shifts, allowing pressurized fluid to flow to one side of the cylinder while opening the other side to fluid that returns from the pump.
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b. When pressure on the steering wheel relaxes, the centering springs return the valve spool to the neutral position, and fluid pressure again equalizes on both sides of the cylinder.
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UNIT II: STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN AND FLUID SERVICE LESSON 3: RACK-AND-PINION STEERING SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND OPERATION
I. Manual rack-and-pinion steering A. B. Rack-and-pinion steering is the most frequently used design in vehicles manufactured today. Like a conventional steering system, the rack-and-pinion steering system includes a steering wheel and steering column. See the illustration below for other components of the system.
C.
A manual rack-and-pinion steering system includes a pinion gear that meshes with a rack (a steel bar with teeth cut into one side).
1.
The gears are enclosed in a housing made of either aluminum or a combination of steel and aluminum.
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2. 3. 4. D. The pinion gear connects to the steering wheel through the steering shaft. When the driver turns the steering wheel, the pinion gear rotates and moves the rack laterally. Tie-rod assemblies connect the rack to the wheels. The rack movement can then steer the wheels.
The rack is a round steel bar with teeth machined into one side. Nylon or metal bushings at each end of the gear housing support the rack. 1. An adjustable, spring-loaded support bearing is sometimes used at the gear end of the rack. This bearing maintains the proper mesh between the rack-and-pinion gears. The inner tie-rods (a ball socket assembly) connect to each end of the rack. The tie-rods are contained in housings that thread onto the ends of the rack. Bellows boots seal the inner tie-rods at each end of the housing. NOTE: In some rack-and-pinion systems, the inner tie-rods connect to the center portion of the rack through an opening in the gear housing.
2.
E.
The pinion gear can be a helical gear (spiral cut) or a straight-cut gear. The gear is integrated with the pinion shaft. 1. 2. Nylon bushings and upper and lower thrust bearings (or upper and lower bearings) support the pinion. A preload adjuster sets the proper pinion bearing preload.
F.
The gear housing (constructed of aluminum or a combination of steel and aluminum) is usually mounted to the front crossmember under the engine. 1. 2. To reduce noise and vibration, the housing is usually mounted in rubber bushings or grommets. It is not possible to check the lubricant in the housing if the housing is assembled. (A seal at the pinion shaft retains the lubricant.)
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3. Rubber or plastic bellows at both ends of the housing protect the inner tie-rods and retain the lubricant at the rack ends.
NOTE: The manual rack-and-pinion system can be positioned in front or behind the engine. When the rack-and-pinion system is positioned behind the engine, it can be located either on the crossmember or mounted on the frame rail. G. Fixed- and variable-ratio rack-and-pinion systems 1. 2. Fixed-ratio rack-and-pinion systems keep a constant gear ratio from right to left. In variable-ratio rack-and-pinion systems, the gear ratio at the ends of the rack is lower than the gear ratio near the middle of the rack. This enables the driver to turn the vehicle easily when the wheels are in a near-lock position (e.g., during parking).
II.
Power rack-and-pinion steering A. The typical power rack-and-pinion steering unit is an integrated system. The steering gear, power cylinder, and control valve are all contained in one unit.
1. 2.
Exterior steel lines allow oil flow between the control valve and both sides of the power cylinder. The power steering pump is like those discussed previously in this unit. Reinforced rubber hoses connect the pump to ports in the control valve area of the gear housing.
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B. Rack construction 1. The rack resembles those used in manual systems. A double-acting power cylinder is installed on the rack. A Teflon ring seals the piston to its bore. An inner rack seal holds pressure in the left-turn power piston chamber. The outer rack seal (bulkhead seal) holds steering pressure in the right-turn chamber. As in manual rack-and-pinion steering systems, an adjustable spring-loaded rack bearing maintains the proper tension between the rack-and-pinion gears. Inner tie-rod assemblies connect directly to the rack. As in manual rack-and-pinion steering, the tie-rods may connect to either the ends of the rack or to the center of the rack. Bellows-type boots cover the tie-rod assemblies and seal out dirt and moisture. Inner and bulkhead rack seals (not bellows boots) retain the fluid within the housing. As in a manual system, the rack's teeth mesh with the pinion teeth. a. b. C. However, in a manual system the pinion drives the rack right or left. In a power system, hydraulic pressure drives the rack while the pinion assembly controls rack movement.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
In the power system, the pinion shaft and control valve assembly work like the rotary valve assembly in an integrated recirculating-ball power steering system. 1. The pinion shaft and the control valve assembly consist of a stub shaft, spool valve within the valve body, torsion bar, and pinion shaft with a gear. When pressure is applied to the steering wheel, the torsion bar deflects. This deflection changes the relationship between the valve body and the spool valve. This allows fluid to flow from the pump to the power cylinder chambers and back.
2.
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3. When the turning pressure on the steering wheel relaxes, the torsion bar returns the control valve to its neutral position. This equalizes pressure on both sides of the power cylinder.
D.
Gear housing of the power rack-and-pinion steering system 1. The gear housing is usually constructed of die-cast aluminum. Both the rack piston and the rotary valve travel in machined bores within the housing. Some housings have a steel insert in which the rack piston travels. Exterior steel lines route fluid to and from the rack pressure chambers. These lines run from ports in the control valve portion of the housing to ports on both sides of the power piston. Two additional housing ports route fluid via hoses to and from the pump.
2.
3.
A balancing tube connects both tie-rod bellows, thereby balancing air pressure between them. a. When one bellows is compressed during a turn, the air trapped inside moves through the balance tube to the opposite bellows. This is important on power gear assemblies because the inner and outer rack seals in the housing prevent any airflow inside the housing.
b.
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III. Other rack-and-pinion power steering designs A. Proportional rack-and-pinion power steering 1. Proportional rack-and-pinion power steering senses vehicle speed and steering load to ensure adequate road feel at the steering wheel. This system is also called speed-sensitive power steering. The system has an electronically operated solenoid that controls fluid flow into the steering gear valve chamber. As vehicle speed increases, the system provides increased effort.
2. 3. B.
Electric power-assist steering (EPS) 1. 2. 3. An EPS system uses electronic controls and an electric motor to assist steering. This eliminates the power steering pumps, hoses, and fluid that are present on conventional power steering systems. The alternator and battery on the vehicle are the power source for the EPS system rather than the engine-driven power steering pump.
4.
Operating principles of the EPS system a. There is a direct power source to the rack-and-pinion system. An electric motor changes the rotational direction of the rack. Changing the polarity of the signal to the electric motor controls the direction.
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The greater the amount of current that is sent to the motor, the easier it is for the operator to control the steering. A sensor is mounted on the input shaft of the rackand-pinion steering gear and this sensor monitors the direction and load information. The sensor sends information to an electronic controller that activates the electric motor.
b.
The EPS provides steering assistance even if the vehicle's engine stalls because the power source is the battery.
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UNIT II: STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN AND FLUID SERVICE LESSON 4: SERVICING STEERING FLUIDS AND DIAGNOSING LEAKS
I. Checking and adjusting manual steering fluid levels A. A lubricant in the manual steering gear lubricates the internal gear assembly components. 1. 2. The most commonly used fluid is EP (extreme pressure) multipurpose lubricant or multipurpose gear oil. Unless it is contaminated, do not change the manual steering gear lubricant. Refer to the manufacturer's recommendations before adding fluid.
B.
A fill hole in the gear housing allows the technician to inspect and adjust the lubricant levels. Check the lubricant according to the procedure outlined below. 1. 2. Clean all dirt and grease from the gear housing fill plug area. Remove the fill hole plug. Remove the sector shaft cover bolt on the opposing end of the gear housing. NOTE: If the gear housing is not equipped with a fill hole, remove the upper and lower sector shaft cover bolts. 3. 4. Using a clean punch or similar tool, clear away any lubricant that blocks either of the two holes. Slowly turn the steering to the left and right stops. The lubricant should be visible at both holes. a. If the lubricant is not visible, add the manufacturer-recommended lubricant to the fill hole. (Add until the lubricant forces out of the bolt hole.)
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b. Reinstall and torque the bolts and/or plug to the manufacturer's specifications.
II.
Lubricant in a manual rack-and-pinion steering gear A. A lubricant in a manual rack-and pinion steering gear usually lasts for the life of the vehicle; therefore, there are no provisions for inspecting the gear's lubricant level. But be sure to inspect the steering gear for leaks routinely. If a leak develops or if lubricant contamination is suspected, remove, repair, and fill the steering gear with the proper lubricant and then reinstall it.
B.
III.
Inspecting the level and condition of fluid in conventional power steering and power rack-and-pinion steering systems A. Power steering fluid performs the following functions. 1. 2. 3. B. Lubricates internal system components Transfers the force needed to assist steering Cushions road shocks
Most power steering systems require special fluid. Consult the appropriate service information before adding fluid. Do not use automatic transmission fluid unless the vehicles manufacturer specifies that it is necessary to do so. Fluid inspection 1. Make sure the engine is off and the front wheels point straight ahead. Remove any dirt from around the power steering dipstick.
C.
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2. Remove the dipstick and check the fluid level.
3.
Feel the power steering pump reservoir to see if it is warm to the touch. If the fluid temperature is not warm, fill the system to the full cold mark. If the fluid is warm (above 150F), fill the system to the full hot mark. Fill the reservoir to the correct full mark. Replace the dipstick. Connect the exhaust ventilation equipment. CAUTION: Be sure to use approved exhaust ventilation equipment when operating a vehicle in an enclosed area.
4. 5.
6. 7.
Start the engine. Allow the engine to idle as the steering wheel slowly turns from lock to lock two or three times. Shut off the engine and repeat step 1 through step 6 until the fluid level reaches the correct full mark. NOTE: If the fluid is foamy, allow the vehicle to set a few minutes with the engine off. In extreme cases, the vehicle may have to set for an hour. NOTE: If the dipstick has add and full marks instead of hot and cold marks, maintain the fluid level between the add and full marks. If servicing an older system that does not use a dipstick, remove the reservoir cover or lid and adjust the fluid level to the reservoir's full mark.
8. 9.
Shut off the engine. Disconnect the exhaust ventilation equipment. While performing the above procedure, check the fluid for contamination.
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a. Metal particles in the fluid indicate a possible failure in the pump or gear. Milky fluid indicates possible moisture contamination. If there is contamination, correct the cause and flush the system according to the manufacturer's instructions.
b. IV.
Bleeding the power steering system A. B. Sometimes air enters the power steering system during service, causing the system to function improperly and make noise. To remove the air, bleed the system according to the procedure outlined below. NOTE: The following bleeding procedure applies to most vehicles. Check the proper service information for the exact procedures for the vehicle. 1. 2. Fill the steering reservoir according to the procedure outlined above in Section III, C. Connect the exhaust ventilation equipment. CAUTION: Be sure to use approved exhaust ventilation equipment when operating a vehicle in an enclosed area. 3. Start the vehicles engine and run it at idle speed. Without hitting the stops hard, slowly turn the steering wheel from full left to full right several times. Stop the engine. Add fluid if required and restart the engine. Disconnect the exhaust ventilation equipment. Repeat step 2 and step 3 until all of the air expels from the system and the fluid is at the hot level.
4. 5. V.
Diagnosing leaks in power steering pumps A. Using the procedures outlined below, observe the power steering pump carefully to determine the source of the leak. 1. 2. Be sure to turn off the vehicles engine. Thoroughly clean the pump and the connecting lines. A spray cleaner for parts makes cleaning easier.
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3. 4. Carefully examine the pump and lines for leaks. Connect the exhaust ventilation equipment. CAUTION: Be sure to use approved exhaust ventilation equipment when operating a vehicle in an enclosed area. 5. 6. 7. B. Start the engine and bring the fluid to the operating temperature. Turn the wheels all the way to the left and right three or four times. Do not hold the steering wheel against the stops. Shut off the engine and once again inspect carefully for leaks. Disconnect the exhaust ventilation equipment.
Use the following chart as a guide to leak diagnosis and correction.

Cause Fluid level is too high Dipstick or dipstick seal missing, loose, or damaged Defective O-ring Dented or damaged reservoir Broken or cracked reservoir Worn or damaged seal Worn shaft bushing Worn or damaged pump shaft Correction Adjust the level. Replace the dipstick. Replace the O-ring. Replace the reservoir. Replace the reservoir. Replace the seal. Repair or replace the pump. Repair or replace the pump.
Symptom Leakage around the dipstick
Leakage at the pump body Leakage from the reservoir Leakage at the shaft seal Leakage at the shaft and seal Leakage between the pump and outlet fitting Leakage at the outlet hose fitting
Leakage at the return hose connection Leakage through the pump housing
Loose outlet fitting Tighten the fitting. Defective outlet fitting O-ring Replace the O-ring. Loose hose fitting Tighten the fitting. Cracked or damaged line fitting Replace the line. seat Defective or missing pressure line Replace the O-ring. fitting O-ring Loose hose clamp Tighten the hose clamp. Cracked or deteriorated hose Replace the hose. Cracked or porous housing Replace the pump.
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VI.
Diagnosing leaks in a conventional power steering gear A. B. C. With the vehicle's engine off, inspect the steering gear carefully for leaks and attempt to find the origin of the leak. Clean the steering gear. A spray cleaner for parts makes cleaning easier. Connect the exhaust ventilation equipment. CAUTION: Be sure to use approved exhaust ventilation equipment when operating a vehicle in an enclosed area. D. E. Start the engine and put the wheels through three or four full left and right turns. Turn off the engine and again inspect the pump for leaks. Disconnect the exhaust ventilation equipment.
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F. Use the following chart as a guide to leak diagnosis and correction.
Correction Tighten the fitting. Repair or replace the steering gear. Replace the hose. Replace the O-ring seal. Replace the O-ring seal.
Symptom Leakage at the hose connection
Cause Loose fitting Damaged fitting seat in the gear housing Damaged or broken hose fitting Leakage at the stub shaft Defective O-ring seal seal Leakage between the Defective O-ring seal stub shaft and torsion bar Leakage between the Defective O-ring seal housing end plug Loose housing end plug Leakage between the main and control valve housing Leakage around the sector shaft adjusting nut Leakage between the gear housing cover Loose bolts Defective O-ring Bad nut seal
Replace the O-ring seal. Repair the housing end plug. Tighten to housingspecified torque. Replace the O-ring. Replace the nut or sealing washer. Torque to the section shaft specification. Replace the O-ring or gasket. Replace the seal. Replace the housing or gear assembly.
Loose bolts Defective O-ring or gasket
Leakage at the sector shaft seal Leakage through the gearing
Worn or damaged seal Cracked or porous gear housing
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VII. Diagnosing fluid leaks in power rack-and-pinion systems A. B. C. With the vehicle's engine off, inspect the steering gear carefully for leaks and attempt to find the origin of the leak. Clean the steering gear. Use a spray cleaner for parts to make cleaning easier. Connect the exhaust ventilation equipment. CAUTION: Be sure to use approved exhaust ventilation equipment when operating a vehicle in an enclosed area. D. E. F. Start the engine and put the wheels through three or four full left and right turns. Shut off the engine and again inspect the pump for leaks. Disconnect the exhaust ventilation equipment. Use the following chart as a guide to leak diagnosis and correction.
Cause Damaged or defective seal Worn or damaged valve assembly Worn or damaged rack seal or gear assembly Loose fitting Defective O-ring or plastic seal ring Broken or damaged line Loose fitting Defective O-ring or plastic seal Cracked or porous housing Correction Replace the seal. This is usually not serviceable. Disassemble and repair the gear assembly. Torque to the manufacturer's specification. Replace the O-ring or plastic seal ring. Replace the line. Tighten to specification. Replace the O-ring or plastic seal. Replace the housing or steering gear.
Symptom Leakage at the pinion seal Leakage between the torsion bar and stub shaft Leakage at the bellows Leakage at the transfer line
Leakage at the hose fitting Leakage through the gear housing
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VIII. Diagnosing leaks in power steering hoses A. B. Visually inspect all hoses and determine the source of leakage. Connect the exhaust ventilation equipment. CAUTION: Be sure to use approved exhaust ventilation equipment when operating a vehicle in an enclosed area. C. D. If it not possible to determine the source of the leak, wipe the hoses clean, start the engine, and inspect the hoses again. If it is still impossible to determine the source of the leak, have an assistant turn the steering wheel several times to the left and right to increase the system's pressure; doing so makes the leak easier to detect. NOTE: Hoses are usually not repairable; replace them as needed. CAUTION: Do not attempt to substitute a fuel hose or any other type of hose for a power steering hose. Use only hoses that have been approved for power steering systems and that have the correct pressure rating. Most other hoses cannot withstand the extreme pressure demands of a power steering system.
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UNIT III: STEERING GEAR AND LINKAGE DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR CONTENTS OF THIS UNIT
I. II. Unit objective Lesson plans A. Lesson 1: Diagnosing the Steering Gear 1. 2. Information outline Assignment sheet a. 3. AS1-L1-UIII: Steering Gear Concerns
Job sheet a. JS1-L1-UIII: Diagnose Manual and Power Steering Gear Concerns
B.
Lesson 2: Repairing a Manual Steering Gear 1. 2. Information outline Job sheets a. b. c. JS1-L2-UIII: Remove and Install a Manual Steering Gear JS2-L2-UIII: Disassemble, Clean, and Inspect a Manual Steering Gear JS3-L2-UIII: Reassemble and Adjust a Manual Steering Gear
C.
Lesson 3: Repairing an Integrated Power Steering Gear 1. 2. Information outline Job sheets a. b. JS1-L3-UIII: Remove and Install an Integrated Power Steering Gear JS2-L3-UIII: Disassemble, Clean, and Inspect an Integrated Power Steering Gear
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c. D. JS3-L3-UIII: Reassemble and Adjust an Integrated Power Steering Gear
Lesson 4: Inspecting and Replacing Linkages 1. 2. Information outline Job sheets a. b. c. d. e. JS1-L4-UIII: Inspect and Replace a Pitman Arm JS2-L4-UIII: Inspect and Replace a Center Link JS3-L4-UIII: Inspect and Replace Tie-Rod Ends JS4-L4-UIII: Inspect and Replace an Idler Arm JS5-L4-UIII: Inspect and Replace a Steering Damper
III.
Unit III Test
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UNIT III: STEERING GEAR AND LINKAGE DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completing this unit, students should be able to diagnose and repair manual and integrated power steering gears and inspect and replace linkages. Students will demonstrate mastery of the material by completing the assignment sheet, successfully performing specific tasks on the job sheets, and achieving a score of on the Unit III Test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
After completing the lessons in this unit, students should be able to: Lesson 1 I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Identify terms and definitions associated with steering system diagnosis. Identify pointers for diagnosing the steering gear during a road test. Identify symptoms, causes, and corrections for a manual steering gear (conventional steering system). Identify symptoms, causes, and corrections for a power steering gear (conventional steering system). Identify symptoms, causes, and corrections for a manual rack-and-pinion steering gear. Identify symptoms, causes, and corrections for a power rack-and-pinion steering gear.
VII. Explain procedures for diagnosing manual and power steering gear concerns. VIII. Complete the assignment sheet on steering gear concerns (AS1-L1-UIII). IX. Demonstrate the ability to: A. Lesson 2 I. Explain the procedures for removing and installing a manual steering gear. Diagnose manual and power steering gear concerns (JS1-L1-UIII).
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II. III. IV. Explain the procedures for disassembling, cleaning, and inspecting a manual steering gear. Explain the procedures for reassembling and adjusting the steering gear. Demonstrate the ability to: A. B. C. Lesson 3 I. II. III. IV. V. Explain the procedures for removing and installing an integrated power steering gear. Explain the procedures for disassembling, cleaning, and inspecting an integrated power steering gear. Explain the procedures for reassembling an integrated power steering gear. Explain the procedures for adjusting an integrated power steering gear. Demonstrate the ability to: A. B. C. Lesson 4 I. II. III. IV. Explain the procedures for visually inspecting the linkage. Explain the procedures for a steering linkage inspection. Identify the tools and procedures required for breaking tapered fits. Explain the procedure for lubricating steering linkage components. Remove and install an integrated power steering gear (JS1-L3-UIII). Disassemble, clean, and inspect an integrated power steering gear (JS2-L3-UIII). Reassemble and adjust an integrated power steering gear (JS3-L3-UIII). Remove and install a manual steering gear (JS1-L2-UIII). Disassemble, clean, and inspect a manual steering gear (JS2-L2-UIII). Reassemble and adjust a manual steering gear (JS3-L2-UIII).
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V. VI. Explain the procedures for inspecting and replacing a pitman arm. Explain the procedures for inspecting and replacing a center link.
VII. Explain the procedures for inspecting and replacing tie-rod ends. VIII. Explain the procedures for inspecting and replacing an idler arm. IX. X. Explain the procedures for inspecting and replacing a steering damper. Demonstrate the ability to: A. B. C. D. E. Inspect and replace a pitman arm (JS1-L4-UIII). Inspect and replace a center link (JS2-L4-UIII). Inspect and replace tie-rod ends (JS3-L4-UIII). Inspect and replace an idler arm (JS4-L4-UIII). Inspect and replace a steering damper (JS5-L4-UIII).
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UNIT III: STEERING GEAR AND LINKAGE DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 1: DIAGNOSING THE STEERING GEAR
I. Terms and definitions A. Bump steer A condition in which the toe angle of the wheel changes when the suspension moves up and down, such as when going over a bump in the road. This action causes the vehicle to suddenly change direction. The driver may then have to countersteer to correct the vehicle's direction. Gear lash The clearance between two gears. Hard steering Greater-than-normal effort is required to turn the steering wheel. Lateral Pull The tendency of the vehicle to pull right or left when the steering is held straight ahead. Memory steer A condition in which the vehicle pulls in the direction of the driver's last steering maneuver after the driver returns the steering wheel to the center. The cause is a mechanical binding of the steering components. Oversteer A condition in which the rear tires lose traction before the front tires lose traction. This occurs when the rear tire slip angle is greater than the front tire slip angle. A tire's slip angle is the angular difference between the direction the wheel is traveling and the direction of the tread contacting the road. Poor steering return (or returnability) A condition in which the steering wheel does not return to the proper position after a turn. Roll steer A condition that results from body roll. In hard cornering, the body of the vehicle tends to lean. This causes one wheel to advance in front of the other, which changes the direction of the vehicle. Steering clunk A knocking noise produced by loose steering components. Steering play The distance that the steering wheel turns before the wheels respond.
B. C. D. E.
F.
G. H.
I. J.
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K. Torque steer A condition that is common on front-wheel-drive vehicles when the driver accelerates excessively, causing the vehicle to change direction. This happens because the front drive shafts are different lengths. As a result, the shafts twist differently, causing one to go faster than another during hard acceleration. Understeer A condition in which the front tires lose traction before the rear tires. This occurs when the front tire slip angle is greater than the rear tire slip angle. Wander A condition in which the driver has difficulty keeping the vehicle in a straight line. The driver has to continually correct the steering to keep the vehicle from drifting right or left.
L.
M.
NOTE: See Unit XIV, Lesson 1 for more information about steering concerns and causes. II. Pointers for conducting a steering gear road test diagnosis CAUTION: Always obtain the instructor's approval before road testing a vehicle. A. Find a suitable location for the road testa road with light traffic. Perform the road test at a safe speed. Never perform a road test procedure in a manner that might cause loss of vehicle control. While the car is moving, turn the steering wheel in both directions. The wheels should respond immediately. The steering wheel should have no more than 2 in of play. Make sure the steering wheel can turn with minimum effort. There should be the same amount of effort required to turn the wheel in both directions. NOTE: The effort required to turn the steering wheel depends on the steering ratio, tire size, vehicle weight, etc. Consider all pertinent factors when assessing the effort required to turn the wheel. D. E. F. The steering wheel should turn smoothly from left stop to right stop. There should be no tightness or binding. When released, the steering wheel should tend to return to the straight-ahead position. If the vehicle hits bumps or potholes, the steering system should not make any excessive noise.
B.
C.
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G. III. When the steering wheel is held firmly in the straight-ahead position, the vehicle should not wander.
Troubleshooting charts for a manual steering gear (conventional steering system) NOTE: The information in all of the following troubleshooting charts is general and may not apply to all steering systems. Refer to the appropriate service information when diagnosing a specific steering system.
Symptom Front end wander
Cause Worn steering linkage ball sockets Incorrect front end alignment Loose steering gear mounting
Correction Replace worn parts. Set all angles to specifications. Tighten connecting bolts to the proper torque specifications. Adjust according to the manufacturer's recommendations. Repair or replace steering gear. Adjust according to the manufacturer's specifications. Adjust or replace bearings. Tighten to specifications. Replace tie-rod end. Replace as necessary. Repair as necessary. Adjust to specifications. Disassemble and repair.
Excessive lash between sector gear and piston nut Worn steering gear Incorrect steering gear adjustment Loose or worn wheel bearings Loose steering gear mounting Loose tie-rod end Worn suspension components Worn steering column components Steering gear adjusted too tightly Low pressure in steering gear power cylinder due to internal leakage Low or no pump output Low tire pressure Binding in steering column Steering linkage or suspension needs lubrication Steering column binding Steering gear adjusted too tightly Incorrect wheel alignment
Excessive play in steering system Excessive steering effort
Poor returnability
Repair pump or adjust fluid level. Adjust to specifications. Repair as necessary. Lubricate as required. Repair as necessary. Adjust according to the manufacturer's specifications. Set alignment according to manufacturer's specifications.
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Symptom Gear rattle, clunk, or noise Cause Dry steering linkage or suspension sockets Sticking spool valve Rack piston nut to worm preload too tight Excessive sector gear to piston nut lash Loose gear mounting bolts Worn steering shaft or bearings Hissing sound If hissing is excessive Correction Lubricate as required. Clean or replace spool valve as necessary. Disassemble and replace balls as required. Adjust to specifications. Tighten to the specified torque. Repair as necessary.
Steering wheel jerks during turns No effort required to turn wheel Vehicle pulls to one side
Squawking sound
Pump drive belt loose Broken torsion bar Tire pressure uneven Wheel alignment incorrect Defective tire Steering control valve defective or not adjusted properly Suspension components worn
Some hissing is normal when wheel is turned or at a stop. Check for metal contact around flexible coupling between column and gear. Cut or worn control valve damper O-ring. Adjust to specifications. Replace control valve assembly. Adjust to specifications. Adjust alignment to specifications. Replace tire. Adjust or replace as required.
Replace as required.
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Symptom Rattle or clanking in steering gear Binding at a given point of turn Required steering effort varies from a left to a right turn Car pulls to one side Cause Low or incorrect steering gear lubricant Loose steering gear attaching bolts Pitman arm loose on shaft Worn steering shaft or bearings Excessive lash between sector gear and ball nut Loose or worn thrust bearings Correction Adjust lubricant level or change lubricant. Tighten to specifications. Tighten to specifications. Replace as necessary.
Roughness in worm shaft Uneven tire pressure Worn suspension components Steering gear input shaft not centered Uneven tire pressure Incorrect wheel alignment Defective tire Worn suspension components
Adjust lash or replace worn parts. Adjust preload or replace as necessary. Replace parts as required. Adjust to specifications. Replace as required. Adjust toe-to-center input shaft. Adjust pressure to specifications. Adjust alignment to specifications. Replace tire. Replace as required.
NOTE: As the steering wheel turns off the high-center position, the gear lash increases and there may be a slight noise. This is normal and cannot be eliminated because then the lash would be too tight in the straight-ahead position.
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IV. Troubleshooting charts for power steering gear (conventional steering system)
Cause Worn steering linkage ball sockets Incorrect front end alignment Loose steering gear mounting Excessive lash between sector gear and piston nut Worn steering gear Incorrect steering gear adjustment Loose or worn wheel bearings Loose steering gear mounting Loose tie-rod end Worn suspension components Worn steering column components Steering gear adjusted too tightly Low pressure in steering gear power cylinder due to internal leakage Low or no pump output Low tire pressure Binding in steering column Steering linkage or suspension needs lubrication Steering column binding Steering gear adjusted too tightly Incorrect wheel alignment Correction Replace worn parts. Set all angles to specifications. Tighten connecting bolts to the proper torque specifications. Adjust to the manufacturer's recommendations. Repair or replace steering gear. Adjust to the manufacturer's specifications. Adjust or replace bearings. Tighten to specifications. Replace tie-rod end. Replace as necessary. Repair as necessary. Adjust to specifications. Disassemble and repair.
Symptom Front end wander
Excessive play in steering Hard steering (excessive effort required)
Repair pump or adjust fluid level. Adjust to specifications. Repair as necessary. Lubricate as required.
Poor returnability
Repair as necessary. Adjust according to the manufacturer's specifications. Set alignment to the manufacturer's specifications.
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Symptom Gear rattle, clunk, or noise
Cause Dry steering linkage or suspension sockets Sticking spool valve Rack piston nut to worm preload too tight Excessive sector gear to piston nut lash Loose gear mounting bolts Worn steering shaft or bearings Hissing sound If hissing is excessive
Correction Lubricate as required. Clean or replace spool valve as necessary. Disassemble and replace balls as required. Adjust to specifications. Tighten to the specified torque. Repair as necessary.
Steering wheel jerks during turns No effort required to turn wheel Vehicle pulls to one side
Squawking sound
Pump drive belt loose Broken torsion bar Tire pressure uneven Wheel alignment incorrect Defective tire Steering control valve defective or not adjusted properly Suspension components worn
Some hissing is normal when wheel is turned or at a stop. Check for metal contact around flexible coupling between column and gear. Cut or worn control valve damper O-ring. Adjust to specifications. Replace control valve assembly. Adjust to specifications. Adjust alignment to specifications. Replace tire. Adjust or replace as required.
Replace as required.
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V. Troubleshooting charts for a manual rack-and-pinion steering gear
Cause Rack support yoke adjusted too tightly Low tire pressure Low lubricant level or incorrect lubricant Incorrect wheel alignment Steering gear adjusted too tightly Lack of tie-rod or ball joint lubrication Incorrect wheel alignment Binding in steering column Insufficient or improper lubricant Correction Adjust to specifications. Adjust to specifications. Remove steering gear and install proper fluid. Set alignment to specifications. Adjust to specifications. Lubricate as required. Set alignment to specifications. Repair as necessary. Remove rack-and-pinion steering gear and install correct amount and type of lubricant. Tighten to specifications.
Symptom Hard steering
Poor returnability
Rattle or clunk in steering gear
Binding at a given point in turn Excessive looseness in steering
Loose mounting bolts
Rough or worn spot in rack Loose or worn wheel bearings Loose rack-and-pinion mounting Incorrectly adjusted rack-andpinion Loose or worn steering column components Worn steering linkage ball sockets Incorrect front end alignment Loose rack-and-pinion mounting Improper rack-and-pinion adjustment Worn steering gear Uneven tire pressure Incorrect wheel alignment Worn suspension parts
Replace rack and repair as necessary. Adjust or replace bearings. Tighten to specifications. Make all adjustments according to the manufacturer's specifications. Repair as necessary. Replace worn parts. Set alignment to specifications. Tighten connecting bolts to the proper torque specifications. Adjust according to the manufacturer's recommendations. Repair or replace steering gear. Adjust to specifications. Set alignment to specifications. Replace as necessary.
Front end wander
Vehicle pulls to one side
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VI. Troubleshooting charts for power rack-and-pinion steering gear
Cause Internal rack leakage Sticking control valve Insufficient pump pressure Low tire pressure Steering column binding Steering gear adjusted too tightly Dry tie-rod ends or ball joints Steering gear adjusted too tightly Lack of tie-rod or ball joint lubrication Incorrect wheel alignment Binding in steering column Sticking or blocked spool valve Pressure hose contacting other parts of vehicle Loose tie-rod end Loose rack mountings Hissing sound Correction Repair or replace steering gear. Clean or replace valve. Repair or replace as necessary. Adjust to specifications. Repair as necessary. Adjust to specifications. Lubricate as necessary. Adjust to specifications. Lubricate as required. Set alignment to specifications. Repair as necessary. Replace valve assembly. Reposition pressure hose. Replace tie-rod end. Tighten to specifications. Some hissing is normal when steering wheel turns or stops at a standstill. Replace the control valve. Bleed the system. Adjust or replace bearings. Tighten to specifications. Make all adjustments according to the manufacturer's specifications. Repair as necessary.
Symptom Hard steering
Poor returnability
Rattle or clanking noise
Gear noise
Excessive steering looseness
Excessive hissing Groan and chatter due to air in system Loose or worn wheel bearings Loose rack-and-pinion mounting Incorrectly adjusted rack-andpinion Loose or worn steering column components
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Symptom Front end wander Cause Worn steering linkage ball sockets Incorrect front end alignment Loose steering gear mounting Improper rack-and-pinion adjustment Worn steering gear Uneven tire pressure Incorrect wheel alignment Steering control valve not centered Worn suspension components Correction Replace worn parts. Set alignment to specifications. Tighten connecting bolts to the proper torque specifications. Adjust according to the manufacturer's recommendations. Repair or replace steering gear. Adjust to specifications. Adjust to specifications. Repair or replace as required. Replace as required.
Vehicle pulls to one side
NOTE: The information in all of the above troubleshooting charts is general and may not apply to all steering systems. Refer to the appropriate service information when diagnosing a specific steering system. VII. Procedure for diagnosing manual and power steering gear concerns A. Connect the exhaust ventilation equipment. If inspecting a power steering system, start the vehicle's engine and run it at an idle. CAUTION: Be sure to use approved exhaust ventilation equipment when operating a vehicle in an enclosed area. NOTE: The effort required to turn the steering wheel depends on the steering ratio, tire size, vehicle weight, etc. Consider all pertinent factors when assessing the effort required to turn the wheel. B. C. Turn the steering wheel slowly from stop to stop. Check for and note the following concerns. 1. 2. 3. 4. Leaks in the system (For more detail on diagnosing leaks in the power steering system, see Unit II, Lesson 4.) Binding at any point More effort required to turn the steering wheel one direction than in the other direction Excessive effort required to turn the wheel
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5. 6. D. Unusual noises in the system Steering wheel jerks during turns (power steering vehicles only)
Test drive the car slowly and carefully. Observe if the steering wheel returns properly from both left and right turns. CAUTION: Road test a vehicle only with the instructor's approval.
E.
After obtaining permission from the instructor, drive the car at highway speed and respond to the following questions. 1. 2. Does the car pull to one side or the other? Does the car wander?
F.
After obtaining permission from the instructor, drive the car slowly over bumps and rough pavement. Note any gear rattle or clunk. NOTE: As the steering wheel turns off the high-center position, the gear lash increases and a slight noise may occur. This is normal and cannot be eliminated because the gear lash then would be too tight in the straight-ahead position.
G. H.
Shut off the engine. Disconnect the exhaust ventilation equipment. Record the possible causes of any of the problems noted in the previous steps.
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UNIT III: STEERING GEAR AND LINKAGE DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 2: REPAIRING A MANUAL STEERING GEAR
I. Removing and installing a manual steering gear A. Procedures for removing a manual steering gear 1. Remove the two nuts that hold the flexible coupling to the steering shaft. To aid in proper alignment during installation, mark the steering shaft and flexible coupling Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 3. Remove the nut that holds the pitman arm. Mark the pitman arm and sector shaft. Next, remove the pitman arm using a suitable puller. Remove the bolts that hold the steering gear to the vehicle frame. Next, remove the steering gear from the vehicle. Check for the following problems and correct any problems before installing the steering gear. a. Inspect the vehicle's frame in the area where the steering gear is mounted. Look for signs of cracking or elongated mounting holes. Inspect the gear assembly for lubricant leaks or housing damage. Inspect the flexible coupling for wear or damage.
2.
4. 5.
b. c. 6. B.
Lower the vehicle.
Reverse the above procedure to install the steering gear. Tighten all fasteners to the specified torque. Check the steering gear operation. NOTE: Be sure to check and adjust the steering gear lubricant level if necessary. Refer to Unit II, Lesson 4 for this procedure.
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II. Disassembling, cleaning, and inspecting a manual steering gear A. Procedure for disassembling the manual steering gear 1. 2. 3. Thoroughly clean the exterior of the steering gear with a safety solvent. Place the steering gear in a holding fixture or in a soft-jawed vise. Center the sector shaft in the center of its travel. a. Turn the worm shaft from one stop to the other. (Count the number of turns required to move the shaft from stop to stop.) Turn the shaft in the opposite direction half as many times as required to reach the first stop.
b. 4.
Remove the sector shaft. a. b. Remove the sector shaft lash adjuster locknut. Remove the sector shaft cover fasteners. To remove the cover, turn the lash adjuster clockwise. Remove and discard the cover gasket. Slip the lash adjuster screw from the sector shaft slot. To remove the sector shaft from the housing, tap on the splined end with a soft-faced mallet. Using a suitable tool, pry the sector shaft seal out of the housing. Discard the seal.
c. d. e. 5.
Remove the worm shaft. a. b. c. d. Loosen the worm bearing adjuster locknut with a soft punch. Remove the locknut and the worm bearing adjuster. Remove the worm shaft and ball nut assembly from the housing. Remove the worm bearing in the gear housing. Also remove the bearing in the bearing adjuster.
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6. Disassemble the worm shaft. NOTE: Some manufacturers do not recommend disassembling the worm shaft. These manufacturers suggest servicing the steering gear as a complete unit. a. b. Unclamp and remove the return guides from the ball nut. Place a clean cloth on the work bench. Turn over the ball nut and rotate the worm shaft back and forth until all of the balls drop onto the cloth. NOTE: Carefully count the balls removed from the worm shaft. Reinstall the same number of balls in each circuit of the ball nut during reassembly. c. d. Remove the ball nut from the worm shaft. Remove and discard the worm shaft seal.
B.
Procedure for inspecting the steering gear 1. 2. 3. Thoroughly clean all parts in the appropriate solvent and dry them with compressed air. Inspect the worm shaft, ball nut grooves, and balls for wear or damage. Replace as required. Inspect the ball nut and sector shaft teeth for wear or damage. Replace both parts if either is damaged.
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4. Inspect the worm bearings for wear or damage. While turning the bearings, feel for any roughness. Replace any defective bearings. NOTE: Some worm adjuster bearings are not serviceable; therefore, if a nonserviceable bearing is defective, replace the entire adjuster. 5. Make sure the sector shaft fits properly between the gear housing bushings and the sector shaft cover. Replace any worn bushings. NOTE: If the bushing in the sector shaft cover is not serviceable, replace the cover. 6. 7. Inspect the surface of the sector shaft bearing for roughness or wear. Make sure the lash adjuster screw fits properly in the sector shaft's slot. a. b. Make sure the screw head turns freely in the slot. Use a feeler gauge to measure the clearance between the screw head and the bottom of the slot. If the clearance fails to meet the manufacturer's specifications, adjust the clearance with shims.
8. 9.
Inspect the ball guides for damage. Replace if necessary. Inspect the gear housing for cracks or physical damage. Check the condition of all threaded holes.
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III. Reassembling and adjusting the steering gear A. Using the proper tools, install all bushings and bearings that were removed from the housing. NOTE: Before reassembling the steering gear, lubricate all seals, bushings, and bearings with the manufacturer's recommended steering gear lubricant. B. Place the ball nut over the worm shaft. Position the shaft so that the deep side of the teeth is toward the shaft cover. 1. 2. 3. 4. C. Install an even number of balls in each ball circuit. Install the remaining balls in the ball guides. Ensure that grease holds the balls in place. Assemble the ball guides on the ball nut. While holding the ball nut, rotate the worm shaft several times to ensure that it is assembled properly and operates smoothly.
Install the worm shaft, worm shaft bearings, and bearing adjuster in the gear housing. Tighten the adjuster just enough to hold the assembly in place. (Make the final adjustments later.) Center the ball nut by turning the worm shaft. Adjust the worm shaft preload by connecting a torque wrench to the worm shaft and tightening the bearing adjuster to the specified torque. Next, tighten the adjuster locknut. NOTE: The procedure for adjusting the worm shaft preload varies from vehicle to vehicle. Consult proper service information for the correct procedure.
D. E.
F.
Install the lash adjuster screw and place the proper shim on the sector shaft. Slide the sector shaft into the gear housing. Be careful to align the center of the ball nut with the center of the sector gear. NOTE: Cover the splines and threads of the sector shaft with masking tape; doing so protects the sector shaft seal during shaft installation.
G.
Place a new gasket on the sector shaft cover. Place the cover over the lash adjuster screw and turn the screw counterclockwise.
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H. I. Tighten the sector shaft cover fasteners to the manufacturer's specified torque. Turn the lash adjuster screw until the teeth on the ball nut and sector shaft engage smoothly without binding. Next, install the locknut (the nut should fit loosely).
J. K.
Using suitable seal drivers, install the sector and worm shaft seals. Fill the steering gear with the manufacturer's specified lubricant. NOTE: Some steering gears use chassis lubricant and require packing with grease during assembly. Refer to the manufacturer's instructions.
L.
Procedure for adjusting the overcenter (ball nut to sector gear clearance)
NOTE: To accurately adjust the overcenter, first adjust the worm shaft. 1. Turn the worm shaft from one stop to the other. (Count the number of turns required to do so.) CAUTION: Never allow the steering gear to bump hard against the extreme ends of its travel. A hard bump could damage the ball nut assembly.
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2. When reaching the stop, turn the worm shaft back half the number of turns required to meet the stop. This sets the steering gear on high center. Adjust the lash adjuster screw until the factory-recommended turning torque on the worm shaft is achieved when passing through the high center range. (This is a higher torque specification than the one for the worm bearing preload.) While holding the lash adjuster screw in position, tighten the locknut. While slowly turning the steering gear from one stop to the other, check for any roughness or binding. The steering gear should feel tighter as it passes through high center.
3.
4. 5.
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UNIT III: STEERING GEAR AND LINKAGE DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 3: REPAIRING AN INTEGRATED POWER STEERING GEAR
I. Removing and installing an integrated power steering gear A. Procedure for removing an integrated power steering gear 1. Clean the dirt from around the hose connections. (Dirt can enter the steering gear during removal.) Place a drain pan under the gear. Remove the pressure and return hoses at the gear. Expel the oil from the unit by turning the steering wheel from lock to lock. Disconnect the steering gear at the steering shaft coupling. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 6. 7. Mark the pitman arm and remove it from the sector shaft. Remove the bolts that hold the gear to the vehicle's frame. Remove the steering gear from the vehicle.
2. 3. 4. 5.
CAUTION: Power steering gears are very heavy. Be careful when removing the gear.
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8. Check for the following problems and correct any problems before installing the steering gear. a. b. Inspect the gear assembly for fluid leakage and housing damage. Inspect the gear mounting area of the vehicle frame for cracking or elongated holes. NOTE: Repair a damaged frame before reinstalling the steering gear. Consult the instructor for the proper procedure. c. d. B. Inspect the pressure and return hoses. Inspect the flexible coupling for wear or damage.
Procedure for installing the power steering gear 1. 2. 3. To install the gear, reverse the removal procedure. Tighten all fasteners to the manufacturer's specified torque. Fill the pump reservoir with the factory-recommended fluid and bleed the system. Inspect the steering system for leaks. Repair any leaks found.
4. 5.
Lower the vehicle. Check the operation of the steering gear.
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II. Disassembling, cleaning, and inspecting an integrated power steering gear NOTE: Integrated power steering gear designs vary among vehicles. The following procedures are therefore very general. Always consult proper service information to obtain the correct procedure for the specific vehicle. NOTE: Power steering gear repair often requires special tools. A. Procedure for cleaning and disassembling the steering gear 1. 2. Thoroughly clean the steering gear with a cleaning solvent. Finish draining the steering gear by placing the hose ports over a drain pan and turning the worm shaft fully to the left and right several times. Secure the steering gear in a holding fixture or mount it in a soft-jawed vise. Loosen the sector shaft lash adjuster screw locknut. Remove the sector shaft cover bolts. Remove the cover and discard the O-ring. Center the sector shaft in the housing. Free the sector shaft from the housing by tapping the housing's splined end with a soft-faced hammer. Remove the housing end plug's retaining ring. Turn the stub shaft in the left-turn position until the plug is free of the housing and then remove the plug. Loosen the adjuster plug locknut and remove the adjuster plug. Remove the piston nut, worm shaft, and lower thrust bearing from the gear housing. A special tool may be necessary to hold the balls in place during disassembly. Remove the stub shaft and control valve from the housing. NOTE: On Ford units, remove the control valve, worm shaft, and piston nut together after removing the valve housing to the gear housing retaining bolts.
3. 4. 5. 6.
7.
8. 9.
10.
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11. 12. If it is necessary to replace the Teflon rings, carefully cut them from the valve body and the power piston. Remove and discard the adjuster plug seal and O-ring. Inspect the roller and thrust bearings in the adjuster plug. If defective, replace them.
B.
Procedure for disassembling the control valve assembly 1. Do not allow the spool valve to jam when removing it from the valve body. NOTE: Due to the precise tolerances involved, at least one manufacturer discourages removing the control unless absolutely necessary. 2. When disassembling a control valve, replace all Teflon sealing rings and rubber O-rings with new ones.
C.
Procedure for disassembling the piston nut 1. 2. Place the piston nut and worm shaft over a clean cloth. Remove the ball return guides. Allow all balls to fall onto the cloth and carefully count them. NOTE: On Chrysler pivot lever steering gears, the piston nut and worm are not serviceable. Replace them as a unit.
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D. Procedure for inspecting integrated power steering gear components 1. 2. Thoroughly clean all parts in solvent and dry with compressed air. Inspect the sector shaft. a. b. c. 3. Inspect the shaft bearing surfaces for wear and roughness. Replace the bearing if necessary. Inspect the sector gear teeth for wear or roughness. Replace the bearing shaft if necessary. Check the cover bushing for wear. Replace the cover if necessary.
Inspect the worm shaft and piston nut. a. b. c. d. Inspect the shaft, piston nut grooves, and balls for roughness and wear. Replace these items if necessary. Inspect the power piston for wear and roughness. Replace if necessary. Inspect the lower thrust bearing and races for wear or roughness. Replace these items if necessary. Inspect the outside diameter of the piston nut for wear or scoring. Replace the nut if necessary.
4.
Inspect the gear housing. a. b. c. Inspect the piston bore. If the bore is scored or worn, replace the housing. Inspect the housing for cracks and other damage. Replace the housing if necessary. Inspect the check valve in the inlet port of the housing. When pressed down and released, the valve should reseat itself against the port connector.
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5. Inspect the control valve assembly. a. Inspect the valve assembly for leaks between the torsion bar and stub shaft. If any leaks are found, replace the assembly. The spool should rotate freely in the valve body without binding. If the spool binds, replace it. Inspect the valve body and spool for wear, nicks, and burrs. If these problems are found, replace the assembly.
b. c. III.
Reassembling an integrated power steering gear A. B. C. Assemble the steering gear by reversing the disassembly procedure. Lubricate all seals, bushings, and bearings with power steering fluid before assembly. Install Teflon seals by either applying special seal installers or boiling the seals in water for 5 minutes to 10 minutes. The boiling water softens and expands the seals. If using selective balls in the piston nut, install them in the proper order. To protect the new seal during installation, cover the splined end of the sector shaft with masking tape. Tighten all fasteners to the manufacturer's specified torque. Use suitable drivers when installing seals and bearings.
D. E. F. G. IV.
Adjusting an integrated power steering gear NOTE: On some integrated power steering gear units, adjust the stub or worm shaft before installing the sector shaft. A. Tighten the bearing adjuster plug until achieving the specified turning torque on the stub shaft; doing so provides the worm bearings with the proper preload.
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NOTE: On Ford steering gears, tighten the bearing adjuster plug before installing the worm assembly in the gear housing.
B.
Adjust the power piston nut ball preload. NOTE: The power piston nut ball preload on some Saginaw steering gears is adjusted as follows: The preload is adjusted before the steering gear is assembled. A torque wrench measures the force needed to turn the piston nut through the high center of the worm groove. Adjustments are made by changing the ball size.
C.
Procedure for gear lash adjustment 1. 2. 3. Loosen the lash adjuster screw locknut. Using a torque wrench, turn the lash adjuster until obtaining the recommended turning torque. While holding the lash adjuster in position, tighten the locknut.
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UNIT III: STEERING GEAR AND LINKAGE DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 4: INSPECTING AND REPLACING LINKAGES
I. Visually inspecting the linkage A. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. B. Clean excessive dirt and grease from all linkage components and inspect the linkage according to the procedure outlined below. 1. Inspect the ball socket seals. Look for missing or badly deteriorated seals. Defective seals allow water and dirt to enter the socket assembly, causing premature failure. If the linkage is equipped with lubrication fittings or plugs, make sure that they are in place. If fittings are missing, contaminants can enter the socket. Inspect all fasteners. Look for loose or missing nuts and bolts. Make sure that cotter pins are in place. Check for improper fasteners (nuts and bolts). CAUTION: Steering components use specially designed fasteners. Using fasteners other than those the manufacturer specifies could cause steering failure. 4. Make sure the linkage is not bent, cracked, or broken. Also look for improper repairs of previous damage. a. b. Note any bent parts that have been straightened or any broken parts that have been welded. Replace all damaged linkage components; never repair them.
2.
3.
CAUTION: Never attempt to straighten or repair linkage parts with heat applications. Never weld a broken steering linkage part. Never straighten a bent steering linkage. Such procedures can weaken the linkage, causing steering failure.
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C. Procedure for inspecting tie-rod assemblies 1. 2. Perform the linkage inspection previously outlined under step B. Make sure that the sockets are centered. Center the ball studs in their sockets before tightening the sleeve clamps. If the studs are not centered, they lock in position and therefore cannot swing.
3.
Check the tie-rod sleeves for rust or distortion. Replace badly rusted or distorted tie-rod sleeves. NOTE: A special tie-rod adjusting tool is sometimes used to turn the sleeve during wheel alignment. If the sleeve is badly rusted, it may distort instead of turning.
D.
Inspect the idler arm for badly deteriorated rubber bushings. Also make sure the idler arm bracket is securely mounted to the frame of the vehicle. Inspect the steering damper. 1. Look for fluid leakage at the piston rod. A light film or fluid on the housing around the rod is considered normal. If heavy wetness or dripping fluid is found, replace the rod. Inspect the piston rod for pitting and bends.
E.
2.
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3. Inspect the condition of rubber grommets used to mount the rod.
F.
Visually inspect the linkage-type power steering control valve for leaks. Also inspect the condition of the hose. Replace badly deteriorated or leaking hoses. NOTE: Details on hose inspection and replacement are presented in Unit V, Lesson 2.
G.
Inspect the linkage-type power steering power cylinder. 1. 2. 3. Look for fluid leakage at any point along the cylinder. A slight film of oil on the cylinder's piston rod seal is normal. Inspect the piston rod for pitting or damage. If there are defects, replace the cylinder. Inspect the condition of the hoses leading to and from the cylinder.
II.
Steering linkage inspection A. Perform the visual inspection first. Use appropriate service information to determine the proper tolerances of a component before passing or failing it. Grasp the pitman arm at the linkage end and shake vigorously. If there is any movement, isolate the cause. 1. If there is play in the ball socket, it may be necessary to replace the pitman arm or center link (depending on which part contains the socket).
B.
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2. 3. Movement may result from looseness between the tapered stud and hole. If the hole is worn, replace the part. If there is looseness in the steering gear, repair or replace the gear. Steering gear repair is discussed in Unit III, Lesson 2 and Lesson 3.
C.
To inspect idler arms that General Motors does not manufacture, grasp the linkage at the idler arm and apply upward and downward pressure. If the arm moves excessively, replace it. Consult the appropriate service information for specifications. For idler arms that General Motors does manufacture, the following special testing procedure is recommended. 1. Apply a 25-lb upward and downward force to the idler arm.
D.
2.
Measure the idler arm movement in both directions. The total movement should not exceed 1/4 in. NOTE: Depending on the car line, the maximum movement may be as little as 1/8 in.
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E. Inspect the tie-rods and the center link. 1. Grasp the tie-rod near the ball socket and apply vertical pressure. a. b. c. Excessive movement or missing seals may require replacing the part. Be sure to look for movement in the tapered hole before determining if the socket is defective. Consult the appropriate service information for specifications and more specific procedures.
NOTE: Depending on the car line, the maximum movement may be as little as 1/8 in. Check service information for specifications. 2. Twist the tie-rod socket back and forth. a. b. Replace any sockets that are frozen or rough. Center any sockets that are not centered. (If the inner and outer tie-rod sockets are not centered, they cannot twist.)
F.
Test for lateral looseness in linkage sockets. NOTE: Two people are required to test the linkage sockets for lateral looseness. During the test, the tires must support the total vehicle weight; therefore, test the vehicle either on the floor or on a drive-on hoist.
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1. 2. III. While an assistant turns the steering wheel back and forth (1 in to 2 in), observe all steering components for excessive looseness. Replace any loose components. Consult the appropriate service information for the particular specifications.
Tools and procedures for breaking tapered fits between steering linkage components A. B. Tie-rod ends, center links, pitman arms, and other steering linkage components usually use ball studs that fit tightly into tapered holes. Use special tools, such as the taper-breaking tool and the pickle fork, to break the tapered fit between the stud and hole. Sometimes common hammers work well for this task. CAUTION: Always wear eye protection when repairing the steering system. During steering system repair, flying metal chips result from hammering, and dirt falls from the undercarriage components. As a result, severe eye hazards may occur. 1. The taper-breaking tool works like a gear puller, forcing the stud out of the hole with screw pressure. The taper-breaking tool does not damage the ball stud.
2.
The pickle fork is a forklike, heavy, wedge-shaped steel tool. The pickle fork is forced between the ball socket and the connecting part. a. Some pickle forks are designed to be struck with a hammer; others are powered by a pneumatic hammer. As the fork is driven between the two parts, it forcibly breaks the taper.
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b. 3. The pickle fork disassembles the components quickly, but it usually destroys the ball socket.
Hammers can also break the tapered fit between the stud and hole. a. A heavy hammer rests on one side of the connecting part at the tapered hole. Another hammer strikes the part directly opposite the heavy hammer, thus jarring the taper loose. This method often damages the components. In some situations there is inadequate room to swing the hammer. CAUTION: Never hit the end of the ball stud with a hammer; doing so damages the ball stud's threads.
b.
IV.
Lubricating steering linkage components A. Regularly lubricate the steering linkage components. 1. Consult the manufacturer's instructions for the proper mileage intervals for lubricating the linkage components. If no instructions are available, lubricate every 7,500 miles. Although new components are lubricated during assembly, lubricate them again after installation.
2.
NOTE: Always use the factory-recommended chassis lubricant usually an EP-type lubricanton steering linkage components. B. Procedure for lubricating ball sockets with a hand-operated, lowpressure grease gun 1. 2. 3. Wipe all grease and dirt from the grease fittings. If there is a plug, remove it and install a grease fitting. Snap the gun nozzle onto the fitting and apply a lubricant to the socket until the grease seal starts to swell. Wipe the excessive grease from the joint. CAUTION: Forcing grease into the seal after it begins to swell may cause the seal to rupture.
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V. Inspecting and replacing a pitman arm A. Procedure for removing a pitman arm 1. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 2. 3. Inspect the pitman arm for wear and damage. Place a mark on the pitman arm and sector shaft in order to install the new pitman arm in the same position. NOTE: Most pitman arms and sector shafts have a master splinea spline that is wider than the restto prevent improper installation. For added insurance of proper installation, add a mark. 4. 5. 6. 7. Remove the cotter pin and the nut at the linkage end of the pitman arm. Break the taper between the ball stud and the tapered hole. Remove the nut and lockwasher from the end of the sector shaft. Use a pitman arm puller or suitable universal puller to remove the pitman arm from the sector shaft. The fit between the splines is very tight, sometimes making removal of the arm difficult.
8.
Inspect the tapered hole and stud in the pitman arm and steering link. Replace any worn parts.
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B. Some pitman arms have a slit in the gear end; a clamp bolt holds the arm tight on the gear shaft. 1. 2. To remove this type of pitman arm, remove the clamp bolt and use a pitman arm puller to separate the arm from the shaft. To install the arm, drive a wedge in the slit, expanding the arm just enough to slide it over the splined sector shaft. CAUTION: Never use a hammer to beat the pitman arm on or off; doing so may damage the steering gear. C. Procedure for installing the pitman arm 1. 2. Refer to the appropriate service information for torque specifications for installing the pitman arm. Place the wheels in the straight-ahead position and center the steering wheel. Install the pitman arm on the sector shaft. Use the marks made before disassembly to position the guide properly. NOTE: If the pitman arm has a master spline, make sure the arm aligns with it. 3. 4. Install the lockwasher and nut on the sector shaft and torque to specifications. Connect the pitman arm to the steering linkage. Tighten the castellated nut to the specified torque. Continue to tighten the nut until the cotter pin can be inserted. CAUTION: If the opening in the castellated nut does not align with the hole in the stud, continue to tighten the nut to the next opening and insert the cotter pin. Never loosen a nut to align openings; doing so can result in steering system failure. 5. 6. If the ball socket construction provides a lubrication fitting or plug, lubricate the socket with an EP-type chassis lubricant. If the vehicle uses self-locking nuts instead of castellated nuts, discard the old nuts and replace them with new nuts of the identical design. Turn the wheels through a full left and right turn to check for smooth operation.
8.
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9. VI. Lower the vehicle. Inspecting and replacing a center link A. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, be sure to use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. B. C. Inspect the center link for wear or damage. Using the procedure outlined below, remove the center link. 1. 2. D. Remove cotter pins and castellated nuts from all four connecting points. Using a taper-breaking tool, separate the center link from the pitman arm, idler arm, and the tie-rods.
Inspect the tapered studs and mounting holes of the center link and all connecting arms. Clean excessive grease and dirt from all parts. Replace worn parts. Using the procedure outlined below, install the center link. 1. 2. Refer to the appropriate service information for the torque specifications for the center link. Install the center link, tighten the connecting nuts to the specified torque, and install the cotter pins. NOTE: If an opening in a castellated nut does not align with the hole in the stud, continue to tighten the nut to the next opening and insert the cotter pin. Never loosen the nut to align openings. 3. If the vehicle uses self-locking nuts instead of castellated nuts, discard the old nuts and replace with new ones of the same design. Lubricate all ball sockets on the center link with an EP-type chassis lubricant if possible. Turn the wheels through a full left turn and right turn to check for smooth operation.
E.
4. 5.
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6. 7. Check the toe and adjust as necessary. See the instructor for this procedure. Lower the vehicle.
VII. Inspecting and replacing tie-rod ends A. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. B. C. Inspect the tie-rod assembly for wear or damage. Using the procedure outlined below, remove and inspect the tie-rod end. 1. Loosen the tie-rod sleeve clamp bolt on the tie-rod end that is being removed. NOTE: If the clamp bolt and the sleeve are rusty, spray them with penetrating oil before disassembly. 2. Measure the distance from the edge of the tie-rod sleeve to the center of the tie-rod end socket. Use this measurement to achieve an approximate toe setting during reassembly.
3. 4. 5.
Remove the cotter pin and castellated nut from the ball stud. Using a taper-breaking tool, separate the tie-rod from the center link or steering knuckle. Thread the tie-rod end out of the adjusting sleeve. Count the number of turns required to remove the tie-rod end and record the number.
D. E.
Inspect the tie-rod sleeve for damage, distortion, bad threads, or severe rusting. If any problems are found, replace the sleeve. Using the procedure outlined below, install the tie-rod end.
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1. 2. Refer to the appropriate service information for the torque specifications for the tie-rod. Thread the tie-rod end into the sleeve and count the number of turns. Stop when the tie-rod end turns the same amount of times as previously recorded. Repeat the measurement made in step C, 2. If necessary, adjust the tie-rod in or out to match the previous measurement. Connect the tie-rod to the steering knuckle, tighten the nut to specified torque, and install the cotter pin. If the vehicle uses self-locking nuts instead of castellated nuts, discard the old nuts and replace them with new nuts of the identical design. Center both the inner and outer tie-rod ends in their sockets and tighten the clamp bolts to the specified torque. If the ball socket construction provides a lubrication fitting or plug, lubricate the socket with an EP-type chassis lubricant. Turn the wheels through a full left turn and full right turn to check for smooth operation. Check the toe and adjust as necessary. See the instructor for this procedure. Lower the vehicle.
3. 4. 5.
6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
VIII. Inspecting and replacing an idler arm A. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. B. C. Inspect the idler arm for wear or damage. Remove the arm from the center link. 1. 2. Remove the retaining nut on idler arms that use a bushing arrangement. Tap the arm or slide it free from the center link. If the arm uses a tapered stud, break the taper between the two parts.
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D. E. Note the position of the support bracket and then unbolt the support bracket from the vehicle frame and remove the arm. Reverse the removal procedure to install the arm. 1. Bolt the bracket to the frame in the same position as before. Some brackets can be reversed, but the wheel alignment changes. Tighten all fasteners to the manufacturer's specified torque. It may be necessary to measure some threaded, bushing-type arms upon installation. a. b. Thread the idler arm bracket into the idler arm bushing until the specified measurement is met. Failure to make this measurement changes the toe setting on the vehicle. Specifications for this measurement are found in the appropriate service information.
2. 3.
IX.
Inspecting and replacing a steering damper NOTE: Steering dampers or their mountings vary little among manufacturers. The installation procedure outlined below applies to most vehicles. A. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. B. Inspect the steering damper for damage and leakage. Also make sure the damper is mounted securely. NOTE: A light film of fluid on the damper housing is considered normal. C. If there is any question about the condition of the damper, test it according to the following procedure. 1. 2. Disconnect either the frame or linkage end of the damper. Completely extend and retract the piston rod and note any of the following problems during damper travel. a. Tightness or binding
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b. c. 3. D. Fluid leakage Skipping (lack of resistance)
If the piston rod has improper resistance or fluid leakage, replace it.
Disconnect both the frame and the linkage ends and remove the damper from the vehicle. Inspect all mounting brackets and grommets. Replace any broken or deteriorated hardware. Reverse the installation procedures to install the damper. 1. 2. Torque all fasteners to the manufacturer's specifications. Install new cotter pins where used. Move the wheels through a full left turn and full right turn and check for smoothness of operation.
E.
F.
Lower the vehicle.
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UNIT IV: RACK-AND-PINION STEERING DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR CONTENTS OF THIS UNIT
I. II. Unit objective Lesson plans A. Lesson 1: Diagnosing and Repairing a Manual Rack-and-Pinion Steering Gear 1. 2. Information outline Job sheets a. b. c. d. B. JS1-L1-UIV: Remove and Install a Manual Rack-and-Pinion Steering Gear JS2-L1-UIV: Inspect and Replace Rack-and-Pinion Inner Tie-Rods and Bellows Boots JS3-L1-UIV: Disassemble, Clean, and Inspect a Manual Rack-and-Pinion Steering Gear JS4-L1-UIV: Reassemble and Adjust a Manual Rack-and-Pinion Steering Gear
Lesson 2: Diagnosing and Repairing a Power Rack-and-Pinion Steering Gear 1. 2. Information outline Job sheets a. b. c. d. JS1-L2-UIV: Remove and Install a Power Rack-andPinion Steering Gear JS2-L2-UIV: Disassemble, Clean, and Inspect a Power Rack-and-Pinion Steering Gear JS3-L2-UIV: Reassemble and Adjust a Power Rack-and-Pinion Steering Gear JS4-L2-UIV: Test and Diagnose Components of Electronically Controlled Steering Systems Using a Scan Tool
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e. C. JS5-L2-UIV: Inspect and Test Nonhydraulic Electric Power-Assist Steering
Lesson 3: Repairing Rack-and-Pinion Steering External Components 1. 2. Information outline Job sheets a. b. JS1-L3-UIV: Replace Rack Boots (End Take-Off Units) JS2-L3-UIV: Replace Rack Mount Bushings
III.
Unit IV Test
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UNIT IV: RACK-AND-PINION STEERING DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completing this unit, students should be able to diagnose and repair manual and power rack-and-pinion steering gears and repair their external components. Students will demonstrate mastery of the material by successfully performing specific tasks on the job sheets and achieving a score of _______ on the Unit IV Test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
After completing the lessons in this unit, students should be able to: Lesson 1 I. II. III. IV. V. Explain the procedures for inspecting the inner tie-rods on manual rack-and-pinion steering assemblies. Explain the procedures for removing and installing a manual rack-and-pinion steering gear. Explain the procedures for disassembling and inspecting a manual rack-and-pinion steering gear. Explain the procedures for reassembling and adjusting the manual rackand-pinion steering gear. Demonstrate the ability to: A. B. C. D. Remove and install a manual rack-and-pinion steering gear (JS1-L1-UIV). Inspect and replace rack-and-pinion inner tie-rods and bellows boots (JS2-L1-UIV). Disassemble, clean, and inspect a manual rack-and-pinion steering gear (JS3-L1-UIV). Reassemble and adjust a manual rack-and-pinion steering gear (JS4-L1-UIV).
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Lesson 2 I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Explain the procedures for removing and installing a power rack-and-pinion steering gear. Explain the procedures for disassembling and inspecting a power rackand-pinion steering gear. Explain the procedures for reassembling and adjusting a power rack-andpinion steering gear. Explain the procedure for testing and diagnosing components of electronically controlled steering systems using a scan tool. Explain the procedure for inspecting and testing nonhydraulic electric power-assist steering. Demonstrate the ability to: A. B. C. D. E. Lesson 3 I. II. III. Explain the procedure for replacing rack boots (end take-off units). Explain the procedure for replacing rack mount bushings. Demonstrate the ability to: A. B. Replace rack boots (end take-off units) (JS1-L3-UIV). Replace rack mount bushings (JS2-L3-UIV). Remove and install a power rack-and-pinion steering gear (JS1-L2-UIV). Disassemble, clean, and inspect a power rack-and-pinion steering gear (JS2-L2-UIV). Reassemble and adjust a power rack-and-pinion steering gear (JS3-L2-UIV). Test and diagnose components of electronically controlled steering systems using a scan tool (JS4-L2-UIV). Inspect and test nonhydraulic electric power-assist steering (JS5-L2-UIV).
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UNIT IV: RACK-AND-PINION STEERING DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 1: DIAGNOSING AND REPAIRING A MANUAL RACK-ANDPINION STEERING GEAR
I. Inspecting inner tie-rods on manual rack-and-pinion steering assemblies NOTE: Inspect outer tie-rods on rack-and-pinion systems using the same inspection method as for conventional steering linkage outer tie-rods. However, the inner tie-rod sockets can be difficult to check because they are concealed inside either rubber or soft plastic boots. NOTE: Use the following procedure when making a quick inspection of the general condition of the inner tie-rod. For a more thorough inspection procedure, see section D below. A. B. Squeeze the boot until the inner socket is felt. While squeezing the boot, have an assistant perform one of the following steps. 1. 2. C. Turn the steering wheel back and forth one-eighth to one-quarter of a turn. Push and pull on the tires and turn them in and out one-quarter of a turn. If the tie-rod feels loose, replace it.
Some inner tie-rod boots are made of a hard plastic, which is impossible to squeeze. To inspect hard plastic rod boots, perform the following steps. 1. Lock the steering wheel and use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 2. With the vehicle off the ground, turn the wheels in and out while watching for movement in the tie-rods. If movement is detected, replace the tie-rods.
D.
Outlined below is a more thorough tie-rod inspection procedure. 1. Remove the inner tie-rod boot clamps and slide the boot back to expose the rod.
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2. Turn the steering wheel back and forth while the wheels rest on the ground. Watch the sockets for movement. If movement is detected, replace the rod. NOTE: Some manual steering gears are filled with a liquid lubricant that may spill out when the boot is removed. When checking the inner tie-rods on manual rack-and-pinion systems that contain a liquid lubricant, do not remove the boot unless removing the entire assembly or replacing the lubricant. II. Removing and installing a manual rack-and-pinion steering gear A. Procedure for removing a manual rack-and-pinion steering gear 1. Remove the pinch bolt or roll pin that connects the steering gear to the flexible coupling. The coupling is located under either the hood or the instrument panel. NOTE: It may be necessary to remove such items as the steering column boot or a sound deadening panel to access the coupling. Some vehicles have a slip-type coupling that slides apart when the rack is removed. 2. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 3. 4. Remove the cotter pins and castellated nuts from the outer tierod ends. Disconnect the outer tie-rod ends from the steering arms. NOTE: Use a tie-rod pressnot a pickle forkfor this procedure. 5. 6. Support the steering gear and remove the bolts that connect the steering gear to the vehicle. Remove the steering gear from the vehicle. NOTE: On some vehicles, it is appropriate to remove the front wheel-and-tire assemblies before removing the steering gear.
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NOTE: Some rack-and-pinion units require removal through a hole in the inner fender instead of from underneath the vehicle. Take out these units from the vehicle's side. B. Procedure for installing a manual rack-and-pinion steering gear 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. To install the rack-and-pinion gear, reverse the removal procedure. Have an assistant guide the steering gear stub shaft into the flexible coupling while raising the gear assembly into place. Inspect the condition of the flexible coupling and replace it if it is defective. Inspect the condition of any rubber mounting grommets and replace them as necessary. Tighten all fasteners to the factory-recommended torque. Check the toe setting and adjust if necessary. NOTE: The procedure for checking the toe setting is discussed in Unit XIV, Lesson 3. III. Disassembling and inspecting a manual rack-and-pinion steering gear A. Thoroughly clean the exterior of the steering gear with a safety solvent. If possible, place the rack-and-pinion gear in a holding fixture. CAUTION: If the steering gear is clamped in a vise, never overtighten the vise; this destroys the steering gear. B. Disassemble the inner and outer tie-rods according to the following procedure. NOTE: It is possible to replace the outer tie-rods without removing the rack-and-pinion. But replacing the inner tie-rods does require removing the rack-and-pinion. Consult the appropriate service information for specific procedures.
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1. Measure from the center of the outer tie-rod to the boot-retaining groove on the inner tie-rod. Record this measurement for both the left side and the right side. This measurement provides an approximate toe setting for reassembly.
2. 3.
Loosen the outer tie-rod jam nuts and then remove both the outer tie-rod and the jam nuts. Remove the four clamps holding the boots to the gear housing and tie-rods. These clamps are usually destroyed during removal.
4. 5.
Drain the lubricant from the gear housing and remove the boots. One of the four retaining devices listed below holds the inner tie-rods in place. Remove the retaining devices before removing the tie-rods. a. A soft-steel drill pin, which is driven into a hole and is located between the inner tie-rod and a jam nut, holds some inner tie-rods in place. The pin prevents the jam nut from loosening. Drill out this pin before removing the inner tie-rod. Staking is another method of retaining the inner tie-rods. Usually, these tie-rods can be removed with a wrench, but some must be unstaked with a chisel. Stake all replacement rods.
b.
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c. A hollow roll pin, which is driven into the rod, is sometimes used to lock in the inner tie-rods. To remove this type of tie-rod, use a punch to drive the roll pin out of the retainer assembly. A jam nut is sometimes tightened against the inner tie-rod to hold it in place. The jam nut prevents the rod from backing off. To remove the tie-rod, loosen the jam nut.
d.
6.
After removing the retaining device, screw the inner tie-rods off the rack. CAUTION: While loosening the tie-rods, place an adjustable wrench on the rack to prevent the rack from turning. If the rack twists, it may damage the pinion. NOTE: If the rack requires no other service, install the new inner tie-rod according to the manufacturer's instructions.
C.
Disassemble the rack-and-pinion according to the procedure outlined below. 1. Remove the yoke plug or cover and the spring and yoke (rack) bearing.
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2. 3. Remove the pinion oil seal. Remove the pinion retainer and then remove the pinion and bearing. NOTE: Check service information before removing the pinion. To prevent the steering from having an unequal number of turns in the right and left directions, some manufacturers require making a reference mark on the rack. This mark helps determine the position of the rack-and-pinion gears during unit reassembly. CAUTION: After the pinion is removed, the rack may slide out of the housing. a. b. 4. 5. Remove the pinion bearing from the pinion. On some units, the bearing must press off the pinion shaft.
Remove the rack from the gear housing. Remove the rack bushing retainers and the housing bushings. Removing the bushings from the housing may require a puller. Avoid damaging the housing when removing the bushings. NOTE: Check service information before removing the bushings. Some manufacturers require replacing the housing or the entire unit if the bushings are worn or damaged.
6. D.
Thoroughly clean all parts in a safety solvent and then blow-dry the parts.
Inspecting the manual steering gear 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Check the boots for deterioration or damage. Check the rack-and-pinion teeth for wear or damage. Check all bearings and bushings for wear or roughness. Check the housing for cracks or physical damage. Check the condition of yoke spring.
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IV. Reassembling and adjusting the manual rack-and-pinion steering gear A. Coat all steering gear components with a lubricant before reassembly. If the rack uses a lithium-based lubricant, pack the assembly with grease during reassembly. If the rack bushings and retainers were removed, install them in the gear housing. Slide the rack into the housing. Avoid damaging the bushings. The gear teeth should face the pinion and be parallel to the pinion shaft. Install the pinion and pinion bearings. 1. 2. In order to center the steering, properly align the rack-and-pinion. Depending on the manufacturer's recommendations, align the rack-and-pinion according to either the reference marks made during disassembly or to the measurements from the service information. Using the manufacturer's instructions, adjust the pinion bearings. Adjustment procedures vary, depending on the manufacturer. Some of the more popular methods for adjusting pinion bearings are listed below. a. b. c. E. F. A threaded plug, called an adjuster plug, adjusts the pinion. Shims are added or removed to obtain the proper adjustment. Snap rings of different thicknesses provide the proper adjustment.
B. C. D.
3.
Install the pinion seal. Install the yoke bearing and adjuster. The yoke adjusting procedures also vary. 1. 2. During adjuster installation, some adjusters require adding or removing shims to achieve the correct preload. During installation of screw adjusters, a plug is screwed into the adjuster until it bottoms.
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a. b. The plug then backs out a specific amount. Use a torque wrench to check the pinion turning torque. Turn the plug in or out as required to achieve the proper torque. The plug then locks in place with a locknut.
G.
Install the tie-rods according to the procedure outlined below. 1. Thread the inner tie-rod jam nuts and inner tie-rods onto the rack.
a. b.
Tighten the tie-rods and jam nuts to the factory-specified torque. Either install the roll or drill pin or stake the housing.
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2. Install the boots and clamps over the inner tie-rod sockets. a. If the manufacturer specifies a liquid lubricant, install only one boot and place the rack in a vertical position with the boot on the bottom. Fill the rack housing from the upper end with the correct amount of the specified lubricant. Then install the second boot. A special tool may be required to install the clamps.
b.
c.
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UNIT IV: RACK-AND-PINION STEERING DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 2: DIAGNOSING AND REPAIRING A POWER RACK-ANDPINION STEERING GEAR
I. Removing and installing a power rack-and-pinion steering gear A. Procedure for removing a power rack-and-pinion steering gear NOTE: Determine the source of any fluid leaks before removing the power rack-and-pinion gear; doing so helps diagnose the unit while disassembling it. 1. Remove either the pinch bolt or the roll pin that connects the steering gear to the flexible coupling. a. The location of the coupling may be under either the hood or the instrument panel, depending on the vehicle's design. Remove items such as the steering column boot or the sound deadening panel to gain access to the coupling.
b.
NOTE: Some vehicles have a slip-type coupling that slides apart while the rack is removed. 2. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 3. 4. Remove the cotter pins and castellated nuts from the outer tie-rod ends. Disconnect the outer tie-rod ends from the steering arms. NOTE: Use a tie-rod pressnot a pickle forkto remove the tie-rod ends. 5. Place a drain pan under the steering gear and disconnect the pressure and return fluid lines at the steering gear. Plug both the lines and the fluid ports on the gear housing. Support the steering gear and remove the bolts that connect the steering gear to the vehicle.
6.
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7. Remove the steering gear from the vehicle. NOTE: On some vehicles, remove the front wheel-and-tire assemblies before removing the steering gear. NOTE: For some rack-and-pinion units, it is necessary to remove them through a hole in the inner fender and then take them out of the vehicle's side.
B.
Procedure for installing a power rack-and-pinion steering gear 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. To install the rack-and-pinion gear, reverse the removal procedure. Have an assistant guide the steering gear stub shaft into the flexible coupling while the gear assembly is raised into place. Inspect the condition of the flexible coupling and replace it if it is defective. Inspect the condition of any rubber mounting grommets and replace them as necessary. Inspect and replace deteriorated or leaking hoses. Tighten all fasteners to the factory-recommended torque. Fill the fluid reservoir with the factory-recommended fluid and bleed the system as described in Unit II, Lesson 4. Inspect for leaks and make repairs, if necessary. Check the toe-in setting and adjust if necessary. NOTE: The procedure for checking toe is covered in Unit XIV, Lesson 3.
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II. Disassembling and inspecting a power rack-and-pinion steering gear A. B. Thoroughly clean the exterior of the steering gear with a safety solvent. If possible, place the rack-and-pinion gear in a special holding fixture. CAUTION: If the steering gear is clamped in a vise, never overtighten the vise; this destroys the steering gear. C. Disassemble the inner and outer tie-rods. NOTE: Service the tie-rods on power rack-and-pinion units in the same manner as on manual steering units. NOTE: A breather tube connects both bellows boots. Mark the position of the breather tube on the gear housing before disassembly. The marks are useful during reassembly. D. Disassemble the rack-and-pinion according to the following procedure. NOTE: Each manufacturer of power rack-and-pinion steering units uses different designs. Although all rack-and-pinion units operate similarly, service procedures vary. Special tools such as pullers or seal installers may be required to service some units. The procedure outlined below is very general. Consult the appropriate service information for specific procedures. NOTE: Some steering gears contain components that cannot be serviced. Manufacturers of these gears do not recommend disassembling the gears. Closely follow the manufacturer's disassembly procedures and recommendations for the specific gear.
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1. Loosen the adjuster plug locknut and remove the adjuster plug, spring, and rack bearing.
2.
Remove the pinion shaft and control valve assembly according to the procedure outlined below. a. Rotate the pinion shaft until the rack is centered in the housing. Mark the housing where the flat on the stub shaft is located. Use this mark for reference during reassembly. Remove the stub shaft retaining ring. Remove the dust cover and locknut from the pinion shaft. Remove the stub shaft seal. Remove the pinion and valve assembly. Remove the old sealing rings from the control valve. Be careful not to damage the control valve.
b. c. d. e. f. 3.
Remove the rack from the housing. NOTE: Mark the rack with a position location reference in order to correctly position the rack during reassembly. a. b. c. d. Remove the bulkhead retaining ring. Remove the rack and bulkhead. Remove the inner rack seal from the housing. Remove the piston ring from the rack.
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4. Disassemble the housing. a. b. c. d. e. E. Remove the pinion bearing from the housing. Remove the pinion bushing and seal. Mark the position of the breather tube for reassembly. Remove the breather tube. Remove the cylinder lines and O-rings.
Inspect the power steering gear according to the procedure outlined below. 1. 2. Clean all parts in a safety solvent and then blow-dry them. Inspect the gear housing. a. b. c. d. e. 3. Inspect the hoses for cracks and porosity. Inspect the control valve bore for wear or scoring. Inspect the rack piston bore for wear, pitting, or scoring. Make sure all fluid passages are open and clean. Inspect the condition of the cylinder lines and fittings.
Inspect the rack and bulkhead. a. b. c. d. Inspect the rack's teeth for chipping or wear. Inspect the piston for nicks or burrs. Inspect all seal and bearing surfaces for roughness or wear. Inspect the tie-rod threads on the rack for wear. Make sure the threads are not stripped.
4.
Inspect the valve and pinion assembly. a. b. Inspect the pinion gear for wear or chipping. Inspect the spool valve for wear or nicks and scratches. Polish any light scratches with a crocus cloth.
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c. Inspect the shaft bearing and seal surfaces for wear or scoring. NOTE: Except for the sealing rings on the valve spool, service the valve and pinion assembly as a complete unit. 5. III. Inspect all bushings and bearings for wear or roughness and replace them if necessary.
Reassembling and adjusting a power rack-and-pinion steering gear NOTE: Each manufacturer of power rack-and-pinion steering units uses different designs. Although all rack-and-pinion units operate in a similarly, service procedures vary. Special tools such as pullers or seal installers may be required to service some units. The procedure outlined below is very general. Consult appropriate service information for the specific procedure. NOTE: Coat all parts with a power steering fluid before reassembly. A. Install the cylinder tubes in the gear housing. 1. 2. Use new O-rings on the tubes. Tighten the fittings to the specified torque. Be careful not to cross-thread or overtighten the fittings in the aluminum housing.
B. C. D.
Install the upper pinion bushing and a new pinion seal in the gear housing. Install the lower bearing of the pinion shaft and the retainer in the gear housing. Carefully install a new piston ring on the rack. 1. 2. Place a seal protector over the rack teeth. Slide the inner rack seal over the rack teeth and bottom the seal against the piston. Remove the protector.
E. F.
Slide the rack and seal into the housing. To seat the inner seal, tap the end of the rack with a soft-faced mallet. Place a seal protector over the rack and install the bulkhead, seal, and retaining ring. Then remove the seal protector.
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G. H. Install new seals on the control valve. Center the rack in the housing and install the pinion and control valve assembly. Align the pinion shaft with the mark made during disassembly. Install the stub shaft bearing, seal, dust seal, and retaining ring. Hold the pinion in position. Install and torque the locknut. Install the rack bearing. 1. 2. 3. L. Install the spring and adjuster. Turn the adjuster clockwise until it bottoms and then back off the adjuster to the specified amount. Hold the adjuster position and tighten the locknut to the specified torque.
I. J. K.
Install tie-rods as previously outlined. 1. 2. To prevent gear damage, be sure to prevent the rack from turning while tightening the tie-rods. Align the breather tube with the marks made during disassembly. Reinstall the tube.
IV.
Procedure for testing and diagnosing components of electronically controlled steering systems using a scan tool NOTE: Some electronically controlled steering systems may be diagnosed by connecting a scan tool to the vehicle's data link connector (DLC). Diagnostic trouble codes (DTCs) for various components can be used to locate the source of problems. A. Question the customer about the conditions when the problem occurred in order to reproduce the same condition for troubleshooting. Find out when the electric power-assist steering (EPS) indicator came on, such as while turning, when the vehicle was at a certain speed, on start-up, etc. Locate the correct scan tool and software. With the ignition switch off, connect the scan tool to the DLC.
B. C.
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D. Turn the ignition to the run position and use the scan tool to retrieve the DTCsOBD I (on-board diagnostics generation I) and OBD II (on-board diagnostics generation II). Interpret the trouble codes. Perform a pinpoint test to locate the faults. Clear the codes. Perform the necessary procedures to correct the problem. After obtaining permission from the instructor, test drive the vehicle to ensure proper EPS operation. CAUTION: Road test a vehicle only with the instructor's approval. V. Procedures for inspecting and testing nonhydraulic electric power-assist steering NOTE: The procedures outlined below are very general. Consult the appropriate service information for the specific procedures. A. B. Use service information to locate the electric power-assist steering (EPS) components. Perform the following steps to inspect and test the EPS control unit. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Remove the covers necessary to gain access to the EPS control unit. Inspect the condition of the electrical circuit and connector(s). Use a digital multimeter (DMM) to measure circuit signal, voltage, or resistance. Disconnect the EPS control unit connector(s) and measure unit resistance. Compare the DMM reading to the service specifications and determine the necessary action. If necessary, replace the EPS control unit. a. Disconnect the negative battery cable.
E. F. G. H. I.
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b. c. d. C. Remove the EPS control unit. Reverse the removal procedure for installation. Connect the negative battery cable and test EPS operation.
Perform the following steps to inspect and test the EPS rack-andpinion motor. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Inspect the condition of the electrical circuit and connector(s). Use a DMM to measure circuit voltage or resistance. Disconnect the EPS motor connector(s) and measure motor resistance. Compare the DMM reading to the service specifications and determine the necessary action. If necessary, replace the EPS rack-and-pinion motor. a. b. c. Disconnect the negative battery cable. Remove the rack-and-pinion assembly. Remove the EPS motor. NOTE: Do not allow dust, dirt, or other foreign material to enter the gear box. d. e. f. g. Install the EPS motor. Install the rack-and-pinion assembly. Connect the negative battery cable. Connect the exhaust ventilation equipment. CAUTION: Be sure to use approved exhaust ventilation equipment when operating a vehicle in an enclosed area. h. Start the engine and turn the steering wheel from lock to lock several times.
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i. After obtaining permission from the instructor, test drive the vehicle to check operation. Make sure the EPS indicator light does not come on. CAUTION: Road test a vehicle only with the instructor's approval. D. Perform the following steps to inspect and test the EPS pressure sensor. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Inspect the condition of the electrical circuit and connector(s). Use a DMM to measure circuit signal, voltage, or resistance. Disconnect the pressure sensor and measure sensor resistance. Compare the DMM reading to the service specifications and determine the necessary action. If necessary, replace the EPS pressure sensor. a. b. c. d. e. f. Remove the negative battery cable. Remove the components necessary to gain access to the pressure sensor. Remove the pressure sensor. Reverse the removal procedures to install the pressure sensor. Install the components that were removed to access the pressure sensor. Install the negative battery cable and test EPS operation.
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UNIT IV: RACK-AND-PINION STEERING DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 3: REPAIRING RACK-AND-PINION STEERING EXTERNAL COMPONENTS
I. Replacing rack boots (end take-off units) NOTE: The condition of the rack boots (also called bellows boots) is a critical factor in determining the condition of the inner tie-rod end sockets. The rack boots protect the rack and inner tie-rod end sockets from contamination. Some rack boots contain a fluid to lubricate the inner socket and rack. NOTE: The procedures for replacing the rack boots vary depending on the specific make and model of the vehicle. The following is a general procedure. A. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. B. Visually check the rack boots for the defects listed below. Replace the rack boots if they are damaged. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. C. D. Cracks Splits Leaks Tears Broken or missing clamps Improper position of the boots Collapsed boots
Mark the position of the outer tie-rod on the threads. Use a caliper to measure the amount of the exposed threads. Record this measurement and refer to it later when resetting the toe setting.
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E. F. G. H. I. J. K. Using two wrenches, loosen the jam/locknut that connects the outer tie-rod to the rack. Remove the cotter pin and castellated pin that connects the outer tie-rod end to the steering knuckle. Using a tie-rod puller, remove the tie-rod end from the steering knuckle/arm. Unscrew the outer tie-rod end. When removing the outer tie-rod end, count the number of turns. Record this number. Use side cutters to remove the old rack boot straps. Remove the boot. Clean the debris from the boot location. NOTE: If there is fluid in the boot (matched with low fluid in the reservoir), there may be damage to the pinion seal, inner rack seal, or bulkhead seal. Follow the manufacturer's specifications for replacing the components. L. Install the new boot according to the manufacturer's specifications. Apply grease if required. Install and tighten the inner strap on the rack boot. Reinstall the outer tie-rod end by turning it the same number of revolutions recorded in step H above. Reconnect the tie-rod end to the steering knuckle/arm. Torque the castellated nut to the manufacturer's specifications and install a new cotter pin. Using two wrenches, tighten the jam/locknut according to the manufacturer's specifications. Using the reading from step D, double-check the toe adjustment with a caliper by measuring the exposed threads. Adjust the toe if necessary. After making sure the rack boot is in place and is not twisted, install and tighten the outer strap on the rack boot. Check the wheel alignment and adjust if necessary.
M. N.
O. P.
Q. R.
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II. Replacing rack mount bushings NOTE: The procedures for replacing the rack mount bushings vary depending on the specific make and model of the vehicle. The following is a general procedure. A. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. B. If the rack mount bushings are loose or worn, the rack gear may move back and forth. This causes loose and erratic steering. 1. 2. Visually check for wear on the rack mount bushings, brackets, nuts, and bolts that connect the rack to the vehicle. Bushings can deteriorate from age, heat, and oil leakage from the engine. Replace the bushings if there is excessive play or deterioration.
C.
Depending on the make, model, and year of the vehicle, it may be necessary to remove other components to access the rack mount bushings. NOTE: Some vehicles have a grommet-type mount bushing. Other vehicles have a through-bolt-type mount bushing.
D. E. F. G. H. I. J. K.
Remove the mounting bolts from one side of the rack. Remove the mounting brackets/bolts from the assembly. Remove the worn rack mount bushing. Clean any debris from the mount area. Install the new mount bushing. Reinstall the mounting bracket/bolt assembly. Torque all bolts to the manufacturer's specifications. Repeat this procedure for the remaining side.
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UNIT V: POWER STEERING SYSTEM DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR CONTENTS OF THIS UNIT
I. II. Unit objective Lesson plans A. Lesson 1: Pressure Testing Power Steering Systems 1. 2. Information outline Job sheet a. B. JS1-L1-UV: Test Power Steering System Pressure
Lesson 2: Replacing and Servicing Power Steering Components 1. 2. Information outline Job sheets a. b. c. d. e. f. g. JS1-L2-UV: Remove and Install a Power Steering Pump JS2-L2-UV: Inspect and Replace Power Steering Pressure Hoses JS3-L2-UV: Service a Power Steering Pump
JS4-L2-UV: Inspect, Replace, and Adjust the Power Steering Pump Belt JS5-L2-UV: Flush the Power Steering Gear JS6-L2-UV: Flush the Power Steering Pump JS7-L2-UV: Identify Hybrid Vehicle Power Steering System Electrical Circuits Service and Safety Precautions
III.
Unit V Test
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UNIT V: POWER STEERING SYSTEM DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completing this unit, students should be able to check power steering system pressure and diagnose and repair power steering pumps. Students will demonstrate mastery of the material by successfully performing specific tasks on the job sheets and achieving a score of _______ on the Unit V Test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
After completing the lessons in this unit, students should be able to: Lesson 1 I. II. III. IV. Identify the equipment needed for testing power steering systems. Explain the procedure for hooking up the power steering testing equipment. Explain the procedures for checking the power steering system pressure. Demonstrate the ability to: A. Lesson 2 I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Explain the procedures for removing and installing a power steering pump. Explain the procedures for inspecting and replacing power steering hoses. Explain the procedures for servicing a power steering pump. Explain the procedures for flushing the power steering system. Explain the procedure for identifying service and safety precautions for hybrid vehicle electrical circuits. Demonstrate the ability to: A. B. Remove and install a power steering pump (JS1-L2-UV). Inspect and replace power steering pressure hoses (JS2-L2-UV). Test power steering system pressure (JS1-L1-UV).
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C. D. E. F. G. Service a power steering pump (JS3-L2-UV). Inspect, replace, and adjust the power steering pump belt (JS4-L2-UV). Flush the power steering gear (JS5-L2-UV). Flush the power steering pump (JS6-L2-UV). Identify hybrid vehicle power steering system electrical circuits service and safety precautions (JS7-L2-UV).
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UNIT V: POWER STEERING SYSTEM DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 1: PRESSURE TESTING POWER STEERING SYSTEMS
I. Equipment needed for testing power steering systems A. B. C. Hydraulic pressure gauge capable of reading from 0 pounds per square inch (psi) to 2,000 psi of pressure Hydraulic hose with adapters to fit various vehicles Shutoff valve to control the flow of power steering fluid NOTE: Depending on the equipment's manufacturer, the gauge, hoses, and valves listed above are considered as either individual components or as components that comprise a single tester.
II.
Hooking up power steering testing equipment A. Procedure for hooking up test equipment to power steering systems NOTE: The following procedure applies to vehicles that do not use a hydraulic brake booster. 1. 2. 3. 4. Clean the dirt from around the pressure line fitting at the power steering pump. Place a drain pan under the power steering pump and disconnect the pressure outlet line. Remove the pressure hose from the power steering pump. Using the appropriate adapters, connect the tester hose to the pump outlet.
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5. Using the proper adapters, connect the vehicle's pressure hose (previously removed from the pump) to the outlet side of the tester shutoff valve. CAUTION: Never use hoses or adapters that are not suitable for the high-pressure encounter in power steering systems. If a hose bursts or if a fitting comes loose, bystanders could suffer severe burns from the hot power steering oil.
6. 7. 8.
Completely open the shutoff valve. Fill the power steering reservoir according to the manufacturer's specifications. Bleed the system by performing the following steps. a. Connect the exhaust ventilation equipment. CAUTION: Be sure to use approved exhaust ventilation equipment when operating a vehicle in an enclosed area. b. Start the vehicle's engine and run it at idle speed. Without hitting the stops hard, slowly turn the steering wheel from full left to full right several times. Stop the engine. Add fluid if necessary. Disconnect the exhaust ventilation equipment Repeat step b and step c until all air expels from the system.
c. d.
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B. Vehicles with hydraulic brakes 1. On vehicles with hydraulic power brakes, the power steering system provides pressure to both the power steering and the hydraulic brake booster. The procedures are the same for hooking up the test equipment to these systems and for standard power steering systems.
2.
3.
But power steering systems that incorporate power brake boosters do require different air bleeding procedures. These procedures are outlined below. a. b. Adjust the fluid level in the same manner as for a standard power steering system. Connect the exhaust ventilation equipment. CAUTION: Be sure to use approved exhaust ventilation equipment when operating a vehicle in an enclosed area. c. d. e. With the engine running, apply the brakes until all air expels from the hydro-boost valve. Shut off the engine and add fluid if necessary. Restart the engine. Turn the steering wheel from side to side several times. NOTE: Avoid turning the wheel all the way to the stops.
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f. g. h. Once again, shut off the engine and add fluid if necessary. Restart the engine. Depress the brake pedal several times while turning the steering wheel from side to side. Once again, shut off the engine and pump the brake pedal four to five times. Add fluid if required and restart the engine. Repeat the above steps until the fluid is at the full level. Shut off the engine. Disconnect the exhaust ventilation equipment.
i. j. III.
Checking the power steering system pressure NOTE: Perform the following test procedures with the power steering system test equipment connected and the engine running at an idle. A. Check the pump flow pressure against the manufacturer's recommendations. If the pressure exceeds 200 psi, check the hoses for restrictions in the steering gear poppet valve. Procedure for checking pump relief pressure (all makes of vehicles) 1. Completely close the test valve and then open it. Perform this procedure three times. Record the highest pressure noted each time the valve opens and closes. CAUTION: Do not hold the valve closed for more than 5 seconds; doing so could damage the pump. 2. If the highest pressure noted during each of the three readings is within the manufacturer's specifications and if the range of each reading is within 50 psi, the pump is functioning normally. If the flow control valve sticks, the pressure recorded during the first test is high. a. The pressure recorded during a second test, however, will not fall within 50 psi of the reading from the first test. Repair or replace the valve as necessary.
B.
3.
b.
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4. If the pressures recorded are constant but below specifications, replace the flow control valve. If the pressures are still low, replace the pump.
C.
Procedures for determining problems in the steering gear (integrated), power cylinder and control valve (linkage type), and hydro-boost valve 1. If the pump performance is within specifications when the test valve is open, turn the steering wheel to both the left stop and to the right stop and record the highest pressures. Compare these readings with the maximum pump output. If the pump output repeats at either side of the stops, the entire system is satisfactory. If the pump output cannot be repeated, the steering gear, power assist cylinder and control valve, or hydro-boost valve is leaking internally. Disconnect the pump pressure hose that connects to the hydro-boost valve. Also disconnect the pressure hose that connects the hydro-boost valve to the power steering gear. NOTE: While the engine is off, pump the brake pedal several times to ensure that all pressure discharges from the accumulator before disconnecting the hoses from the booster. 5. Connect the two hoses to bypass the hydro-boost unit. CAUTION: The vehicle does not have power-assisted brakes while the hydro-boost unit is bypassed. 6. 7. Fill the reservoir with the specified fluid and bleed the system. Turn the steering wheel to both the left stop and to the right stop and record the highest pressures. a. b. Compare these readings with the maximum pump output. If the pressure reading equals the pump output, the steering gear is satisfactory and the hydro-boost unit is faulty.
2. 3.
4.
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c. If the pressure reading cannot equal the pump output, the steering gear is faulty and the hydro-boost unit is satisfactory.
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UNIT V: POWER STEERING SYSTEM DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 2: REPLACING AND SERVICING POWER STEERING COMPONENTS
I. Removing and installing a power steering pump A. Procedure for removing a power steering pump 1. 2. Loosen the adjustment brackets and remove the belt from the power steering pump pulley. Disconnect the pressure hoses and the return fluid hoses. a. Clean the dirt from around the hose fittings before removing the hoses. This helps to prevent contamination of the system. To catch the fluid, place a drain pan under the vehicle. After disconnecting the lines, plug the pressure and return lines and the pump ports.
b. c. 3.
Remove the bolts that connect the pump to the engine. a. b. Depending on the application, remove one or more of the mounting brackets with the pump. After removing the bolts, remove the pump from the vehicle.
B.
Procedure for cleaning and inspecting a power steering pump 1. 2. Remove the dipstick and drain the fluid from the reservoir. If the pump has a separate reservoir, do not drain the fluid. Replace the dipstick. While the fluid ports are still plugged, clean the exterior of the pump with a safety solvent and inspect the pump pulley, reservoir, mounting brackets, and drive belts as outlined below. a. Inspect the pump pulley. Visually inspect the pulley for dents or cracks. Turn the pulley and watch for excessive wobble.
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If there are any defects, replace the pulley. NOTE: Replacement pumps generally are not equipped with a pulley. Remove the old pulley and install it on the new pump. Be sure to inspect the old pulley carefully. b. Inspect the reservoir. Inspect the reservoir for cracks or large dents. If the reservoir is defective, replace it. NOTE: Replacement pumps may or may not be equipped with a reservoir. Before installing an old reservoir on a new pump, make sure the reservoir is in good condition. c. Inspect the mounting brackets. Inspect for bent or cracked mounting brackets. If the mounting bracket incorporates a screw-type belt adjuster, make sure the adjuster operates smoothly. Replace any broken, cracked, or bent mountings.
d.
Inspect the drive belt. Check if the belt is cracked, oil soaked, glazed, torn, or split.
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NOTE: Cracks and tears in a belt indicate that it is near failure/breakage. An oil-soaked or glazed belt may slip while under a load, even when properly tensioned. C. If the belt shows evidence of wear or defects, replace it.
Removing and installing a pulley 1. Procedure for removing a pulley a. Install a suitable pulley removal tool on the pulley hub.
b. c.
Place the removal tool in a bench vise with the pump pointing upward. Hold the pump and rotate the removal tool nut counterclockwise to remove the pulley. CAUTION: Do not apply inward or outward pressure on the pulley shaft to remove or install the pulley. This causes internal pump damage.
2.
Procedure for installing a pulley a. Place the pulley against the pump shaft. Screw the installation tool into the threaded hole in the pump shaft. Place the end of the tool in the vise with the pump extending upward. Hold the pump and turn the tool nut to install the pulley on the pump shaft.
b. c.
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d. D. The pulley is usually installed flush with the end of the pump shaft.
Removing and installing the reservoir 1. Procedure for removing the reservoir a. Support the pump housing securely in a vise or holding fixture. NOTE: Do not clamp the shaft in a vise. b. c. d. Remove the outlet fitting and O-ring. Remove any other retaining bolts. Using a wood block and a hammer (or a soft-faced hammer), tap around the flange of the reservoir to release it from the pump. CAUTION: Never tap around the flange with a steel hammer or pry directly on the reservoir. e. f. Remove and discard the pump to reservoir O-ring. Thoroughly clean the reservoir in a safety solvent and blow-dry. NOTE: To remove fiberglass-reinforced nylon reservoirs, grasp the reservoirs on both sides and twist them back and forth. Do not hammer on fiberglass-reinforced reservoirs with a wood block. 2. Procedure for installing a reservoir a. b. c. d. Install a new reservoir O-ring seal and outlet fitting gasket on the pump housing. Coat the inside edge of the reservoir and the O-ring with petroleum jelly. Place the reservoir over the pump housing and carefully align all holes. Use a hammer and a block of wood to tap the reservoir into place.
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e. E. Install all retainers and tighten them to the specified torque.
Procedure for pump installation 1. 2. If any mounting brackets were removed along with the pump, install them on the pump housing. Install the pump on the vehicle. a. b. 3. 4. Tighten all mounting fasteners to the specified torque. Leave the adjuster bolts loose at this time.
Connect the pressure and return lines and tighten to the specified torque. Place the drive belt over the pulley.
F.
Procedure for adjusting belts NOTE: Most newer vehicle drive belts have a belt tension device that keeps the correct tension. Drive belts on older vehicles require manual adjustment. A loose belt may slip and an overly tight belt may damage the bearings in the alternator, water pump, air compressor, power steering pump, etc. 1. Use a belt tension gauge tool to adjust the belt accurately.
2.
Place the tension gauge on the drive belt, midway between the pulleys. Note the tension reading on the gauge. Compare this reading to the specifications in the service information and adjust the belt accordingly.
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3. Adjust the belt by sliding the pump on the slotted holes in the bracket. Some of the more popular methods of sliding the pump are listed below. a. b. c. Some vehicles have a screw-type adjuster that moves the pump inward or outward in the slotted holes. Other vehicles require prying the pump inward or outward before it can move in or out of the slotted holes. In still other vehicles, the pump bracket has a hole into which a tool may be inserted for pump removal. CAUTION: Never pry on the reservoir; doing so may dent or crack the reservoir.
II.
Inspecting and replacing power steering hoses A. Inspect the hoses for the problems listed below. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Dampness and leakage at the crimp joints Abnormal swelling Abrasions Cracks Soft or spongy feel, which indicates internal deterioration Damaged or worn fittings
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B. Procedure for replacing a hose 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Thoroughly clean the areas around the hose connections to help prevent contamination of the system. Carefully check the hose routing before removal. Always replace any O-rings. Tighten all hose fittings to the factory-specified torque. Inspect the installation carefully to make sure the hose is not routed against a pulley, hot exhaust manifold, or any other items that could damage the hose. Fill and bleed the power steering system. Inspect the system for leakage. Flush the power system gear and pump. (See Section IV for the procedure.)
6. 7. 8.
NOTE: Normal component wear introduces contaminants into the power steering system. These contaminants circulate throughout the system, acting as cutting agents that eventually cause hydraulic seal failure. For this reason, whenever servicing a power steering system, always flush the system. III. Servicing a power steering pump A. Procedure for disassembling a power steering pump 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Clean the pump and remove the pulley and reservoir as outlined earlier in this lesson. Remove the flow control valve. Remove the end cover retainer. Remove the end cover and spring from the housing. Remove the pressure plate, rotor, cam ring, and thrust plate from the housing. Remove and discard the end cover O-rings and pressure plate O-rings.
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6. Pry out the shaft seal and discard it.
B.
Procedure for cleaning and inspecting a power steering pump 1. 2. Clean all parts in a safety solvent and blow-dry. Procedure for inspecting a power steering pump a. b. c. Inspect the housing and pulley for wear or damage. Inspect the shaft and bushings for wear or damage. Inspect the rotor assembly and cam ring; thrust and pressure plates; and all other internal parts for wear, scoring, or other damage.
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d. C. Replace any worn or damaged parts. Always install new seals and gaskets.
Procedures for reassembling a power steering pump 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Assemble the power steering pump in reverse order of disassembly. Coat all of the parts with a power steering fluid during reassembly. To prevent cutting the O-rings during assembly, coat the O-rings and mating surfaces with petroleum jelly. Install a new shaft seal using a suitable driver. Tighten all fasteners to the specified torque. After assembly, manually rotate the shaft and check the pump for binding. The shaft should rotate freely. Some manufacturers give a turning torque specification for shaft rotation.
IV.
Flushing the power steering system NOTE: If there is evidence of fluid contamination, the power steering system should be flushed. A. Procedure for flushing the power steering gear 1. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 2. Disconnect the return hose from the power steering pump.
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3. Place the end of the return hose in a drain pan.
4.
Disable the ignition system so the vehicle cannot start. For the procedures to disable the ignition system, refer to specific service information. Fill the fluid reservoir with clean fluid to the specified full mark. With the ignition system disabled, crank the engine and turn the wheel from lock to lock. Have an assistant continue to add fluid until about 2 quarts push through the system. CAUTION: Do not crank the starter for more than 30 seconds at a time. Pause and let the starter cool between cranks. Exceeding 30-second cranks could damage the starter. CAUTION: Do not let the power steering pump run dry.
5. 6.
7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
Reconnect the return hose to the power steering pump. Fill the fluid reservoir with clean fluid to the specified full mark. Crank the engine and turn the wheels from lock to lock to force air out of the system. Recheck the fluid level and add fluid if necessary. Lower the vehicle. Reconnect the ignition system.
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13. Connect the exhaust ventilation equipment. CAUTION: Be sure to use approved exhaust ventilation equipment when operating a vehicle in an enclosed area. 14. 15. 16. 17. B. Start the engine and turn the wheel from lock to lock to remove any remaining air in the system. After the engine reaches normal operating temperature, recheck the fluid and add fluid if necessary. Lower the vehicle. Shut off the engine. Disconnect the exhaust ventilation equipment.
Procedure for flushing the power steering pump 1. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 2. 3. Disconnect the gear end of the pressure hose. Place the gear end of the pressure hose in a drain pan.
4.
Disable the ignition system so the vehicle cannot start. For procedures to disable the ignition system, refer to specific service information. Fill the fluid reservoir with clean fluid to the specified full mark.
5.
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6. With the ignition system disabled, crank the engine and turn the wheel from lock to lock. Have an assistant continue to add fluid until about 2 quarts push through the system. CAUTION: Do not crank the starter for more than 30 seconds at a time. Pause and let the starter cool between cranks. Exceeding 30-second cranks could damage the starter. CAUTION: Do not let the power steering pump run dry. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Reconnect the pressure hose to the steering gear. Fill the fluid reservoir with clean fluid to the specified full mark. Crank the engine and turn the wheels from lock to lock to force the air out of the system. Recheck the fluid level and add fluid if necessary. Lower the vehicle. Reconnect the ignition system. Connect the exhaust ventilation equipment. CAUTION: Be sure to use approved exhaust ventilation equipment when operating a vehicle in an enclosed area. 14. 15. 16. 17. V. Start the engine and turn the wheel from lock to lock to remove any remaining air in the system. After the engine reaches normal operating temperature, recheck the fluid and add fluid if necessary. Lower the vehicle. Shut off the engine. Disconnect the exhaust ventilation equipment.
Identifying service and safety precautions for hybrid vehicle electrical circuits A. A hybrid vehicle, also called a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), uses both an electric motor and a small, internal combustion engine for power. The two types of HEV designs are series and parallel.
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1. In the series design, an electric motor drives the vehicle with power from a battery pack. The internal combustion engine is used solely to power the generator that, in turn, recharges the battery pack. In the parallel design, the electric motor and internal combustion engine both drive the vehicle, with the electric motor being used when additional power is needed (e.g., acceleration, going up hill) and the internal combustion engine taking over at cruising speeds.
2.
B.
The technology was developed to meet the desire to decrease dependence on oil and lessen environmentally harmful emissions. 1. 2. At this printing, HEVs are entering the marketplace gradually, but they are in their infancy and technology is still evolving. It is unknown whether HEVs will eventually replace the standard gasoline-powered vehicles or are primarily an interim step toward another technology. Currently, the advantages of HEVs are improved mileage and less emissions. Among the disadvantages are more complicated designs and heavier vehicles due to the additional components.
3.
C.
Servicing HEVs can be potentially dangerous. Careless service can result in potentially fatal electrical shock, arcing temperatures up to 3,500F, or explosion of molten metal. It is imperative for the technician to know and adhere to service precautions. 1. During service, the technician must wear high-voltage safety gloves similar to an electrical linemans gloves when removing the service plug. The technician should also shield the face. At this printing, high-voltage cables are orange. Also, caution labels are used to identify the high-voltage battery pack and other high-voltage components. CAUTION: Be sure to identify the high-voltage cables before beginning service. Not all high-voltage cables are bright orange. Some are very light orange and can appear yellow. 3. High-voltage cables can be located near vehicle lift locations. Be sure lift pads are placed properly.
2.
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4. Some components contain strong magnets that must be handled with special care. People with pacemakers or other magnetically sensitive medical devices should not work on or near these components. The technician should remove all metal items from pockets or clothing before beginning service. The high-voltage system should be disconnected before beginning service. Disconnecting the auxiliary battery shuts down the high-voltage circuit. For additional protection, the service plug can be removed. Wait at least 5 minutes after removing the service plug to allow the capacitors inside the inverter to fully discharge. Some HEVs automatically turn the engine on and off when the ready light, located on the instrument panel, is on. Remove the key from the ignition before beginning service.
5.
6. 7.
D.
Procedure for identifying the service and safety precautions for hybrid vehicle electrical circuits 1. Using service information, determine the locations of the high-voltage system components, including the high-voltage cables and service plug. Using service information, determine if special care is needed when handling any components of the high-voltage system. Deactivate the high-voltage system. CAUTION: The following is a general procedure that might be used to service a hybrid vehicle air conditioning system electrical circuit. It is imperative to consult service information for the proper procedures for the specific hybrid vehicle air conditioning system electrical circuits before beginning service. a. b. c. d. Turn off the ignition switch. Gain access to the battery storage area. Remove the battery module cover from the intelligent power unit (IPU) lid. Remove the locking cover from the battery module switch.
2. 3.
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e. f. g. h. i. Turn off the battery module switch. Turn the locking cover around and put it back on the battery module switch. Wait at least 5 minutes to allow the capacitors inside the inverter to fully discharge. Remove the IPU lid. Measure voltage at the junction board terminals. There should be 30 volts or less. There is a problem if there is more than 30 volts.
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UNIT VI: STEERING COLUMN DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR CONTENTS OF THIS UNIT
I. II. Unit objective Lesson plans A. Lesson 1: Energy-Absorbing Steering Column Design and Operation 1. 2. Information outline Assignment sheet a. B. AS1-L1-UVI: Energy-Absorbing Steering Columns
Lesson 2: Air Bag System Design and Operation 1. 2. Information outline Assignment sheet a. AS1-L2-UVI: Air Bag Systems
C.
Lesson 3: Diagnosing and Repairing the Steering Column 1. 2. Information outline Job sheets a. b. c. d. JS1-L3-UVI: Identify Vehicles Equipped With a Supplemental Restraint System (SRS) JS2-L3-UVI: Disable and Enable a Supplemental Restraint System (SRS) JS3-L3-UVI: Remove and Install a Steering Wheel on a Vehicle With a Supplemental Restraint System (SRS) JS4-L3-UVI: Diagnose Steering Column Concerns and Remove and Install an Energy-Absorbing Steering Column JS5-L3-UVI: Disassemble, Inspect, and Reassemble an Energy-Absorbing Steering Column
e.
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III. Unit VI Test
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UNIT VI: STEERING COLUMN DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completing this unit, students should be able to identify the components and operation of energy-absorbing steering columns and air bags and diagnose and repair steering columns. Students will demonstrate mastery of the material by completing the assignment sheets, successfully performing specific tasks on the job sheets, and achieving a score of _______ on the Unit VI Test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
After completing the lessons in this unit, students should be able to: Lesson 1 I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Identify the major components of the steering column assembly. Identify the basics of energy-absorbing steering columns. Identify the designs of energy-absorbing steering columns. Identify the four principal components of the energy-absorbing steering column. Identify steering wheel attachments. Complete the assignment sheet on energy-absorbing steering columns (AS1-L1-UVI).
Lesson 2 I. II. III. Identify the basics of air bag systems. Identify the basic components of air bag systems. Complete the assignment sheet on air bag systems (AS1-L2-UVI).
Lesson 3 I. II. III. Explain the procedure for diagnosing steering column concerns. Explain the procedure for identifying vehicles equipped with an SRS. Explain the procedure for disabling and enabling an SRS.
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IV. V. VI. Explain the procedures for removing and installing a steering wheel on a vehicle equipped with an SRS. Explain the procedures for removing and installing a steering column. Explain the procedures for disassembling, inspecting, and reassembling a steering column.
VII. Demonstrate the ability to: A. B. C. D. E. Identify vehicles equipped with a supplemental restraint system (SRS) (JS1-L3-UVI). Disable and enable a supplemental restraint system (SRS) (JS2-L3-UVI). Remove and install a steering wheel on a vehicle with a supplemental restraint system (SRS) (JS3-L3-UVI). Diagnose steering column concerns and remove and install an energy-absorbing steering column (JS4-L3-UVI). Disassemble, inspect, and reassemble an energy-absorbing steering column (JS5-L3-UVI).
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UNIT VI: STEERING COLUMN DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 1: ENERGY-ABSORBING STEERING COLUMN DESIGN AND OPERATION
I. Overview of the steering column assembly A. B. C. D. The steering column assembly is attached under the vehicle's dashboard. The steering column extends beyond the firewall and connects to the gear assembly. A large retaining nut holds the steering wheel hub to the steering shaft. The steering wheel on late-model passenger cars contains an air bag, supplemental restraint system (SRS). See Lesson 2 of this unit for more information about air bags. The major components of the steering column assembly are illustrated below.
E.
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II. Basics of energy-absorbing steering columns A. According to federal law, all vehicles sold in the United States must be equipped with steering columns and shafts that collapse during a head-on collision. Because these components help to absorb some of the energy of the crash, the danger of injury to the driver lessens.
B.
The methods for satisfying this federal mandate vary among vehicle manufacturers. 1. An earlier method was to construct a section of the steering column out of mesh. This piece collapsed easily during a crash. A recent method is to use a two-piece column. One section of the column has a smaller diameter than the other section. a. The section with the smaller diameter fits inside the larger section and rides on a roller bearing.
2.
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b. 3. When a collision occurs, the smaller section slides down into the larger section and collapses like a telescope.
Another method some manufacturers use is a breakaway capsule that is built into the mounting bracket. a. b. During a collision, the force of the driver moving forward pushes the bracket off of its connecting points. Consequently, the column moves forward as well. It does not push backward into the driver.
III.
Designs of energy-absorbing steering columns A. Steering columns come in two types: adjustable and fixed. The adjustable type allows the driver to move the position of the steering wheel, whereas the fixed does not. The most common design of the adjustable steering column is the tilt design, which allows the height of the steering wheel to adjust up or down. The other is the telescoping design, which tilts and also allows the steering wheel to move in or out. 1. Tilt steering columns use a short upper steering column that connects to the steering wheel at one end and to either a universal joint or a spherical scoring at the lower end.
B.
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2. When the steering wheel tilts, the top section of the steering column moves vertically. A release/lock mechanism holds the steering column in the slanted position.
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3. The flexible coupling is splined to the steering gear input shaft. A pinch bolt is used to prevent their separation.
IV.
Four principal components of the energy-absorbing steering column A. The column jacket (mast) is the outer shell (housing) of the steering column. The jacket houses and supports the steering shaft and other internal components of the column. 1. Some column jackets have a slotted mesh section that rolls up at the lower end upon impact, thus shortening the column.
2.
Other column jackets consist of two sections. Steel balls embedded in plastic are placed between these sections. Upon impact, the plastic shears off and the two sections telescope together.
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B. The gear shift tube is a hollow tube that fits over the steering shaft and connects the gear shift lever to the gear shift linkage at the base of the steering column. 1. 2. The tube is made of two pieces. Injected plastic holds the tube in position. Upon impact, the plastic is designed to shear, allowing the tube to telescope.
NOTE: Not all vehicles use column-mounted gear shifters.
C.
The steering shaft connects the steering wheel to the steering gear. 1. 2. The steering shaft consists of a solid upper shaft inserted into a hollow lower shaft. The lower section of the upper shaft is double flatted. The lower shaft is formed to fit over the double-flatted section of the upper shaft. (The double-flatted section allows the driver to steer the vehicle even though the column is completely telescoped.) Plastic is injected into the hollow lower shaft and into grooves in the solid shaft. Upon impact, the plastic shears and causes the shaft to collapse.
3.
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D. The column mounting bracket is located under the instrument panel. 1. The brackets allow the column to slide forward while blocking any movement of the column toward the rear of the vehicle (i.e., toward the driver). Each mounting bracket incorporates two breakaway capsules. The capsules allow the bracket to slip off the connecting points, permitting the steering column to compress in a forward direction.
2.
V.
Steering wheel attachments NOTE: Other parts within steering wheels are discussed below. Although these attachments do not directly relate to the steering system, they may have to be removed when servicing the steering wheel. A. Horn switch (horn pad) 1. 2. The horn switch is mounted on the steering wheel. Electrical contacts connect the horn switch to the rest of the vehicle's electrical system. a. The copper rings or stationary brass in the steering column touch the rolling or sliding contacts in the wheel assembly. As the wheel turns, the sliding or the rolling contacts brush against the rings. This sustains an electrical contact at all times.
b.
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B. C. The ignition switch consists of two sections: the key and lock mechanism and the sliding contact ignition switch. Electrical accessory switches 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Turn signal Dimmer Hazard Windshield wiper/washer Gear selector
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UNIT VI: STEERING COLUMN DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 2: AIR BAG SYSTEM DESIGN AND OPERATION
I. Basics of air bag systems A. First appearing in a few 1985-model vehicles, air bag systems are standard equipment on most vehicles on the road today. A ruling by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration required all new passenger cars to have dual air bags (one on the driver's side and one on the passenger's side) by 1998 and all new light trucks to have dual air bags by 1999. 1. 2. 3. An air bag system is commonly called a supplemental restraint system (SRS) or supplemental inflatable restraint (SIR). Air bags provide increased safety in a head-on collision when used with shoulder and lap seat belts. When a front-end collision occurs, the air bag inflates in a fraction of a second and provides a cushion between the driver and the steering wheel and dashboard. a. The air bag is designed to inflate when the vehicle collides head-on with an object, usually at a speed of more than 14 mph. During the collision, the driver impacts the air bag rather than the steering column and/or dash.
b.
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B. Made of nylon cloth covered with neoprene, an air bag is a large, mushroom-shaped device. The air bag is folded and stored in the front center of the steering wheel.
C.
Basic system operation for air bags 1. 2. Air bags are passive restraints. This means the driver does nothing to activate the system. When the vehicle hits an object head-on, the force of the impact activates various sensors located within the vehicle. a. b. 3. These sensors send an electrical current to the diagnostic module. In turn, the diagnostic module activates a container (an inflator module) that contains several chemicals.
When the electrical impulse reaches the inflator module, it causes the chemicals to react with each other. This reaction produces nitrogen gas. The nitrogen gas inflates a cloth bag. The part of the inflator module containing the cloth bag is typically housed inside the hub of the steering wheel. NOTE: The deployment process occurs rapidly. Most air bags inflate and deflate in less than half a second.
4.
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5. On vehicles with air bags, the steering wheel hub may appear larger than on other vehicles. NOTE: On newer designs, the steering wheel may appear to be normal size. D. Air bags represent an important innovation in driver safety. 1. To provide maximum protection during a collision, the driver should use air bags with seat belts, shoulder harnesses, and proper headrests. If the driver of an air-bag-equipped vehicle is not wearing a seat belt during a frontal collision, the impact may cause that person to slide under or around the air bag. This may result in severe injuries, especially to the knees. Front-impact air bags inflate only when the front of the vehicle is hit and not during impacts from the side or back of the vehicle. a. b. Impacts against the side and/or back of a vehicle may throw the driver violently to the front, back, or side. In vehicles with frontal air bags only, seat belts and shoulder harnesses are the best protection against injury in nonfrontal collisions.
2.
3.
4.
Some vehicles are being equipped with side air bags that deploy when the vehicle is hit in the side. These air bags are located in the door panels or at the outside edge of the seats. Air bags are relatively new devices. New safety issues regarding air bags are continually being recognized and studied. When working with air bags and informing the public about them, refer to the latest air bag safety information from the manufacturer and/or the appropriate government agency. NOTE: Everyone in the automotive industry should tell the public that air bags alone do not provide maximum protection in an automobile accident.
5.
6.
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II. Basic components of air bag systems NOTE: Components of air bag systems may be referred to by other names, depending on the vehicle's manufacturer. A. Impact sensors 1. 2. Impact sensors send a signal to the diagnostic module in the event of a collision. There may be one to five impact sensors, depending on the SRS system. a. b. The three most commonly used impact sensors in SRS systems are mass type, roller type, and accelerometers. Most SRS systems with more than one sensor need to close at least two impact sensors in order to deploy the air bag module.
B.
Diagnostic module 1. 2. The diagnostic module is essentially a computer that activates a dash air bag light. The diagnostic module also stores electronic diagnostic codes that can be accessed with a scan tool. a. b. Fault codes, or unusual events, indicate current faults within an air bag system. Memory codes or history codes indicate that a fault occurred within the air bag system in the past.
CAUTION: Make sure the diagnostic module reserve power is depleted before attempting to service an SRS system. C. Wiring harness 1. The wiring harness holds the air bag system wires. Because it carries the electrical charge that activates the air bag, the wiring system must be free of all defects. Wiring harness connectors are yellow. Depending on the circumstances, damaged or defective wires are sometimes replaceable. Sometimes it is necessary to replace a defective wire along with the defective components.
2.
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3. Most manufacturers supply specific service kits for air bag systems. NOTE: Wiring that connects directly to a component without the aid of a terminal is sometimes referred to as pigtail wiring. If it is necessary to replace the pigtail, the component to which it connects usually needs replacing. Be sure to follow the manufacturer's procedures when working with air bag components and wiring, especially pigtails. D. Coil assembly NOTE: The coil assembly is also called other names, such as a clockspring. 1. On most steering wheel-mounted air bags, there is a clockspring that provides an electrical connection between the steering wheel and the steering column.
a. b. c.
The clockspring consists of a flat wire (ribbon wire) that is wound into a coil. The reason the wire coil is called a clockspring is because it resembles the mainspring of a mechanical clock. One end of the clockspring connects to the air bag system electrical connector in the stationary steering column. The other end connects to the air bag electrical connector in the steering wheel. As the steering wheel turns, the clockspring coils and uncoils. The clockspring ensures a complete electrical circuit between the air bag squib (device that initiates air bag deployment) and the rest of the air bag system, regardless of the steering wheel's position.
d.
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2. 3. The coil assembly maintains a connection between the air bag system wiring harness and the inflator module. Because it connects to the inflator module, the coil assembly must also be flexible enough to turn with the wheel. The coil assembly is typically a ribbonlike, flexible tape.
E.
Inflator module 1. 2. The inflator module contains the actual cloth bag as well as the chemical canisters that inflate the bag. The inflator module is located in the hub of the steering wheel and turns with the wheel. A piece of decorative trim covers the module. After deployment, remove and replace the inflator module as a complete unit.
3. F.
Air bag system warning/service dash light 1. 2. On air bag-equipped vehicles, a light in the dash tells the driver if the system is functioning properly. Most vehicles have a terminal for accessing diagnostic codes stored in the diagnostic module.
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UNIT VI: STEERING COLUMN DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 3: DIAGNOSING AND REPAIRING THE STEERING COLUMN
I. Diagnosing steering column concerns A. Steering column defects can cause problems throughout the steering system. A few of these steering system problems are listed below. 1. 2. 3. B. C. Bad steering shaft bearings can increase the amount of effort required to turn the steering wheel. Broken plastic in the collapsible steering shaft may cause a rattle in the steering column. A broken shift tube can cause the transmission to operate improperly.
Consulting the diagnostic charts in service information can help to correctly diagnose the problem. Observe the following while diagnosing the steering column. 1. 2. Steering wheel lock operation Ignition switch operation NOTE: If the vehicle has power steering, start the engine before performing tests 3 and 4 below. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Amount of effort required to turn the steering wheel Unusual noises when the steering wheel is turned Column shift lever operation Tilt mechanism operation Condition (looseness or tightness) of steering column when steering wheel is turned
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II. Identifying vehicles equipped with an SRS (supplemental restraint system) A. On some vehicles, the VIN indicates that the vehicle is equipped with an air bag system. Check the manufacturer's service information to identify which special digits in the VIN indicate that the vehicle is equipped with an air bag. The schematics may also come with various warnings that the vehicle is equipped with an air bag system. In some vehicles, there is a mark on the steering wheel cover to indicate the presence of an air bag system.
B. C. III.
Disabling and enabling an SRS A. B. Before servicing an air bag, disable it. This prevents accidental deployment. Procedure for disabling an air bag system NOTE: The following steps do not constitute a complete procedure. Procedures for disabling air bag systems may differ significantly. Always consult service information when disabling an air bag system. 1. 2. Turn the key to the off position. Remove the negative battery cable. CAUTION: After removing the negative battery cable, tape it to ensure that it does not contact the battery. 3. 4. Remove all appropriate SRS fuses. Deplete the reserve power of the diagnostic module. CAUTION: The diagnostic module keeps the air bag activated for some time after the negative battery cable has been disconnected. Wait for the diagnostic module to deplete the reserve power before working on or around the SRS. Depletion time can vary from a few seconds to over 30 minutes. 5. Disconnect the coil assembly.
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C. Procedure for enabling and air bag system 1. 2. IV. Consult service information to locate a procedure for enabling the SRS. Make sure the procedure is appropriate for the make and model of the vehicle.
Procedure for removing and installing a steering wheel on a vehicle equipped with an SRS NOTE: The following are general procedures. Consult service information to find information that is specific to the vehicle make and model. A. Procedure for removing the steering wheel 1. 2. 3. 4. Turn the steering wheel so that the wheels are positioned straight ahead. Lock the steering column in the proper position. Disconnect the negative battery cable. Disable the air bag system. Refer to Section III for more information. CAUTION: An air bag is an explosive device. Always consult service information for the correct procedure for disabling an air bag. Wait for the diagnostic module to deplete the reserve power before working on or around the SRS. 5. 6. Remove the speed control switches and connectors. Remove the horn pad and air bag module attaching bolts and lift out the horn pad and module. Disconnect the wire connectors. Remove the steering wheel retaining nut. Remove the steering wheel with the appropriate steering wheel puller. CAUTION: Never remove a steering wheel by hitting the end of the steering shaft with a hammer; doing so may damage the energy-absorbing column.
7. 8.
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B. Procedure for installing the steering wheel 1. 2. Ensure that the front wheels are positioned straight ahead. Align the marks on the steering shaft and steering wheel hub and position the wheel on the shaft. Position all wires so that they will not get pinched under the steering wheel. Install the retaining nut and tighten it to the specified torque. Connect the wire leads for the horn and air bag module. Install the horn and air bag module and torque the attaching bolts. Connect the wire leads for the speed control switches and install the switches. Connect the negative battery cable. Verify that the air bag system circuit is active.
3. 4.
5. 6. 7. V.
Removing and installing an energy-absorbing steering column A. Procedure for removing a steering column 1. 2. Disconnect the negative battery cable. If the vehicle is equipped with an air bag, disable the air bag system. Refer to Section III for more information. CAUTION: Always consult service information for the correct procedure for disabling an air bag. 3. 4. 5. Remove the clamp bolt from the flexible coupling at the lower end of the column shaft. Disconnect the shift linkage from the shift tube at the lower end of the steering column. Remove the steering wheel (only if servicing the steering column after it is out of the car). a. b. Remove the horn pad air bag module and disconnect the wiring harness. Remove the steering wheel nut retainer and connecting nut.
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c. Using a suitable steering wheel puller, remove the steering wheel. CAUTION: Never remove a steering wheel by hitting the end of the steering shaft with a hammer; doing so may damage the energy-absorbing column. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Remove the floor plate to the floor pan connecting screws. Remove the trim cover from the lower instrument panel. Remove the shift indicator needle or cable from the shift bowl. Remove all wiring harness connections. Remove the nuts from the brackets that support the column. These brackets are located under the instrument panel. a. b. Support the column while removing the nuts. Lower the column and unplug the wiring connectors. NOTE: Note the positioning of any spacers used in the column mounting bolts. 11. Carefully remove the steering column from the vehicle. CAUTION: Handle the steering column carefully after it is removed from the car because it is extremely susceptible to damage. Dropping the column on its end could collapse the steering shaft or loosen the plastic injections. Leaning on the column assembly could bend or deform the jacket. Such damage could impair the column's ability to collapse on impact. B. Inspect the steering column for the following defects and replace any defective components. 1. 2. 3. Worn flexible coupling Loose or cracked column mountings Loose grommets on the shift linkage
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C. Procedure for installing the steering column 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Carefully position the steering column from inside the car through the cowl. Connect all wiring before raising the steering column. Raise the steering column and install any spacers. Install the nuts loosely to support the bracket bolts. Install the flexible coupling clamp bolt and tighten to the specified torque. Inspect the flexible coupling alignment. If necessary, move the column to align it. Install and torque the floor pan screws. Tighten the instrument panel support bracket nuts to the specified torque. Install the gear shift indicator needle or cable. Install and wind the clockspring assembly. Install the trim cover on the lower instrument panel. Install the steering wheel. a. b. c. d. e. 12. 13. Align the marks on the steering shaft and steering wheel hub and position the wheel on the shaft. Install the wheel nut and tighten to the specified torque. Install the steering wheel nut retainer. Connect the wiring harness. Install the horn pad or air bag module.
Connect the negative battery cable. Verify that the air bag circuit is active. CAUTION: Failing to tighten bolts to the specified torque or installing bolts that are too long could render an energy-absorbing steering column ineffective.
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14. After obtaining the instructor's permission, test drive the vehicle to check the operation of the column as outlined below. CAUTION: Road test a vehicle only with instructor's permission. a. b. Put the gear shift in all positions and watch for any problems in the column. Watch for any problems in the steering column while turning the steering wheel through left turns and right turns. Check the operation of all electrical devices in the steering column.
c. VI.
Disassembling, inspecting, and reassembling a steering column NOTE: The following two procedures are very general. Because of the large variety of steering column designs, it is impossible to list a service procedure for each one. Consult the appropriate service information for the specific vehicle. A. Procedure for disassembling the steering column 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Remove the steering column from the vehicle as previously outlined. Remove the steering wheel. Remove the steering wheel lock plate and turn the signalcanceling cam. Remove the turn signal switch. Remove the ignition lock cylinder and key warning buzzer switch. Remove the ignition switch, backup light switch, and dimmer switch. Remove the wiper switch and steering column housing. Remove the gear shift lever, lever bowl, and shift bowl shroud. Remove the steering shaft and shift tube from the mast jacket.
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B. Procedure for inspecting steering column components and the air bag system 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Inspect the condition of the steering wheel. Inspect the universal joints and flexible couplings for wear or damage. Make sure that the two-piece steering shaft is straight and that the plastic injections are secure. Inspect the steering shaft bearings for looseness or damage. Inspect the shift tube and shift bowl for wear or breakage. Inspect the tilt mechanism, lock cylinder mechanism, and wheel lock mechanism for wear or damage. If the steering column was impacted during an accident, carefully inspect the steering column and steering shaft for signs of collapsing. a. b. Inspect the steering column mounting bracket capsules for movement. The following diagram shows one manufacturer's procedure for determining if a column was damaged in an accident.
8. C.
Visually inspect the air bag system for problems.
Procedure for reassembling the steering column 1. To assemble the steering column, reverse the disassembly procedure.
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2. 3. 4. 5. D. Replace all defective or missing parts according to the instructor's directions. Be sure to tighten all fasteners to the specified torque. Before assembly, lubricate the bearings with a multi-purpose grease. Adjust all switches according to the manufacturer's instructions.
It is possible to perform some steering column service procedures without removing the column from the vehicle. Some of these procedures are listed below. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Remove and install the steering wheel. Replace the turn signal switch. Replace the ignition switch. Replace the gear shift lever. Replace the air bag.
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UNIT VII: SUSPENSION SYSTEM DESIGNS CONTENTS OF THIS UNIT
I. II. Unit objective Lesson plans A. Lesson 1: Introduction to Suspension Systems 1. 2. Information outline Assignment sheet a. B. AS1-L1-UVII: Suspension Systems
Lesson 2: Front Suspension System Types and Components 1. 2. Information outline Assignment sheet a. AS1-L2-UVII: Front Suspension Types and Components
C.
Lesson 3: Rear Suspension System Types and Components 1. 2. Information outline Assignment sheet a. AS1-L3-UVII: Rear Suspension Types and Components
III.
Unit VII Test
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UNIT VII: SUSPENSION SYSTEM DESIGNS UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completing this unit, students should be able to identify basic principles, types, and components of suspension systems. Students will demonstrate mastery of the material by completing the assignment sheets and achieving a score of _______ on the Unit VII Test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
After completing the lessons in this unit, students should be able to: Lesson 1 I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Identify functions of the suspension system. Explain how the suspension system cushions road shocks. Explain the meaning of sprung and unsprung vehicle weight. Explain the relationship between the frame and suspension system. Identify the two general categories for suspension systems. Complete the assignment sheet on suspension systems (AS1-L1-UVII).
Lesson 2 I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Identify terms and definitions associated with suspension systems. Identify the characteristics of short- and long-arm suspensions. Identify the characteristics of conventional strut front suspensions. Identify the characteristics of modified strut front suspensions. Identify the characteristics of twin I-beam front suspensions. Identify the characteristics of straight axle front suspensions.
VII. Identify the characteristics of four-wheel-drive front axle suspension. VIII. Identify types of suspension springs.
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IX. X. Identify other suspension components. Complete the assignment sheet on front suspension types and components (AS1-L2-UVII).
Lesson 3 I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Identify the characteristics of leaf spring rear suspensions. Identify the characteristics of rear-wheel-drive coil spring rear suspensions. Identify the characteristics of trailing arm rear suspensions. Identify the characteristics of semi-independent rear suspensions. Identify the characteristics of strut rear suspensions. Complete the assignment sheet on rear suspension types and components (AS1-L3-UVII).
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UNIT VII: SUSPENSION SYSTEM DESIGNS LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
I. Functions of the suspension system A. Provides a comfortable ride and reduces stress on vehicle components by cushioning the impact of bumps and limiting movement during cornering Supports the overall weight of the vehicle Maintains the proper vehicle ride height Works with the steering system to control the vehicle's direction of travel Works with the steering system and frame to maintain the vehicle's alignment angles
B. C. D. E. II.
How the suspension system cushions road shocks A. The suspension system cushions road shocks through the use of springs that jounce and rebound when the wheels roll over the road surface. 1. 2. B. In jounce, the spring is compressed and the tires move up toward the frame. In rebound, the spring is extended and the tires move down away from the frame.
Shock absorbers function to limit the motion and vibration of the springs after jounce. Without shock absorbers, the springs would continue to bounce the vehicle up and down until the energy in the springs was expended.
III.
Sprung vs. unsprung weight A. A major concern in building a vehicle is its weight. Engineers focus on the dynamics of the vehicle and on how it responds in driving and braking conditions. Two critical factors are sprung weight and unsprung weight.
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B. Sprung weight refers to the combined weight of all items that the vehicle's springs support: the engine, body frame, transmission parts, and everything else included inside. 1. 2. One end of the various suspension control devices is sprung weight and the other end is unsprung weight. Even though each end of the suspension control device is either sprung weight or unsprung weight, it is the combined weight of all of these devices (tie-rods, brake struts, shock absorbers, some stabilizer bars, control arms, and springs) that classifies them as sprung weight.
C.
Unsprung weight is limited to just the weight of the parts between the surface of the road and the springs: wheels, tires, steering knuckles, rear axle assemblies, and wheel brake mechanisms. 1. If most of the vehicle's weight is unsprung, such as when driving over uneven roads, the quality of the vehicle ride decreases. A low ratio of unsprung weight to sprung weight ensures a smooth ride in light vehicles.
2. IV.
Relationship of the frame and suspension system A. B. In order to function properly, the suspension system must be attached to and supported by the vehicle's frame. Types of frame designs (conventional and unibody) 1. Conventional frame design (also called body-over-frame or separate frame) a. The first vehicles had a conventional frame design. This design is still used on a few cars and on larger vehicles such as vans, sport-utility vehicles, and pickup trucks. It is also used on most commercial vehicles. A conventional frame is constructed of sturdy steel. The vehicle's body parts and all other major components connect directly or indirectly to this frame.
b.
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The conventional frame provides the strength and rigidity required to keep the vehicle intact.
NOTE: In the illustration below, notice how the front frame rails narrow and raise up to accommodate the front suspension.
c.
The two basic types of conventional frames are the perimeter and straight.
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The perimeter frame outlines the silhouette of the car. On vehicles that use conventional frames, the perimeter frame design is currently the most popular. Parts of a perimeter frame are shown below.
The straight frame is sometimes referred to as a ladder frame because of how it looks. Many medium-duty and heavy-duty applications use a this type of frame.
2.
Unibody frame design (also called unit body) a. b. The unibody frame is used on the majority of passenger cars manufactured today. A unibody frame has no separate frame structure. In a unibody, the frame and body are a single integrated assembly that is welded together during the manufacturing process.
c.
The vehicle body is designed so that the body parts themselves supply the strength and rigidity required to keep the vehicle intact and to keep the multiple systems in the proper relationship. Some vehicle designs use a bolt in the engine cradle to support the front suspension, steering, and powertrain. The position of the cradle is important because it can affect drivability and decrease the life of the components due to extra stress.
d.
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C. Subframes 1. 2. 3. To increase structural integrity, some vehicles use framelike assemblies at the front, rear, or both ends of the vehicle. These subframes can be bolted or welded into location. In addition to providing the manufacturers with suspension and steering mounting locations, the subframe helps stiffen the chassis and reduces driveline vibrations from the passenger compartment. Some manufacturers refer to the front subframe as the engine cradle.
4.
V.
Two general categories for suspension systemsindependent and nonindependent A. Independent suspensions 1. In this design, the wheels on an axle are controlled separately from each other. This allows each wheel to react to road shocks without affecting the other wheel. The vast majority of passenger vehicles today use either a front or rear independent suspension. Some vehicles use an independent suspension system at all four wheels, which is called a fully independent system. The advantages of an independent suspension over a nonindependent suspension include a smoother ride and improved vehicle handling.
2.
3.
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B. Nonindependent suspensions 1. In a nonindependent suspension, the wheels are attached to the same solid axle and thereby linked to each other. As a result, the movement of one wheel directly affects the opposite wheel. This design provides a rougher ride than the independent suspension. Today nonindependent suspensions are found mainly on large trucks and some four-wheel-drive vehicles. Nonindependent suspensions are valued for their loadcarrying ability.
2. 3.
NOTE: The next two lessons describe some of the common types of suspension systems within these categories and their components.
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UNIT VII: SUSPENSION SYSTEM DESIGNS LESSON 2: FRONT SUSPENSION SYSTEM TYPES AND COMPONENTS
I. Terms and definitions A. B. Aeration Air mixing with hydraulic fluid, causing the fluid to foam. Ball joint A suspension component that connects the control arm to the steering knuckle. The ball joint has the ability to tilt and rotate. Camber The inward or outward tilt of the wheel from its centerline. Caster The forward or backward tilt of the wheel from its centerline. Coil spring A suspension spring that consists of a spring steel bar wound into a coil. Control arm A suspension component that links the vehicle wheels to the frame, thus allowing for suspension movement. Control arms are also referred to as A arms or wishbones because of their shape. Kingpin (also called a spindle bolt) A hardened steel pin that passes through the outer end of the axle and the steering knuckle. The kingpin allows the steering knuckle to pivot on the axle. Leaf spring Suspension spring that is constructed of either one or more leaves made of flat spring steel. Ride height The distance from a specific point on a vehicle to the road surface. Shock absorber (also called a shock) A hydraulic device used to dampen spring movement (oscillations) in a suspension system. Spindle A component that extends outward from the steering knuckle. The spindle supports the wheel bearings and may or may not be integrated with the knuckle.
C. D. E. F.
G.
H. I. J. K.
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L. Stabilizer bar (also called sway bar or antisway bar) A suspension-control component used to minimize a vehicles swaying and leaning during turns. Steering knuckle A component that is supported by and pivots on either the upper and lower ball joints or a kingpin. The steering knuckle may be either integrated with the spindle or bolted to it. Straight axle A nonindependent suspension axle. On a straight axle, the movement of one wheel directly affects the opposite wheel. Strut suspension The type of independent suspension in which a coil spring and shock absorber combination is used instead of an upper control arm. Strut rod A steel rod positioned between the frame and the lower control arm. The strut rod stabilizes the lower control arm. Torsion bar spring A suspension spring consisting of a round spring steel bar. One end of the torsion bar spring connects to the lower control arm; the other end connects to the vehicles frame. Twin I-beam suspension A suspension system that uses two axles shaped like an I-beam. Each wheel is connected to a separate axle, thus allowing for independent suspension action.
M.
N. O.
P. Q.
R.
II.
Short- and long-arm suspension
A.
In short- and long-arm (SLA) suspension, an upper and a lower control arm are located at each front wheel. 1. In most modern independent front suspensions, the upper control arm is shorter than the lower control arm.
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2. 3. B. C. The control arms connect to the steering knuckle via upper and lower ball joints and to the frame via bushings. SLA suspension provides longer tire life than earlier systems in which both control arms were the same length.
The SLA suspension uses a coil or torsion bar spring to absorb shocks and maintain the correct ride height of the vehicle. Most SLA designs have the coil springs resting on the lower control arm. 1. 2. 3. In these designs, the load-carrying ball joint is on the lower control arm. The ball joint on the upper control arm is the nonloadcarrying ball joint. A shock absorber is mounted between the vehicle's frame and lower control arm.
NOTE: The SLA suspension system normally uses a stabilizer bar. D. Some SLA designs have the coil spring resting on the upper control arm. 1. These designs require a spring tower, which is a special frame extension located above the coil spring. The upper end of the spring is seated on the spring tower. The upper ball joint is the load-carrying joint. The lower ball joint is the nonload-carrying joint. A shock absorber is mounted between the spring tower and upper control arm. The lower control arm usually pivots on a single bushing, thus requiring a strut to stabilize the arm.
2. 3. 4. 5.
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NOTE: Stabilizer bars are also used on most of these systems.
E.
Control arms
1.
Upper control arms a. The upper control arms connect to the vehicle frame via bushings. The bushings enable the control arms to move up and down with the wheels. The control arm pivots on a steel shaft, which is made of either steel-clad rubber or threaded-steel bushings. The shaft is bolted to the frame. The outer end of the control arm connects to the steering knuckle via a ball joint. Heavy rubber jounce/rebound bumpers connect to the control arms or vehicle frame.
b.
c. d.
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e. Many vehicles allow for adjusting the wheel alignment at the point where the upper control arm shaft connects to the vehicle.
2.
Lower control arms a. The double-bushing lower control arm uses two bushings and two mounting points to connect the control arm to the frame. The double bushings and mounting points provide extra stability. The single-bushing lower control arm occupies less space than the double-bushing arm, but it is more susceptible to movement. To control the extra movement, strut rods usually are added to the suspension system. The lower control arm is usually bolted to the vehicle frame with a steel-clad rubber pivot bushing and bolt arrangement. The outer end of the lower control arm connects to the steering knuckle with a ball joint. The coil spring or torsion bar spring usually connects to the lower control arm. However, some designs have the coil spring resting on the upper control arm.
b.
c.
d.
F.
Jounce/rebound bumpers are solid rubber cushions that limit suspension travel and absorb the shock of suspension and frame contact. Jounce/rebound bumpers fasten to the control arms or to the frame. Ball joints
G.
1.
Ball joints connect the steering knuckle to the outer end of the control arms via a tapered stud and nut arrangement or through a straight stud with a notch and a pinch bolt. The joints allow the steering knuckle to turn between the control arms as the steering wheel turns.
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a. b. Ball joints allow the front wheels to pivot (turn) and rotate in the socket for up-and-down travel. Many of today's manufacturers use low-friction ball joints. These ball joints take much less effort to move because 66% of the internal friction is eliminated. This is accomplished by using highly polished internal components and by placing a high-strength polymer bushing between the moving components.
2.
The design of ball joints is similar to that of the ball sockets that are found in tie-rod ends and other steering linkage joints. Ball joints are heavier than ball sockets, however. There are two basic types of ball joints: load carrying and nonload carrying. a. Load-carrying ball joints support the weight of the vehicle. They are mounted on the outer control arm ends to which the coil springs are seated or to which the torsion bar springs are connected. Nonload-carrying ball joints contain a built-in preload. A spring maintains tension on the ball joint at all times and compensates for wear. The design of nonload-carrying ball joints helps to dampen vibration and road shock. NOTE Nonload-carrying ball joints are also called follower ball joints.
b.
3.
Wear-indicator ball joints a. b. Some SLA suspension systems use a wear-indicator ball joint for the load-carrying ball joint. Wear-indicator ball joints are internally spring loaded. As the ball joint wears down, the pressure ring expands upward to keep equal pressure on the ball joint stud. To monitor the ball joint wear, measure how much of the wear indicator has moved into the ball joint socket. The wear indicator is operable if it is visible or if its edges can be felt. However, if the shoulder on the ball joint is recessed, replace the wear-indicator ball joint.
c.
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On some Chryslers, this is measured by wiggling the grease fitting. If it moves, replace the wearindicator ball joint.
III.
Conventional strut front suspension A. In 1947, Earle MacPherson, an engineer at Ford, created MacPherson struts, which are now known simply as struts. 1. 2. Conventional strut front suspension incorporates a shock absorber and a coil spring into a single unit. The unit is mounted between the steering knuckle and the vehicle's inner fender.
B.
Design of the conventional strut suspension 1. In some conventional strut suspensions, the steering knuckle/ spindle permanently connects to the lower end of the strut assembly. In others, the lower end of the strut tube bolts to the steering knuckle. The upper end of the shock absorber (strut) piston rod connects to a reinforced vehicle inner fender. a. This connection is made via an upper mount that bolts to the fender.
2.
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b. A rubber-mounted bushing or bearing arrangement, located at the top mount, cushions the shock and allows the strut to turn with the wheel as it is steered.
3.
A lower control arm connects to the lower end of the steering knuckle via a ball joint. In this design, there is no upper control arm or upper ball joint. The shock absorber (damper) fits inside the strut tube; the piston rod extends out of the top. a. b. For some struts, a worn shock absorber is replaceable. Other units require replacing the entire strut assembly if the shock absorber is worn.
4.
5.
The coil spring is serviced separately from the strut. The spring rests on a lower spring seat, which is welded to the strut tube. a. An upper spring seat retains the upper end of the spring. The upper spring seat either fits under or isintegrated with the upper strut mount. A retaining nut on the piston shaft holds the spring in place on the strut assembly.
b.
6. 7.
A stabilizer bar and strut rods are normally used with struts. Struts use only one nonload-carrying ball joint. The spring and the upper strut mount support the main weight of the vehicle. a. Because the upper strut mount carries the weight of the vehicle, it is at a higher risk of failing and needs careful inspection.
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b. C. The upper strut mount, especially the bearing, makes it possible to easily steer the vehicle.
Conventional struts are used frequently on today's vehicles because of the following advantages. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Lighter Require less space Fewer parts Minimal camber change Antiroll resistance due to the high mounting position of the upper mount Can be mounted on front, rear, or both
D.
The rubber bumper that is installed on the piston shaft stops the suspension system from bottoming out when the spring and shock completely compress during severe driving conditions.
IV.
Modified strut front suspension A. B. The modified strut suspension system blends the SLA and the conventional strut designs. Design of the modified strut suspension 1. 2. This design incorporates a spring and lower control arm arrangement that is similar to SLA suspension design. A strut assembly is used instead of an upper control arm and ball joint. There is no spring that connects to the strut. In addition to replacing the upper control arm, the strut acts as the shock absorber.
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3. The spring is installed between the frame and the lower control arm.
4.
The upper strut mount and bearing assembly do not carry the load of the vehicle. But they enable the driver to steer the vehicle easily. The lower ball joint is a load-carrying ball joint.
5. V.
Twin I-beam front suspension A. B. Twin I-beam is used primarily on Ford pickups and vans. The twin I-beam front suspension system combines the strength of a straight axle design with the ride and handling benefits of an independent suspension. The twin I-beam front suspension uses two forged I-beam axles.
C.
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1. 2. 3. D. One end of each axle connects to one spindle and a radius arm. The other end of each axle connects to the frame via a pivot bushing and bolt. The length and shape of the I-beam control the camber, track, and steering axis inclination.
Each steering knuckle connects to the axle through a kingpin. The kingpin is installed in the steering knuckle via bushings and presses into the end of the axle. A thrust bearing between the axle and the spindle supports the load on the axle.
E.
Radius arms control the forward and backward movement of the axles. 1. 2. The arms are mounted from the outer end of each axle rearward to the vehicle's frame. Rubber bushings are located at the frame-mounting points. The radius arms allow for the up-and-down movement of the suspension.
F. G. H.
Coil springs are mounted between the spring pockets on the vehicle's frame and axle. Shock absorbers are used at each wheel to dampen spring movement. The advantage of the twin I-beam is that it produces a very stable ride and limits body roll.
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I. The major disadvantage of twin I-beam suspension is that there is a tremendous amount of track and camber changes during the upand-down movement of the suspension system. These changes cause increased tire wear and vehicle instability.
VI.
Straight axle front suspension (nonindependent) A. Currently, straight axle front suspensions are usually found only on large trucks and some four-wheel-drive vehicles. But most early passenger cars used a straight axle design.
B.
Design of the straight axle front suspension 1. 2. The advantage of straight axle front suspension is that the straight axle can support a great deal of weight. Its major disadvantage is that when one wheel raises or lowers (such as when the vehicle hits a bump or pothole), the alignment of the opposite wheel is temporarily thrown off. Straight axle designs use kingpins to hold the steering knuckle in place. The steering knuckle swivels on pivots on the kingpin for steering action. Thrust bearings, inserted between the axle and the spindle, support the vehicle load. A shock absorber connects to the vehicle's frame and to each end of the axle. In straight axle front suspension, each end of a solid forged steel beam axle connects to leaf springs via U-bolts. a. b. A spring hanger bracket connects the front of the spring to the frame via a rubber bushing in the spring eye. A shackle connects the rear of the spring to the frame. The shackle enables the spring to change its length as it flexes.
3.
4.
5.
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VII. Four-wheel-drive front axle suspension A. B. Four-wheel-drive front axle suspension is widely used in today's four-wheel-drive vehicles. Design of the four-wheel-drive front axle suspension 1. The four-wheel-drive front axle suspension is similar to the straight axle front suspension. But instead of the solid beam axle, there is a solid drive axle housing.
2.
The front-wheel-drive front axle uses either leaf springs or coil springs. a. b. The leaf spring connections are similar to those in a straight axle. When coil springs are used, special armscalled radius armsmaintain the position of the axle assembly. The radius arms are mounted on the vehicle frame via special rubber bushings. The arms extend forward and connect to the outer ends of the axle housing.
3. 4.
The steering knuckles usually connect to and pivot on the axle housing via the upper and lower ball joints. Shock absorbers are mounted between the vehicle's frame and the axle housing.
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VIII. Types of springs A. The springs in the suspension system absorb shocks and maintain the correct vehicle ride height. The most commonly used suspension springs are coil springs, leaf springs, and torsion bar springs. A fourth type, air springs, is used on a few vehicles. Coil springs 1. Coil springs are often used in today's passenger cars. The coil spring is made from a round spring steel bar stock, which is wound into the shape of a coil.
B.
2.
The coil spring compresses to absorb road shock and then rebounds to its original position. This maintains the proper ride height of the vehicle. On conventional front suspension systems, the spring is usually mounted between the frame and the lower control arm. a. Some front suspension designs, however, have the spring located between the spring tower and the upper control arm. Rubber insulators reduce suspension noise. They are positioned between the spring and its mounting surface.
3.
b. 4.
Coil springs offer a quality ride and require a minimal amount of space for installation. Coil springs are available in many different styles. Some of the specifications used for coil springs are listed below. a. Wire diameter
5.
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b. c. d. e. f. 6. Wound coil diameter Number of coils Free height Installed height Shape of the coil
Coil springs are made with several shaped ends. Always use an exact replacement. a. The styles of coil springs depend on how the end of the wire is cut or bent, as shown in the illustration below.
b. c. 7.
In order for the spring to stand up straight, a square spring end is bent. A tangential end, which is a simple cut coil, stands off center.
Although coil springs are usually trouble free for the normal life of the vehicle, two common problems may occur: sag and breakage. a. Sag causes the vehicle to drop below an acceptable ride height. It can cause alignment problems. Additionally, sag forces the vehicle to bottom out against the suspension (bump) stops. Coil springs break because of stress-induced fatigue that results from nicks, pits, or flaws in the coil's surface.
b. 8.
Many new springs are painted with epoxy or coated with a plastic material to protect the coil's surface.
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9. Always replace damaged or sagging coil springs and change coil springs in pairs. a. Manufacturers do not recommend using coil spring inserts, spacers, or shims to restore a vehicle to the proper ride height. These spring helpers are not effective because they place a severe load on the springs and ultimately cause a failure.
b.
C.
Leaf springs 1. Leaf springs are used on solid axle rear suspensions and on front suspensions that use the straight axle design. These springs are commonly made from flat spring steel, which is shaped like an arch. The main leaf of the leaf spring has a loop or eye machined into each end. a. b. c. A rubber bushing is inserted into each eye. The leaf connects to the vehicle's frame via this bushing. The rear of the spring connects to the frame via a shackle assembly that permits the spring to lengthen or shorten according to the forces of acceleration and braking.
2.
3.
Additional leaves are added to the spring to achieve the desired stiffness and load-carrying capacity. (Each additional leaf is usually shorter than the one added previously.) a. A tie bolt, inserted through the center of the leaves, and rebound clips on the leaves' ends hold the leaves in place.
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b. The leaf spring is usually mounted at a right angle to the axle and it connects to the axle by U-bolts.
4.
Rubber, plastic, or zinc spacers (interleaves) usually separate the multiple leaf springs. The interleaves reduce any noise and wear that may result from the spring leaves working against each other. A monoleaf spring consists of only one leaf. These springs are generally thick in the center and tapered down on each end. The leaf springs provide lighter vehicles with a smooth ride and greater load-carrying capability. NOTE: In order to achieve a lower vehicle weight, some leaf springs use a single leaf spring made of fiberglass.
5.
6.
When the leaf spring compresses and arches during operation (flex), the spring changes length.
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a. b. A flat spring is longer than an arched spring. The purpose of the shackle is to compensate for these changes. The shackle acts like a hinge connected to the chassis and it allows the spring to flex.
7.
Most leaf springs are made of steel; however, some are made from a composite material. Starting in the early 1980s, some manufacturers began using springs made of fiberglassreinforced epoxy plastic for the following reasons. a. b. c. Weight savings of 60% to 80% Reduction in noise and vibration Cost-effectiveness
8.
Frequently, composite leaf springs are mounted in the transverse position (parallel to the axle). (See the next lesson for more information about transverse leaf springs.)
D.
Torsion bar springs 1. A torsion bar spring is a long, spring-steel shaft. One end of the shaft connects to the lower control arm and the other end connects to the vehicle's frame.
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2. When a wheel hits a bump in the road, the control arm moves. This causes the torsion bar to twist and absorb the shock. After absorbing the shock, the torsion bar returns to its original position, thus returning the vehicle to its proper ride height.
3.
There are two basic designs of torsion bar springs: the straight type and transverse (cross) type. a. Straight torsion bar springs are mounted to the frame behind the lower control arm and they extend forward to the control arm.
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b. The transverse torsion bar springs are L-shaped and are mounted solidly to the frame on the front corner opposite to the wheel they serve. The springs run across the frame, parallel to the front frame crossmember. Then they turn toward the rear of the vehicle and connect to the outer end of the lower crossmember in a rubber bushing.
4.
One method of connecting the torsion bar to the suspension is to install it in a six-point socket close to the end of the control arm that connects to the crossmember.
5. E.
On most vehicles, there is an adjuster to correct small variations in the desired ride height of the vehicle.
Air springs NOTE: Do not confuse air springs with electronic ride control systems and/or load-leveling shock absorber (air) systems. 1. The two types of air springs are fixed-rate air springs and variable-rate air springs.
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a. Fixed-rate air springs have a sealed diaphragm that flexes when the plunger forces against the outer wall of the diaphragm. Most frequently, the diaphragm fills with a gas-charged nitrogen cell.
b.
Variable-rate air springs use an air diaphragm that changes the percentage of air in the chamber to compensate for changes in load and ride height. On variable-rate air spring systems, a height sensor for the air spring senses changes in load. This sensor also reacts to the vehicle's dynamics to vent the air from the diaphragm or to add air to the diaphragm, depending on the signals it sends. This system relies upon an electrical compressor to supply air for the system to operate. The compressor is normally mounted under the hood.
IX.
Other suspension components A. Shock absorbers 1. Shock absorbers are incorporated into all suspension systems. They dampen spring oscillations and control the vehicle's motion. They are designed to improve the vehicle's ride and handling.
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a. If a vehicle did not have shocks, it would continue to bounce after hitting a bump, as shown in the graph below.
b.
The following graph depicts how shock absorbers cushion the bumps that a vehicle encounters.
2.
Shock absorbers use hydraulic resistance to control spring oscillations. The shock absorber achieves this resistance by forcing fluid through metered, internal passages. On struts, the shock absorbers are built into the strut housing.
3.
NOTE: The most commonly used types of shock absorbers are the conventional and gas charged. 4. Conventional shock absorbers a. Conventional shock absorbers control or dampen suspension spring movement in both directions. NOTE: Conventional shock absorbers do not control a vehicle's ride height. Springs control the ride height. In addition, conventional shock absorbers do not support the weight of the vehicle. b. The conventional shock absorber consists of a piston and rod assembly that operates within an inner steel tube (cylinder). A piston rod seal seals the upper end of the cylinder. A base compression valve assembly seals the lower end.
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The cylinder is completely filled with oil at all times. Surrounding the inner tube is an outer tube that provides space for reserve fluid and overflow for the pressure tubes. A rubber mounting bushing connects the piston rod to the vehicle's frame. A lower mounting bushing connects the pressure and reservoir tubes to the suspension.
c.
As the wheel moves up and down, the suspension spring compresses (jounces) and extends (rebounds), which in turn causes the shock to compress and extend. This pushes the shock absorber piston through a column of oil within the pressure tube. The piston contains metered orifices (tiny holes) that allow fluid to flow at a specific rate. Because fluid cannot compress, the size of the orifices determines the shock's effectiveness. In addition, when the shock compresses, the fluid forces through the compression base valve into the reservoir tube. The faster the piston pushes, the greater the pressure builds up below the piston and the greater the dampening force. As the suspension rebounds, the piston pulls up through the fluid above it. As the rebound speed increases, a blow-off disc opens to allow the fluid to pass at a faster rate. Consequently, the vehicle ride is smoother.
5.
Air-adjustable shock absorber a. Air-adjustable shock absorbers are basically conventional rear shock absorbers that are enclosed in air chambers. The air pressure in these shocks can be adjusted to raise and lower the ride height of the vehicle to accommodate different loads.
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b. Air-adjustable shocks are installed in vehicles at or after manufacture.
A pliable nylon-reinforced neoprene rubber boot seals the shock absorber dust tube to the shock absorber reservoir tube.
c.
The two shock absorbers are connected by plastic lines to an air valve mounted at the rear of the vehicle. CAUTION: Always connect air shocks in parallel with a common air valve. This prevents the failure of only one shock and reduces the risk of a serious accident. Brass fittings or rubber O-rings and snap lock connectors are used to connect the plastic line to the shocks and the control valve. The control valve is a Schrader valve, similar to those used as tire valve stems.
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A minimum air pressure of about 15 pounds per square inch (psi) should be maintained at all times to reduce rubber boot friction and assure long shock life. Minimum air pressure varies, depending on the shock manufacturer. Normally air pressure applied to the air shocks should not exceed 90 psi. Pressure limits vary, depending on the shock manufacturer. Pressure is measured with a normal tire pressure gauge capable of registering the maximum pressure that the shocks can withstand.
d.
If the system develops a leak and loses air pressure, the shock absorber continues to function as a conventional shock absorber.
6.
Gas-charged shock absorbers a. Like conventional shocks, gas-charged shocks also operate on the principle of hydraulic fluid displacement. During rapid jounce and rebound, the fluid in conventional shock absorbers tends to aerate, causing the shock absorber to skip or become mushy. However, gas-charged shocks are not susceptible to aeration.
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b. One common type of gas-charged shock uses a piston and oil chamber, as found in conventional shocks.
Instead of a reserve tube, however, the gas-charged shocks incorporate a floating dividing piston that separates the oil chamber from the gas chamber. The gas chamber contains nitrogen gas at a pressure of approximately 100 pounds per square inch (psi) to 360 psi. As the main shock absorber piston moves up and down in the tube, the dividing piston and the gas chamber below it compensate for the difference in fluid volume. This prevents the fluid from becoming aerated.
NOTE: There are two classes of gas-filled shocks: high pressure and low pressure. Most of today's passenger vehicles use low-pressure-type gas shocks. Some high-performance and off-road applications require high-pressure shocks.
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7. Modifications to the current shock absorber technology include the use of variable-ratio shocks on some vehicles. Alternate names for variable-ratio shocks are as follows: a. b. c. B. Programmed ride control Variable-displacement shocks Speed damping shocks
Stabilizer bar (also called antisway bar or sway bar) 1. 2. The stabilizer bar is added to a vehicle to improve the suspension's stability. The stabilizer bar consists of a U-shaped spring steel bar. Each end of the stabilizer bar connects to a lower control arm via rubber mounts or links.
a. b.
The center portion of the U connects to the vehicle's frame through rubber mounts. When one of the vehicle's wheels raises or lowers, the stabilizer bar begins to twist. This twisting action applies force to the opposite control arm and keeps the vehicle in a more level position. The stabilizer bar reduces swaying and leaning of the vehicle's body and improves handling during cornering.
C.
Strut rods 1. Strut rods control the movement of the lower control arm. They are commonly found on suspension designs that use a single bushing lower control arm.
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2. The strut rod bolts directly to the lower control arm and connects to the vehicle's frame through rubber mounting bushings.
3. D.
In some designs, the stabilizer bar doubles as the strut rods.
Wheel spindle assembly 1. The wheel spindle consists of the wheel spindle and the steering knuckle. In some vehicles, the spindle and steering knuckles consist of separate pieces bolted together. In other vehicles, the spindle and steering knuckles are forged as a single unit. a. b. The wheel spindle connects to the wheel through the wheel hub and bearings, which ride on the spindle. The steering knuckle is located in the inner portion of the spindle assembly and connects to the control arm through the ball joints.
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UNIT VII: SUSPENSION SYSTEM DESIGNS LESSON 3: REAR SUSPENSION SYSTEM TYPES AND COMPONENTS
NOTE: Rear suspension systems use many of the same components as front suspension systems. However, there are several different types of rear suspension designs, which are the topic of this lesson. I. Leaf spring rear suspensions A. Rear-wheel-drive leaf spring suspension 1. Rear-wheel-drive leaf spring suspensions are equipped with single- or multi-leaf springs at each end of the rear axle. These springs normally connect to the vehicle at the three points listed below. a. The front of the spring connects to a spring hanger on the vehicle frame. The connection is made via a rubber bushing in the spring eye. The middle of the spring connects to the axle via U-bolts. The rear of the spring connects to the vehicle frame by a shackle. This shackle enables the spring to change length as the wheels roll over rough spots in the road surface.
b. c.
2.
Rear-wheel-drive leaf spring suspensions normally have no control arms. The springs maintain the position of the axle assembly. In order to dampen spring movement, rear-wheel-drive leaf spring suspensions have shock absorbers mounted between the axle housing and the vehicle frame at each wheel.
3.
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4. Some rear-wheel-drive leaf spring suspensions are equipped with a stabilizer bar. The front stabilizer bar enhances vehicle stability during cornering.
B.
Front-wheel-drive rear leaf spring suspensions 1. Some front-wheel-drive vehicles use a solid axle rear leaf spring suspension. a. b. A solid rear axle incorporates a bar or tube between the two rear wheels. Spring connections on these front suspensions are made in the same way as on rear-wheel-drive leaf spring suspensions.
2.
On front-wheel-drive rear leaf spring suspensions, wheel spindles bolt to each end of the axle. Shock absorbers are mounted from the axle to the vehicle frame to dampen spring movement.
C.
Transverse leaf springs 1. Transverse springs are leaf springs that are mounted perpendicular to the vehicle centerline (parallel to the axle). Transverse springs are used on both the front and rear suspension systems. One advantage of transverse springs is in weight savings because one transverse-mounted spring does the job of two longitudinal-mounted leaf springs.
2.
To reduce vehicle weight and improve ride, many transverse springs are made of composite materials. Composite springs are made of laminated fiberglass, a material that provides several advantages over steel leaf springs.
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a. b. A composite spring weighs only about 25% as much as a comparable steel spring. The materials used to make composite springs have very good ride characteristics and help maintain vehicle alignment. Composite springs do not lose strength and do not corrode, whereas steel springs lose strength with age and use, resulting in spring sag. Spring sag causes lower vehicle ride height and incorrect wheel alignment settings.
II.
Rear-wheel-drive coil spring rear suspensions A. The rear-wheel-drive coil spring suspension is more complicated than the leaf spring rear suspension. The rear-wheel-drive coil spring suspension requires additional components to maintain axle positioning. The typical rear-wheel-drive coil spring suspension uses a coil spring placed between the lower spring pads (which are welded to each end of the axle housing) and the upper spring pads (which are integrated with the vehicle frame). The rear-wheel-drive coil spring suspension uses a lower control arm on each side of the vehicle to control axle movement. 1. 2. D. The forward ends of the control arm pivot up and down on the vehicle frame via rubber bushings. The rear ends of the control arms also connect to the axle housing via rubber bushings.
B.
C.
The rear-wheel-drive coil spring suspension also uses either one or two upper control arms, which are positioned between the axle housing and the vehicle frame. Rubber mounting bushings provide noise insulation while allowing the upper arms to pivot. Some rear-wheel-drive coil spring suspensions use a track rod, which is a steel bar with rubber bushings mounted on each end. The bar is mounted between the axle housing and the vehicle frame. The track rod controls vehicle lateral movement or side sway.
E.
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F. A stabilizer bar is sometimes added to control body roll during cornering. The design and operation of the stabilizer bar are similar to the bars used in front suspension systems.
III.
Trailing arm rear suspensions A. The trailing arm rear suspension is used on many front-wheel-drive vehicles.
1. 2. 3.
An axle beam connects to the vehicle frame by two steel trailing arms. The trailing arms are welded to the axle and connect to the frame via rubber bushings. As the wheels move up and down, the axle beam can twist a predetermined amount. This provides semi-independent suspension action.
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B. In most trailing arm rear suspensions, a track rod controls lateral axle movement. The track rod mounts laterally from the axle to the vehicle frame. Rubber bushings at each end of the bar allow upand-down movement. Coil springs are mounted on the inboard side of the trailing arms. The lower spring pads are welded to the axle. The upper spring seats are integrated with the vehicle frame. In order to control spring movement, shock absorbers are mounted from the axle to the vehicle frame at each wheel. Wheel spindles bolt to each end of the axle and support the wheels through wheel bearings.
C.
D. E. IV.
Semi-independent rear suspensions A. Semi-independent rear suspension is another design found on the rear wheels of some front-wheel-drive vehicles. A semiindependent rear suspension consists of two trailing arms that are interconnected by a lateral beam. The front of the trailing arms on semi-independent rear suspensions is suspended by hanger/bushing arrangements. Coil suspension springs on semi-independent rear suspensions are mounted on shock absorbers in the same way as struts. Wheel spindles on semi-independent rear suspensions connect to the rear of the trailing arms. Some models on semi-independent rear suspensions are equipped with a sway bar. When the vehicle hits a bump, the spring compresses and the lateral beam is forced to twist, thus allowing a limited amount of independent suspension action. When the suspension rebounds, the lateral beam returns to its original position.
B. C. D. E. F.
G.
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V. Strut rear suspension A. B. C. A strut rear suspension is similar to a front strut suspension. A strut unit is mounted at each rear wheel. A lower control arm is mounted between the vehicle frame and the strut at each rear wheel. The upper strut mount connects to a reinforced vehicle body. Strut rods minimize forward/rearward movement of the assemblies.
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UNIT VIII: FRONT SUSPENSION DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR CONTENTS OF THIS UNIT
I. II. Unit objective Lesson plans A. Lesson 1: Diagnosing and Servicing a Front Suspension System 1. 2. Information outline Job sheets a. b. B. JS1-L1-UVIII: Diagnose a Short- and Long-Arm (SLA) Suspension System JS2-L1-UVIII: Lubricate a Steering and Suspension System
Lesson 2: Inspecting and Replacing Front Suspension Control Components 1. 2. Information outline Job sheets a. b. c. d. JS1-L2-UVIII: Inspect and Replace Conventional or GasCharged Shock Absorbers JS2-L2-UVIII: Inspect and Replace Air-Adjustable Shock Absorbers JS3-L2-UVIII: Inspect and Replace Stabilizer Bars and Bushings JS4-L2-UVIII: Inspect and Replace Strut Rods and Bushings
C.
Lesson 3: Inspecting and Replacing Front Suspension Springs, Ball Joints, and Control Arms 1. Information outline
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2. Job sheets a. b. c. d. e. D. JS1-L3-UVIII: Inspect and Replace Coil Springs JS2-L3-UVIII: Inspect and Replace Torsion Bar Springs JS3-L3-UVIII: Inspect and Replace Ball Joints JS4-L3-UVIII: Inspect and Replace Lower Control Arms and Bushings JS5-L3-UVIII: Inspect and Replace Upper Control Arms and Bushings
Lesson 4: Servicing Front Strut Suspensions 1. 2. Information outline Job sheets a. b. c. JS1-L4-UVIII: Diagnose Strut Suspension Systems JS2-L4-UVIII: Remove, Inspect, and Install Strut Assemblies JS3-L4-UVIII: Replace Strut Dampers, Springs, and Mounts
III.
Unit VIII Test
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UNIT VIII: FRONT SUSPENSION DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completing this unit, students should be able to diagnose and service front short- and long-arm and strut suspensions. Students will demonstrate mastery of the material by successfully performing specific tasks on the job sheets and achieving a score of _______ on the Unit VIII Test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
After completing the lessons in this unit, students should be able to: Lesson 1 I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Identify suspension concerns to note during a road test. Explain the procedure for visually inspecting a front suspension. Explain the procedure for measuring vehicle ride height. Explain the procedure for inspecting ball joints on SLA suspensions. Explain the procedure for lubricating a steering and suspension system. Demonstrate the ability to: A. B. Lesson 2 I. II. III. IV. Explain the procedures for inspecting and replacing conventional or gascharged shock absorbers. Explain the procedure for inspecting and replacing an air-adjustable shock absorber. Explain the procedures for inspecting and replacing the stabilizer bar and bushings. Explain the procedures for inspecting and replacing the strut rods and bushings. Diagnose a short- and long-arm (SLA) suspension system (JS1-L1-UVIII). Lubricate a steering and suspension system (JS2-L1-UVIII).
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V. Demonstrate the ability to: A. B. C. D. Lesson 3 I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Explain the procedure for inspecting coil springs. Explain the procedure for replacing a coil spring mounted on a lower control arm. Explain the procedure for replacing a coil spring mounted on an upper control arm. Explain the procedure for replacing torsion bar springs. Explain the procedure for replacing ball joints. Explain the procedure for servicing lower control arms. Inspect and replace conventional or gas-charged shock absorbers (JS1-L2-UVIII). Inspect and replace air-adjustable shock absorbers (JS2-L2-UVIII). Inspect and replace stabilizer bars and bushings (JS3-L2-UVIII). Inspect and replace strut rods and bushings (JS4-L2-UVIII).
VII. Explain the procedure for replacing upper control arms, cross-shafts, and bushings. VIII. Demonstrate the ability to: A. B. C. D. E. Inspect and replace coil springs (JS1-L3-UVIII). Inspect and replace torsion bar springs (JS2-L3-UVIII). Inspect and replace ball joints (JS3-L3-UVIII). Inspect and replace lower control arms and bushings (JS4-L3-UVIII). Inspect and replace upper control arms and bushings (JS5-L3-UVIII).
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Lesson 4 I. II. III. IV. Explain the procedures for diagnosing and inspecting strut suspensions. Explain the procedures for removing, disassembling, inspecting, and replacing struts. Explain the procedures for inspecting and replacing modified struts. Demonstrate the ability to: A. B. C. Diagnose strut suspension systems (JS1-L4-UVIII). Remove, inspect, and install strut assemblies (JS2-L4-UVIII). Replace strut dampers, springs, and mounts (JS3-L4-UVIII).
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UNIT VIII: FRONT SUSPENSION DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 1: DIAGNOSING AND SERVICING A FRONT SUSPENSION SYSTEM
I. Diagnosing suspension system concerns A. Road test the vehicle to listen for and observe the following. CAUTION: Always obtain the instructor's approval before conducting a road test. Conduct the road test in an area with little or no traffic. Never exceed the legal speed limit during the road test. Always wear safety belts. An assistant should record all observations made during the road test. Do not attempt to drive and record results at the same time. 1. 2. 3. 4. II. Suspension system noises Vehicle body sway Vehicle bounce Vehicle roll on turns
Visually inspecting the front suspension A. B. C. D. E. F. G. Inspect the control arms for damage. Inspect the control arm bushings for wear. Inspect the springs for damage. Inspect the sway bar, links, and bushings. Inspect the shock absorbers for leakage. Inspect the shock absorber bushing. Jounce the vehicle and note any noise produced by the suspension system.
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III. Measuring vehicle ride height (also called curb height or chassis height)
A.
If the springs of a vehicle become weak or broken, the vehicle sags. 1. 2. This sagging throws off the front end geometry of the vehicle, resulting in poor handling and excessive tire wear. By measuring vehicle ride height, one can determine if the springs or other parts of the suspension system are broken.
B.
Procedure for measuring ride height NOTE: Consult service information for ride height specifications and to identify the points on the vehicle to take measurements. 1. 2. 3. 4. Make sure the vehicle is on a level surface when taking measurements. Inflate tires to the recommended pressure. Make sure the tires are the proper size and type. Fill the fuel tank completely when taking ride height measurements. If the tank is not full, add equivalent weight to the vehicle. Remove all unnecessary weight from the vehicle, such as luggage or other nonessential cargo. Do not allow anyone to sit in or lean on the vehicle while taking measurements. Clean all foreign material from the areas at which the measurements are to be taken. Jounce the vehicle vigorously and allow the suspension to settle.
5.
6. 7.
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8. Measure the vehicle at all points identified in the service information. Compare the measurements with the specifications in the service information.
C.
Severe damage to the frame or other suspension components can cause incorrect ride height. 1. 2. 3. If the vehicle has no such damage, improper ride height probably results from a problem with the springs. Replace defective coil springs in pairs. Sometimes it is possible to adjust the torsion bar springs to achieve the correct ride height.
IV.
Inspecting ball joints (load carrying and nonload carrying) on short- and long-arm (SLA) suspension systems NOTE: Nonload-carrying ball joints are also referred to as follower ball joints. NOTE: Inspect ball joints during alignment and routine suspension inspections. NOTE: Under normal driving conditions, the load-carrying ball joint is the joint that wears the fastest. However, always inspect both ball joints. A. Procedure for lifting a vehicle with SLA suspension to prepare for ball joint inspection 1. On systems in which the coil spring is mounted on the upper control arm, place the jack under the spring pocket of the lower control arm and lift the tire 2 in off the ground. On systems in which the coil spring is mounted on the lower control arm, place the jack under the frame crossmember and lift the tire off the ground.
2.
B.
Procedure for inspecting the general condition of wear indicator and nonwear indicator ball joints (load carrying) 1. Inspect the condition of the grease seal. Make sure the seal is not missing, torn, or split. A defective seal allows contaminants into the ball socket and causes premature failure of the joint.
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2. If drilling the ball joint for a grease fitting or plug, make sure the fitting or plug is present. A missing fitting causes the joint to fail. Make sure the castellated nut is tight on the tapered stud. Also make sure to install the cotter pin correctly.
3. C.
After inspecting the general condition of the load-carrying ball joint, determine if the joint is a wear indicator or a nonwear indicator before continuing the inspection. 1. A wear indicator joint has a small shoulder protruding from the lower portion of the joint housing. This distinguishes it from a nonwear indicator joint.
D.
Procedure for inspecting a wear indicator ball joint (load carrying) 1. 2. Inspect the wear indicator joint while it is loaded; make sure that the wheels support the car weight. Examine the wear indicator ball joint carefully. If the joint's shoulder is flush with or completely recedes into the housing, the joint is worn and needs replacing.
E.
Procedure for inspecting nonwear indicator ball joints (load carrying) 1. Raise the vehicle and support it with safety stands to unload the ball joint.
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NOTE: If the spring or torsion bar is on the lower control arm, place the jacks under the control arm as far outboard as possible. If the spring is on the upper control arm, place the safety stands under the frame. 2. Using the procedure outlined below, check the joint for radial looseness. NOTE: Do not check some ball joints for radial looseness. Consult the appropriate service information before performing the following procedure. a. Mount the dial indicator on the vehicle. Make sure the dial plunger rests on the wheel rim that is nearest to the ball joint to be checked. NOTE: Use a dial indicator that is equipped with a special flexible arm and a mounting bracket capable of reaching into tight locations. b. After the joint is unloaded, grasp the tire at the top and bottom and move it in and out. Observe the dial indicator reading. If the dial indicator reading exceeds the manufacturer's specifications, move the tire in and out while an assistant observes the source of the looseness. Make sure that the wheel bearing causes the looseness.
c.
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3. Using the procedure outlined below, check the ball joint for axial play. a. With the ball joint unloaded, clamp the dial indicator on the control arm. Place the plunger on the flat surface of the steering knuckle next to the ball joint stud. Clean dirt and grease from the part of the knuckle where the dial indicator rests. Insert a pry bar between the wheel and floor. Pry the wheel upward and note the dial indicator reading. Pry only hard enough to detect any play in the ball joint. Compare the dial indicator reading to the manufacturer's specifications.
b.
c.
F.
Procedure for inspecting the general condition of wear indicator and nonwear indicator ball joints (nonload carrying) 1. Inspect the condition of the grease seal. Make sure the seal is not missing, torn, or split. A defective seal allows contaminants into the ball socket, resulting in premature failure of the joint. If drilling the ball joint for a grease fitting or plug, make sure the fitting or plug is present. A missing fitting causes the joint to fail. Ensure that the castellated nut is tight on the tapered stud. Also be sure to install the cotter pin correctly.
2.
3.
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4. G. Be sure to connect the ball joint tightly to the control arm bolts or rivets.
Procedure for inspecting ball joints for looseness (nonload carrying) 1. 2. 3. Place the dial indicator plunger against the edge of the wheel opposite the ball joint being checked. Grasp the tire and vigorously push and pull on it while watching the ball joint for movement. Compare the reading on the dial indicator to the manufacturer's specifications.
H.
When inspecting ball joints on vehicles equipped with struts, the technician can use the same procedures as listed above. Described in steps 1 and 2 below are two additional procedures for inspecting ball joints on some vehicles equipped with struts. NOTE: Vehicles equipped with conventional struts use only nonload-carrying ball joints. 1. With the weight of the vehicle resting on its tires, grasp the grease fitting and attempt to move it with the fingers. If the ball joint is worn, the grease fitting moves easily. If there is movement, replace the ball joint.
2.
Support the vehicle by the frame and allow the suspension to hang free. a. b. Place a dial indicator against the steering knuckle and insert a pry bar between the knuckle and control arm. Pry the steering knuckle and note the dial indicator reading.
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c. If the reading exceeds the manufacturer's specifications, replace the ball joint.
V.
Lubricating a steering and suspension system NOTE: Some steering joints are lubricated and sealed during assembly. But most ball joints and steering linkage joints require periodic lubrication. A. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. B. Before lubricating a steering and suspension system, check the condition of all suspension joint seals. Replace any split, torn, or missing seals. NOTE: If the seal is an integral part of the joint, replace the entire joint. CAUTION: Use a hand-operated, low-pressure grease gun. A high-pressure, air-operated gun can easily rupture seals, especially if a novice is using it. C. D. Identify the type of lubricant that is recommended for the vehicle's steering and suspension system. To prevent contaminants from entering the joints, wipe all grease and dirt from each fitting. If the vehicle is equipped with plugs instead of fittings, remove each plug and install a temporary fitting. Reinstall the plugs after the joint is greased. Snap the grease gun nozzle onto the fitting and force grease into the socket until the seal starts to swell. Wipe excessive grease from the joint.
E.
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CAUTION: Do not continue to force lubricant into a socket after the seal starts to swell; doing so ruptures the seal. Make sure to use the proper grease. Most suspension and steering systems use an extreme pressure (EP) grease. F. G. Apply a heavy film of grease to the steering stops on the steering knuckle and control arms. Wipe excessive grease from all joints, reinstall plugs, and lower the vehicle.
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UNIT VIII: FRONT SUSPENSION DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 2: INSPECTING AND REPLACING FRONT SUSPENSION CONTROL COMPONENTS
CAUTION: Always replace a suspension fastener with a fastener of the same type and quality. Using an improper fastener could cause suspension failure. Be sure to adhere to the manufacturer's torque specifications when assembling suspension systems. CAUTION: Never heat, quench, straighten, or weld a suspension part. Always replace any worn or damaged parts. I. Inspecting and replacing conventional or gas-charged shock absorbers A. Procedure for inspecting shock absorbers 1. Use the proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. NOTE: Be sure to raise the vehicle by the frame; doing so allows the control arms to hang unsupported, which extends the shock absorbers. 2. 3. Grasp the shock absorber and shake it. Note if it is mounted loosely. Inspect the condition of all rubber mounting bushings. Inspect the piston rod and outer tube for excessive fluid leakage. A light film of fluid around the top of the shock absorber is considered normal. NOTE: If there is heavy fluid loss, make sure the leakage is not from another source such as from the power steering or engine. If the source of the leak is questionable, clean the shock and recheck it after a road test. 4. Inspect the shock tube and piston rod for signs of damage. Replace the shock if the tube is badly dented. Also check the piston rod for deep scratches, scoring, dents, or corrosion. Replace the shock if such damage is found. NOTE: Small dents on the shock tube and light surface scratches on the rod are normal.
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B. Procedure for removing a front shock absorber (independent front suspension) 1. While holding the upper portion of the piston rod, loosen and remove the upper shock absorber retaining nut. Next, remove the washer and bushing. NOTE: Do not hold the piston rod with a wrench or pliers. Use the flats provided at the end of the piston rod. 2. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 3. Remove the bolts that connect the lower end of the shock absorber to the lower control arm and then remove the shock absorber. NOTE: Once disconnected, a gas-charged shock rapidly expands. CAUTION: Do not apply heat or flame to gas-charged shocks. C. Procedure for testing the operation of the shock NOTE: Extreme force is required to compress gas-charged shocks; therefore, the following tests are difficult to perform on gas-charged shocks. NOTE: During the following procedure, disconnect only one accessible end of the shock from the vehicle. 1. Fully extend and compress the piston rod. Make sure the shock functions smoothly and quietly. NOTE: Shock action should produce a faint swishing sound. NOTE: The shock does not necessarily have the same resistance when reacting to jounce as when reacting to rebound. 2. If the shock functions erratically or makes unusual noises, hold it upright and once again extend it fully. Next, turn over the shock and compress it fully. Repeat this action three times to expel any air trapped in the hydraulic cylinder.
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3. 4. D. Position the shock upright in a vise. Manually extend and compress the shock several times. If shock action is still erratic and/or noisy, replace the shock.
Procedure for bleeding air trapped in the shock NOTE: Always bleed any trapped air from the shock before installation. 1. Hold the shock upright and fully extend it.
2.
Invert the shock and slowly compress it as far as possible.
3. E.
Repeat step 1 and step 2 several times.
Procedure for installing a front shock absorber 1. 2. Fully extend the shock absorber and install the lower mounting washer and grommet on the upper end of the piston rod. Insert the shock through the opening in the control arm and allow the piston rod stem to pass through the upper mounting hole.
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3. 4. Install the upper mounting grommet and washer. Next, install and tighten the retaining nut and bolt to the specified torque. Install and tighten the nut and bolt that retain the lower end of the shock. Tighten the nut and bolt to the specified torque. NOTE: The procedure for installing a rear shock absorber is similar to this procedure. II. Inspecting and replacing an air-adjustable shock absorber A. Procedure for visually inspecting an air-adjustable shock absorber NOTE: Visually inspect the air-adjustable shock absorber in the same way as a conventional shock absorber. In addition, perform the inspection procedures listed below. 1. Visually inspect the condition of the air lines. a. b. c. 2. Inspect air lines for breaks or kinks. Inspect lines for proper routing. Plastic lines melt if they are too close to exhaust components. Inspect the condition of air line fittings.
Inflate the shocks to the maximum pressure recommended by the manufacturer and inspect the condition of the rubber air boots. a. Inspect the rubber air boots for cracking, cuts, leaking, and deterioration. Light cracking does not necessarily indicate a bad boot. Replace the shock absorber if the rubber air boots are cut, leaking, or badly deteriorated.
b. B.
Procedure for inspecting air-adjustable shock absorbers for air leaks NOTE: Though a system may exhibit evidence of air leaks, the source is sometimes difficult to locate. 1. 2. Apply a soapy water solution to the various components. Inflate the system to the maximum pressure recommended by the manufacturer.
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3. Raise and support the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 4. 5. C. Apply soapy water to the shock, lines, fittings, and air valve. Note if the soapy water begins to bubble. Bubbling is an indication of leaks.
Procedure for removing an air-adjustable shock absorber 1. 2. Discharge all air from the system by depressing the control valve. Raise the vehicle and support it under the rear axle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. CAUTION: It is important to support the axle during shock removal to prevent the axle from dropping down and causing injury or damaging the brake line. 3. 4. 5. Disconnect the air lines from the air-adjustable shock absorbers. Disconnect the upper shock mounting. Disconnect the lower shock mounting and remove the shock.
D.
Procedure for installing an air-adjustable shock absorber 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Install washers and rubber grommets on the shock. (Some shocks may not use washers or grommets.) Attach the lower shock mounting and tighten it to the specified torque. Attach the upper shock mounting and tighten it to the specified torque. Connect the air lines. Tighten the fittings to the specified torque, if applicable. Inflate the shocks to the maximum pressure.
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6. 7. E. Using a soapy water solution, check all air line connections for leaks. Adjust to desired pressure and ride height.
Procedures for repairing air lines NOTE: The plastic air lines are often mispositioned, causing them to tear, break, or fall against hot exhaust pipes. Repair kits can be very useful in restoring damaged lines. 1. 2. Detach the line and cut off the damaged portion with a razor blade or sharp knife. Splice the existing tubing to the replacement tubing with a special coupling such as the one shown below.
3.
Reinstall the air line. a. b. Tie the tubing to the vehicle with tie straps. Route the lines in a manner that prevents damage. Activate the compressor. Perform a leak test on the repaired area, using soapy water as previously described.
III.
Inspecting and replacing the stabilizer bar and bushings A. Procedure for inspecting the stabilizer bar and bushings 1. 2. Jounce the vehicle and note any noise that the stabilizer assembly produces. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle.
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CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 3. 4. 5. B. Inspect the stabilizer bar for accident damage. Inspect the stabilizer bushings and links for deteriorated rubber, broken bolts, or brackets. Grasp the bar and shake it. Note any movement in the bushings. Replace worn bushings.
Procedure for removing the stabilizer bar and bushings 1. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 2. 3. Remove the link bolts or brackets that connect the stabilizer to the control arms. Remove the brackets connecting the stabilizer to the frame. Next, remove the stabilizer and bushings.
C.
Procedure for reinstalling the stabilizer bar and bushings 1. 2. 3. 4. Reverse the removal procedures to reinstall the bar. Replace any worn or deteriorated bushings or broken brackets. Install all bushings according to the manufacturer's directions. Tighten all fasteners to the factory-specified torque.
IV.
Inspecting and replacing strut rods and bushings A. Procedure for inspecting strut rods and bushings NOTE: Unless damaged in an accident, the strut rod seldom needs replacing. 1. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions.
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2. 3. Inspect the rod for signs of physical damage. A bent bar causes incorrect wheel alignment. Inspect the strut rod bushings for wear or deterioration. Loose strut rod bushings can affect wheel alignment and cause noise during acceleration and braking. Replace worn or deteriorated bushings. NOTE: Not all vehicles have strut rods. They are usually found on vehicles that have a two-point design control arm instead of an A-frame design lower control arm. B. Procedure for removing a strut rod and bushings 1. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 2. 3. 4. C. Remove the front strut rod nut. Remove the bolts that connect the strut rod to the control arm. Slide the control arm out of the frame and remove the old bushings.
Procedure for inspecting a strut rod and bushings after removal 1. 2. Check the general condition of the bushings. Make sure the bushings are not cracked or deteriorated. Make sure the strut rod is straight and its threads are in good condition.
D.
Procedure for installing a strut rod and bushings 1. 2. Install the bushings on the strut rod. Insert the strut rod and bushings into the subframe. Elevate the rear of the rod so it is level. Tighten the front nut; doing so ensures that the bushings will seat correctly. Pull down on the rear of the rod and connect it to the control arm. Tighten the fasteners to the factory-recommended torque.
3. 4.
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5. 6. Lower the vehicle. Check and adjust alignment as necessary. NOTE: While installing the strut rod or strut rod bushing, be careful to locate the lower control arm in the correct position.
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UNIT VIII: FRONT SUSPENSION DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 3: INSPECTING AND REPLACING FRONT SUSPENSION SPRINGS, BALL JOINTS, AND CONTROL ARMS
I. Inspecting coil springs A. Procedure for visually inspecting coil springs NOTE: Always make sure the vehicle is at its proper ride height before checking the coil springs. 1. 2. Check the springs for collapsed or broken coils. Check the coils for shiny spots, which indicate coil spring clash (coils hitting together during jounce). Coil spring clash results from weak springs or shock absorbers or a combination of both.
B.
Make sure to follow the proper procedure and use the proper tools when servicing coil spring suspension systems. Use a specialized tool called a coil spring compressor to remove and replace some springs. CAUTION: When servicing coil springs, use only approved coil spring compressors. Compressing a spring with the wrong tool could result in serious personal injury.
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II. Replacing the coil spring mounted on the lower control arm NOTE: Procedures for removing coil springs vary among manufacturers. Some procedures require special tools to ensure the safe removal of the springs. The procedures described below are general and do not apply to all springs. Always refer to the proper service information for the appropriate procedure.
A.
Procedure for removing coil springs 1. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 2. 3. 4. Remove the wheel-and-tire assembly from the vehicle. Remove the shock absorber from the vehicle. Install the coil spring compressor. Compress the spring according to the procedures issued by the vehicle or compressor manufacturer.
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5. 6. Remove the compressed spring from the vehicle. Measure the length of the compressed spring. Note the position of the compressor on the spring. (Be sure to position the compressor in the same way on the new spring.) Remove the coil spring compressor.
7. B.
Procedure for inspecting coil springs and mountings 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Disconnect the control arm at all points and then clean the spring mounting pads. Inspect the control arm for signs of cracks and other damage. Inspect the condition of the stud and tapered hole in the steering knuckle. Replace any worn parts. Inspect the condition of the control arm bushings and bolts. Replace any worn or damaged pieces. Inspect the condition of the shock absorber. If one shock is defective, replace both shocks. Inspect the condition of any disconnected stabilizer and strut rod bushings. Replace them as necessary. Inspect the condition of the coil springs. Replace any worn or damaged parts.
C.
Procedure for reinstalling a coil suspension spring 1. Install the coil spring compressor on the new spring. Compress the new spring to the same length as the old spring. If the old spring used an insulator pad, transfer it to the new spring. Install the compressed spring. Next, decompress the spring until it is properly seated. Remove the coil spring compressor. Reconnect the shock absorber and the wheel. After completing the spring installation, move the vehicle at least 30 ft and park it on a flat, level surface. Jounce the vehicle several times. Allow the vehicle to settle out and check the chassis height.
2. 3. 4.
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5. III. Check and reset all alignment angles as necessary. Replacing the coil spring mounted on the upper control arm A. Procedure for removing a coil spring NOTE: This procedure requires a coil spring compressor.
1. 2.
Remove the shock absorber and upper shock mounting bracket as a single unit. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions.
3. 4. 5.
Remove the front wheel. If necessary, remove the rubber rebound bumper bracket. Install the spring compressor. Compress the spring according to the procedures issued by the vehicle or compressor manufacturer. Remove the compressed spring from the vehicle. Measure the length of the compressed spring. Note the positioning of the compressor on the spring. (Position the compressor in the same way on the new spring.) Remove the spring compressor.
6. 7.
8. B.
Procedure for installing the coil spring 1. Install the spring compressor on the new spring. Compress the new spring to the same length as the old spring. If the old spring used an insulator pad, transfer it to the new spring.
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2. 3. 4. Install the compressed spring. Next, decompress the spring until it is properly seated. Remove the coil spring compressor. Reconnect the shock absorber, rebound bumper bracket, and wheel. After completing the spring installation, move the vehicle at least 30 ft and park it on a flat, level surface. Jounce the vehicle several times. Allow the vehicle to settle out and check the chassis height. Check and reset all alignment angles as necessary.
5. IV.
Replacing torsion bar springs NOTE: Procedures for torsion bar removal and replacement vary considerably, depending on the design of either the vehicle or bar. Therefore, the following procedure is very general. Consult the appropriate service information to obtain the specific procedures for the vehicle.
A.
Procedure for removing a torsion bar spring 1. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. Make sure the wheels are in the full rebound position. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 2. Turn the torsion bar anchor, adjusting the bolt counterclockwise to release the load on the torsion bar. NOTE: If removing transverse torsion bars, release the tension on both bars. 3. Remove the torsion bar retainers and brackets and then remove the torsion bar.
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B. Procedure for inspecting a torsion bar 1. 2. Inspect the seal and replace it if damaged. Inspect the torsion bar for nicks or scoring. To remove sharp edges, dress down any nicks or scoring. Paint repaired areas with a rust preventative. Inspect all mountings and bushings. Also inspect the adjusting bolt assembly. Replace all worn or damaged parts.
3. C.
Procedure for reinstalling and adjusting a torsion bar 1. 2. 3. 4. To reinstall the torsion bar, reverse the torsion bar removal procedure. After installation, turn the adjusting bolt clockwise to place a load on the torsion bar. Lower the vehicle and turn the adjusting bolt to achieve the correct front suspension height. Check and reset all alignment angles as necessary.
V.
Replacing the ball joint A. Ball joints are usually mounted in one of the following ways. 1. 2. 3. Thread the joint into the control arm. Rivet or bolt the joint to the control arm. Press the joint into the control arm.
NOTE: Service procedures vary for different types of ball joints. B. Special tools for ball joint service 1. Most ball joints fit into the steering knuckle via a tapered stud arrangement similar to those used in steering linkages. Use a special taper-breaking tool to remove the ball joint.
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a. One common taper-breaking tool is a screw press arrangement that fits between the upper and lower ball joint studs.
As the nut on the screw turns, the tool expands, which forces the stud out of the hole. To release the taper, rap the steering knuckle at the ball joint with a hammer while the stud is under pressure.
b.
A pickle fork can remove the ball joint. The pickle fork, however, forces the stud out of the hole as it is driven inward, thus destroying the joint.
2.
A special tool is often needed to remove and replace press-fit ball joints. The most common device is a ball joint press. Using different adapters that fit different ball joints, the ball joint press creates the force needed to remove and replace the press-fit joints.
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C. Procedure for replacing a load-carrying ball joint (spring on lower control arm) 1. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. NOTE: Place a safety stand under the lower control arm at the spring seat to unload the ball joint and to retain the spring. CAUTION: Always retain the spring and control arm during ball joint removal and installation. 2. 3. Remove the wheel-and-tire assembly. Remove the cotter pin from the ball joint stud. Loosen the castellated nut two or three turns. Do not remove the nut at this time. a. Using the proper taper-breaking tool for ball joints, break the taper between the ball joint stud and steering knuckle. Remove the nut when the stud is free. Lift the spindle assembly so it is free of the ball joint. Place a wood block between the frame and upper control arm to keep the spindle out of the way.
b. c.
4.
Using the proper tool, remove the ball joint from the lower control arm. a. b. c. Use a special tool to force out the press-fit joints from the control arm. Use the proper socket to remove the threaded ball joints from the control arm. Use a chisel to remove a riveted ball joint. Use the chisel to cut only the rivets. Do not damage the control arm with the chisel.
5.
Thoroughly clean and inspect the tapered hole in the steering knuckle. If the hole is damaged or worn, replace the steering knuckle.
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6. Clean the ball joint mounting area of the control arm. Inspect the area for cracking or distortion. Replace the arm if there are any problems. Reverse the removal procedure to install the ball joints in the control arm. Tighten the threaded ball joints to the specified torque. Install the ball joint stud in the steering knuckle. a. b. Install the castellated nut on the stud and tighten to the specified torque. Install a new cotter pin in the tapered stud. NOTE: Never back off the castellated nut to align the holes; always tighten to the next hole. c. If the ball joint is equipped with a lubrication fitting or plug, lubricate the ball joint with the factory-specified grease.
7.
8.
D.
Procedure for replacing a nonload-carrying ball joint (spring on lower control arm) 1. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 2. Because the weight of the vehicle is used to relieve spring tension on the upper control arm, place the safety stands as far outboard as possible to provide maximum leverage. CAUTION: Retain the spring and control arm throughout the removal and installation of the ball joint. Therefore, safety stands must remain under the lower control arm at all times during these procedures. 3. 4. Remove the wheel-and-tire assembly. Remove the cotter pin from the ball joint stud. Loosen the castellated nut two or three turns. Do not remove the nut at this time.
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a. Using a taper-breaking tool, break the taper between the ball joint stud and steering knuckle. Make sure to use the proper taper-breaking tool to avoid damaging the components. Once the stud is free, remove the nut. Lift the upper control arm so it is free of the steering knuckle. Support the steering knuckle to prevent damage to the brake line.
b. c.
5. 6.
Using the same procedure outlined for the load-carrying ball joint, remove the ball joint from the control arm. Thoroughly clean and carefully inspect the tapered hole in the steering knuckle. If the hole is damaged or worn, replace the steering knuckle. Clean the ball joint mounting area of the control arm. Inspect the area for cracking or distortion and replace the arm if there are problems. Install the ball joint in the control arm by reversing the removal procedures. Remove the temporary support from the steering knuckle and reconnect the steering knuckle to the control arm. a. b. Install and tighten the castellated nut to the specified torque. Install a new cotter pin in the tapered stud. NOTE: Never back off the castellated nut to align holes. Always tighten to the next hole. c. If the ball joint is equipped with a lubrication fitting or plug, lubricate the ball joint with the factory-specified grease.
7.
8. 9.
E.
The procedure for replacing ball joints on vehicles with the spring on the upper control arm is similar to the procedure for the spring on the upper ball joint. 1. The only exception is the coil spring retention.
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2. Consult appropriate service information for procedures for replacing ball joints on vehicles that have the spring on the upper ball joint.
VI.
Servicing lower control arms A. Procedure for inspecting the lower control arm 1. 2. 3. 4. B. Thoroughly clean the control arm. Inspect the control arm carefully for cracks and other damage. Replace the control arm if there are defects. Inspect the condition of the lower control arm bushings. Replace any worn or deteriorated bushings. Jounce the vehicle and note any unusual noise.
Procedure for removing a lower control arm 1. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. (If the spring is on the upper control arm, place a wood block between the upper arm and the side rail before raising the vehicle.) CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 2. Remove the coil spring as outlined previously. (If the spring is on the upper control arm, it is not necessary to remove the spring.) Using a taper-breaking tool, disconnect the control arm from the ball joint. Remove the bolts that connect the control arm to the frame. (If the spring is on the upper arm, mark the position of the upper arm alignment cams.) Lower the control arm out from under the vehicle.
3. 4.
5. C.
Procedure for replacing lower control arm bushings 1. 2. Place the control arm in a vise. Be careful not to crush the control arm in the vise. Using the proper removal tool, force the old bushing(s) from the control arm.
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3. Using a proper tool or press, install the new control arm bushing(s). CAUTION: During bushing removal and installation, support the inside area of the control arm with a suitable spacer; doing so prevents crushing or distorting the arm.
D.
Procedure for installing a lower control arm 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Clean all mounting points on the control arm and frame before beginning installation procedures. Reverse the removal procedures to reinstall the coil spring and control arm. If the spring is on the upper arm, use the marks made before disassembly to position the alignment cams. Tighten all fasteners to the specified torque. Check and adjust front-wheel alignment.
VII. Replacing upper control arms, cross-shafts, and bushings A. Procedure for inspecting upper control arms 1. Make sure the upper control arm bushings (made of rubber) are not distorted, off center, loose, or excessively cracked. NOTE: Light cracks in the rubber bushing may be acceptable. If there are light cracks, inspect the bushing more closely to ensure that no other problems exist. 2. Inspect the seals on metal bushings. a. Make sure that the metal bushings produce no unusual noise.
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b. 3. Jounce the vehicle and listen for squeaking noises in the upper control arms. Noise is a sign of friction and wear.
Make sure that the nuts on the ends of the cross-shaft are tight. These nuts sometimes become loose and allow the bushings to work their way out of the control arm.
B.
Procedure for removing the upper control arm 1. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. CAUTION: The positioning of the safety stands depends on the location of the spring. If the spring rests on the upper control arm, place the safety stands under the frame. If the spring rests on the lower control arm, place the safety stands between the spring seat and the ball joint. 2. 3. Remove the wheel-and-tire assembly. Using the procedure outlined below, remove the upper ball joint from the steering knuckle. NOTE: If the spring is on the upper control arm, use a coil spring compressor to relieve the spring tension. See Section III, A for a description of this procedure. Only compress the spring; do not remove it. a. b. Remove the cotter pin from the tapered stud of the upper ball joint. Clean the threads on the end of the stud and loosen the nut two or three turns. Do not remove the nut at this time. Using a taper-breaking tool for ball joints, separate the stud from the knuckle. Remove the ball joint stud nut.
c. d. 4.
Remove the control arm cross-shaft nuts. a. Remove any alignment shims and note their position for reassembly.
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b. If using a slotted alignment adjuster, scribe marks on the adjuster to show the position of the cross-shaft. Refer to these marks during reassembly.
5. C.
Remove the control arm assembly from the vehicle.
Procedure for replacing control arm bushings and shafts (rubber bushings) 1. 2. 3. To replace rubber bushings, press or drive them in and out. Clamp the cross-shaft to a bench vise to support the control arm. Remove the nuts from the ends of the cross-shaft. NOTE: Before removing the bushings, note their position in the control arm. Most bushings press into the control arm until they contact a shoulder. Some bushings, however, press to a specific depth. If the bushing does not contact a shoulder, measure and record the depth at which it presses into the control arm. 4. Using a special bushing removal tool, press the bushings from the control arm. The bushings can also be driven out with a pneumatic impact chisel.
5.
Inspect the control arm for cracks and damage. Also inspect the arm for wear at the bushing holes. Replace any worn or damaged parts.
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6. Inspect the cross-shaft for wear at the bushing pivot points.
7.
Using the suitable tool, press the bushings into the control arm. Use the procedure outlined below. a. b. Install the shaft in the arm before pressing the bushings into place. If applying pressure to the entire arm during assembly, place a spacer on the inner portion of the arm to prevent damage. If a suitable driver is available, drive the bushings into the control arm. Support the control arm to prevent damage. Put the nuts on the cross-shaft ends, but do not tighten them completely. To prevent preloading the bushings, tighten the nuts after installing the arm and after the vehicle is at curb height.
c.
d.
D.
Procedure for replacing metal control arm bushings and shafts 1. 2. 3. Clamp the cross-shaft in a vise to support the control arm. Loosen and remove the bushings with a socket and a breaker bar. Position the shaft in the arm, apply grease to the new bushings and O-rings, and install the bushings on the shaft and arm. (Allow the bushings to remain loose at this point in the procedure.) a. After starting the bushings into the control arm, locate and mark the center point between the mounting holes and the center of the control arm.
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b. c. Alternately tighten the bushings while keeping the reference marks perfectly aligned. Tighten the bushings to the specified torque and then lubricate them.
E.
Procedure for installing the control arm 1. 2. 3. Clean all mounting points on the control arm and frame before beginning installation procedures. To reinstall the control arm assembly, reverse the installation procedures. Put the alignment shims in the same position they were in before removal. If using a slotted alignment adjuster, align the cross-shaft with the scribe marks made during removal. After installing the arm, lower the vehicle. Jounce the vehicle and allow it to settle to curb height. Then tighten the cross-shaft nuts to the specified torque. NOTE: Failure to lower the vehicle before tightening the cross-shaft nuts preloads the rubber bushings, causing them to twist excessively. 5. Check and adjust wheel alignment as necessary.
4.
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UNIT VIII: FRONT SUSPENSION DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 4: SERVICING FRONT STRUT SUSPENSIONS
I. Diagnosing and inspecting strut suspensions NOTE: Suspension systems using struts are diagnosed in the same way as conventional front suspensions. A. Procedure for inspecting ball joints 1. Strut suspension systems use only a lower ball joint. On struts, the looseness of a ball joint is measured in the same way as on conventional front suspensions. The measuring procedures vary slightly among manufacturers. NOTE: The ball joint used with a strut suspension system is a nonload-carrying ball joint. 2. Instructions for measuring ball joint looseness and inspecting ball joint condition on both conventional and strut front suspension are outlined in Lesson 1 of this unit. Procedures for visually inspecting ball joints on struts are the same as those for inspecting ball joints on conventional front suspensions. Always consult the appropriate service information before inspecting ball joints.
B.
Strut rods are used on most strut front suspensions. As with conventional suspensions, strut rods help to support and control the lower control arms. The procedures for inspecting strut rods on struts is the same as for inspecting strut rods on conventional front suspensions. Stabilizer bars used with struts are similar to stabilizer bars used on conventional suspensions. Inspection and diagnostic procedures for stabilizer bars on struts are the same as for conventional front suspension stabilizer bars. Although coil springs are mounted differently on strut suspensions, the procedures for inspecting the springs are the same as for coil springs on short- and long-arm (SLA) suspensions. The best way to diagnose weak coil springs on a strut suspension is to measure vehicle ride height.
C.
D.
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E. On a strut, the damper serves the same purpose as a shock absorber. However, the strut damper is enclosed in the strut tube, which makes the strut damper more difficult to inspect and diagnose than a conventional shock absorber. NOTE: The following is a general procedure for checking strut dampers. For more specific procedures, refer to the proper service information. 1. 2. 3. Jounce the vehicle. If the vehicle bounces more than twice, the dampers are weak. Jounce the vehicle again and listen for any unusual noises. Unusual noises may mean the damper is defective. As previously stated, the damper is enclosed within the strut. Visually inspect the strut for signs of oil that are leaking from the damper. Repair or replace the damper if there are leaks. NOTE: When inspecting the strut for oil leaks, make sure that the oil is actually coming from the damper before making any repairs. Oil on the strut may be from the engine, power steering system, or some other source. F. Procedure for inspecting and diagnosing the top strut mount 1. 2. With the weight of the vehicle resting on the floor, turn the steering wheel to the left and right. Note any binding or popping in the strut assemblies as the steering wheel turns. A defective upper strut mount bearing, which prevents the strut from rotating smoothly, can cause binding or noise. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. Allow the suspension to hang free. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 4. 5. Place a pry bar under each front tire and pry upward while noting any excessive looseness in the upper strut mount. Check the manufacturer's service information for specifications concerning looseness in the upper mount. Some manufacturers allow more movement in the mount than others.
3.
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II. Removing, disassembling, inspecting, and replacing struts A. Procedures for removing struts 1. Raise the vehicle's hood and loosen the nuts that attach the upper strut to the body. Place a mark on one of the studs and a corresponding mark on the vehicle body. These marks serve as reference points during reassembly.
2.
Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. Allow the front suspension to hang free. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions.
3. 4.
Remove the wheel-and-tire assembly. If necessary, remove the brake line from the mounting bracket on the strut tube. Doing so may require disconnecting a brake hose from a brake line and bleeding the brakes after assembly. Depending on how the strut connects to the vehicle, either remove the lower mounting bolts that hold the strut to the steering knuckle or separate the ball joint taper.
5.
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NOTE: If the strut connects to the knuckle with bolts, one of the bolts may have an eccentric washer used for adjusting the alignment. If so, mark the position of the washer on the strut before removal. 6. 7. B. Finish removing the nuts that attach the upper struts to the body. Remove the strut from the vehicle.
Procedure for disassembling a strut 1. 2. Once removed from the vehicle, disassemble and service the strut damper, spring, and top mount. Before disassembling the strut, use a special tool called a coil spring compressor to compress the spring.
CAUTION: Be sure to use the proper type of coil spring compressor to compress a spring. Attempting to use another type of tool could result in serious injury to people working in the immediate area. Never disassemble a strut without first relieving the spring tension. 3. Place the coil spring compressor in a vise. Mount the strut in the coil spring compressor according to the tool manufacturer's instructions. CAUTION: If the coil spring compressor is not designed to support the strut, use a strut-holding fixture. Never clamp the strut tube in a vise. Doing so may crush the strut.
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4. Compress the spring and remove the retaining nut from the top of the strut. NOTE: Never bottom the spring or the strut damper rod. 5. Remove the top mount assembly, protective boot, and jounce bumper. To help reassemble the strut, arrange all of the parts in the same order they were removed.
6. 7. C.
Loosen the coil spring compressor to relieve the tension on the coil spring. Remove the strut and spring from the coil spring compressor.
Replacing strut dampers NOTE: In many vehicles, it is not possible to replace the damper. Service the damper along with the complete strut after removing the spring. 1. 2. 3. Strut dampers may be either the sealed type or the repairable type. After removing the spring and top mount, service the sealed strut damper and strut housing as a complete unit. The repairable damper is a part of a removable damper assembly, which fits inside the existing strut housing. The following is a procedure for disassembling, servicing, and reassembling the damper.
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a. b. Either remove the piston rod nut from the upper end of the strut housing or remove the end of the strut tube. Remove the damper piston rod assembly, cylinder, and fluid. NOTE: A pipe cutter is often used to remove the end of the strut tube. See the manufacturer's directions for the exact procedures. c. Remove the housing and then thoroughly clean it. NOTE: It is very important to maintain cleanliness while repairing strut dampers. d. e. When installing the new parts, lubricate them with the specified strut damper fluid. Fill the damper with a specified amount of fluid. See the manufacturer's specifications for the correct type and amount of fluid to use. Move the piston rod slowly to expel air while adding the fluid. Install the piston rod guide and O-ring. Install the piston rod nut. Seal and torque the nut to specifications.
f. g. 4.
A sealed damper cartridge is similar to a conventional shock absorber. The cartridge greatly simplifies installation of the damper unit. The following is a procedure for installing the cartridge.
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a. Place the strut cartridge inside of the strut tube in place of the original damper.
b. c. D.
If the manufacturer recommends, add a small amount of oil to the strut housing to help dissipate heat. Install the piston rod nut in the top of the strut housing.
Procedures for inspecting strut components 1. After removing the spring, test the damper bench by using the same procedure that is used for testing the shock absorbers. NOTE: Strut dampers are more easily compressed and extended than are conventional shock absorbers. 2. Inspection procedures for strut coil springs are the same as inspection procedures for conventional suspension coil springs. Refer to Lesson 3 of this unit for spring inspection procedures. Procedure for inspecting the strut housing a. b. 4. Inspect the housing for signs of physical damage. Inspect the condition of welds at the lower mounting bracket and at the lower spring mount.
3.
Procedure for inspecting the top strut mount a. Inspect the condition of the mount. Replace the mount if it is badly deteriorated.
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b. c. d. e. E. Inspect the bearing for looseness. Make sure the bearing operates smoothly. Inspect the condition of the jounce bumper. Inspect the condition of the dust boot.
Procedure for reassembling the strut 1. 2. Place a coil spring compressor for a strut in a vise. Compress the spring and install the strut, upper spring seat, and top mount. NOTE: Make sure the spring is properly seated on the spring seat. Some manufacturers require aligning the upper spring seat with the lower spring seat and the lower strut mounting bracket. 3. Install the retaining nut and tighten it to factory specifications.
F.
Procedures for installing the strut 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Install the strut in reverse order of disassembly. Align the upper stud with the mark placed on the vehicle body during disassembly. Align the eccentric washer with the mark on the strut to achieve approximate alignment. If a brake line was disconnected, reconnect and bleed the brake system. Tighten all fasteners to the specified torque. Check front-wheel alignment and set all adjustable angles.
III.
Inspecting and replacing modified struts A. Inspecting and replacing modified struts involves service techniques for both conventional suspensions and strut suspensions. 1. Once removed, service the modified strut in the same manner as a conventional strut.
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2. B. Service the spring on a modified strut differently than a spring on a conventional suspension.
Procedures for removing the spring, ball joint, and control arm from a modified suspension strut are like the procedures for removing the spring, ball joint, and control arm from an SLA suspension system. Consult the proper service information when working with these systems.
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UNIT IX: REAR SUSPENSION DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR CONTENTS OF THIS UNIT
I. II. Unit objective Lesson plan A. Lesson 1: Diagnosing and Repairing Rear Suspension Systems 1. 2. Information outline Job sheets a. b. c. d. e. III. Unit IX Test JS1-L1-UIX: Inspect and Replace Rear Leaf Springs JS2-L1-UIX: Remove, Inspect, and Install Transverse Spring Systems JS3-L1-UIX: Inspect and Replace Rear Coil Springs and Insulators JS4-L1-UIX: Inspect and Replace Rear Suspension Control Arms and Bushings JS5-L1-UIX: Inspect and Replace Rear Suspension Shock Absorbers
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UNIT IX: REAR SUSPENSION DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completing this unit, students should be able to diagnose and repair rear suspension systems. Students will demonstrate mastery of the material by successfully performing specific tasks on the job sheets and achieving a score of _______ on the Unit IX Test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
After completing the lesson in this unit, students should be able to: I. II. III. IV. V. Explain the procedures for inspecting and replacing leaf springs. Explain the procedures for inspecting and replacing coil springs. Explain the procedures for inspecting and replacing rear suspension control arms and bushings. Explain the procedures for replacing rear shock absorbers. Demonstrate the ability to: A. B. C. D. E. Inspect and replace rear leaf springs (JS1-L1-UIX). Remove, inspect, and install transverse spring systems (JS2-L1-UIX). Inspect and replace rear coil springs and insulators (JS3-L1-UIX). Inspect and replace rear suspension control arms and bushings (JS4-L1-UIX). Inspect and replace rear suspension shock absorbers (JS5-L1-UIX).
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UNIT IX: REAR SUSPENSION DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 1: DIAGNOSING AND REPAIRING REAR SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
CAUTION: Always replace suspension fasteners with fasteners of the same quality. Replacing a fastener with one of lesser quality could cause suspension failure and loss of vehicle control or major repair expense. To ensure proper retention of suspension components, always tighten fasteners to the manufacturer's torque specifications. CAUTION: Never repair suspension parts by heating, quenching, straightening, or welding them. Always replace worn or damaged parts with new ones. I. Inspecting and replacing leaf springs A. Procedures for visually inspecting a leaf spring suspension system (before removal) 1. Inspect each leaf for cracks or breaks. Replace broken leaves. NOTE: Broken leaf springs often leave a rust deposit near the crack. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. B. Inspect the tie bolt for breakage. Broken leaves will slide out of position. Inspect the condition of the inner leaves. Inspect the U-bolts for tightness or breakage. Make sure the rebound clips are in good condition. Make sure the shackles and bushings are in good condition.
Procedures for removing the leaf spring 1. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. Place safety stands under the vehicle frame. Leave the hoist under the axle to relieve weight on the springs. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 2. Disconnect the rear shock absorber at the axle housing.
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3. 4. Lower the axle housing, allowing the rear springs to hang freely. Remove the U-bolts and spring retainer plate.
5. 6. 7.
Raise the axle just enough to remove the weight from the spring. Remove both the rear shackle bolts and the rear shackle. Remove both the front hanger bolt from the front spring eye and remove the spring. CAUTION: Leaf springs are very heavy. Have an assistant help to hold and lower the spring assembly from the vehicle. Serious personal injury could result from being struck by a falling spring.
C.
Inspect the leaf spring suspension system after removing it. Use the same procedure as for inspecting the suspension before removal. The bushings, tie bolts, and spring leaves are easier to inspect after the spring is removed. Procedure for replacing spring eye bushings NOTE: If a spring eye bushing is worn, it must be replaced. Bushing replacement is usually done while the spring is removed from the vehicle. 1. 2. Using a special tool designed for bushing replacement, press the old bushing out and press the new one in. Optionally, press the bushings in and out with a shop press and suitable adapters.
D.
E.
Procedure for installing the leaf spring 1. Place the spring under the axle and install the spring in the front hanger. Tighten the fasteners only finger tight.
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2. 3. Install the rear of the spring in the shackle and tighten the fasteners finger tight. Lower the axle until it rests on the spring and install the U-bolts and spring plate. Tighten the U-bolt nuts to the specified torque. NOTE: Make sure the center spring bolt goes in the hole in the differential housing spring plate. NOTE: Do not forget to install the rubber cushion between the spring and axle housing.
4. 5.
Connect the lower end of the shock to the axle housing plate. Place safety stands under the rear axle and lower the vehicle until it is sitting at approximately the normal ride height. a. b. c. Tighten the front spring hanger bolt to the specified torque. Tighten the rear shackle bolts to the specified torque. Remove the safety stands and lower the vehicle.
F.
Service procedures for transverse leaf springs 1. 2. Visually inspect the transverse spring, spring links, control arms, bushings, and mounts for damage. Transverse springs require different service procedures than the more common longitudinal springs. Service procedures for transverse springs are more complex and vary more between vehicles because of the following reasons.
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a. b. 3. A transverse spring supports both sides of a vehicle. Transverse springs are used on both the front and rear suspension systems.
Special service precautions when servicing transverse springs made of composite materials a. b. c. Do not use cleaning agents, such as solvents or engine degreaser, near the composite material. Be careful not to scratch composite springs when servicing them. Do not use a cutting torch or welder near composite springs.
II.
Inspecting and replacing coil springs A. As with front suspension coil springs, measuring the ride height gives a good indication of the condition of the spring. NOTE: Refer to Unit VIII, Lesson 1 for procedures for measuring ride height. B. Procedure for visually inspecting coil springs 1. Look for shiny spots on the coils, which are evidence of coil spring clash (i.e., coils hitting one another during jounce). Weak springs, defective shock absorbers, or a combination of both problems may cause coil spring clash. Look for collapsed or broken coils.
2. C.
Procedure for removing a rear coil spring (typical rear drive axle) 1. Raise the vehicle with a hoist or with a floor jack placed under the axle housing. Place safety stands under the frame and place the weight of the vehicle on the safety stands. Do not lower the hoist or jack all the way at this time. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety equipment. NOTE: On some vehicles, it is necessary to disconnect the brake line between the frame and axle housing to allow enough movement of the axle housing to remove the springs.
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2. 3. Disconnect the lower end of the shock absorbers at the axle housing. Lower the hoist or floor jack. CAUTION: Do not get under the axle assembly as it is lowered. CAUTION: When lowering the hoist or jack, the springs may fall. Be prepared to secure the springs. 4. D. Remove the springs and rubber insulators.
Inspect the condition of the following components. 1. 2. 3. 4. Control arms Disconnected control arm bushings and bolts, if applicable Shock absorbers Disconnected stabilizer bushings
E.
Procedure for installing the springs 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Inspect the condition of the insulators. If they are worn or deteriorated, replace them. Clean the spring seats and remove any dirt or gravel. Tape the insulators to the springs to hold them in place, if necessary. Place the springs between the spring seats. The springs should rest on the lower seat. Raise the axle and reconnect the lower shock absorber mountings. Tighten all fasteners to the specified torque. NOTE: If the brake line was disconnected, reconnect the brake line and bleed the brake system.
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III. Inspecting and replacing rear suspension control arms and bushings A. Procedure for inspecting the control arms and track rod 1. Inspect the control arms for the following: a. b. 2. Bent or broken lower and upper control arms Deteriorated or worn bushings (Bolts should be centered in the bushings.)
Inspect the track rod for the following: a. b. c. Deteriorated or worn bushings Damaged or worn mounting brackets Bends or twists in the rod
B.
Removing and installing the lower control arm NOTE: If replacing both control arms, remove only one arm at a time to prevent the axle from moving sideways or rolling. 1. Procedure for removing the lower control arm a. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions.
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b. c. d. 2. Remove the bracket bolts that attach the control arm to the axle housing. Remove the bracket bolts that attach the control arm to the body. Remove the lower control arm.
Procedure for installing the lower control arm a. b. To install the lower control arm, reverse the removal procedure. Tighten all fasteners to the specified torque.
C.
Removing and installing the upper control arm NOTE: If replacing both control arms, remove only one arm at a time to prevent the axle from moving sideways or rolling. 1. Procedure for removing the upper control arm (rear-wheel-drive axle) a. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. Support the vehicle with safety stands placed under the axle housing. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. b. c. 2. Place a support under the differential pinion nose. Remove the front and rear arm attaching bolts and then remove the arm.
Procedure for installing the upper control arm (rear-wheel-drive axle) a. b. To install the upper control arm, reverse the removal procedure. Tighten all fasteners to the specified torque.
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D. Control arm bushing replacement NOTE: The bushings in many control arms can be replaced while the arm is removed from the vehicle. Some bushings cannot be serviced. If nonserviceable bushings are defective, the entire control arm must be replaced. 1. Using a press and suitable adapters, press out the bushing. Be certain to support the inner portion of the arm to prevent it from being crushed.
2.
If the bushings are located on the axle end of the upper arm, press them into a flange on the axle housing instead of the arm.
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NOTE: Service rear suspension struts in the same way as front suspension struts. Strut service is discussed in Unit VIII, Lesson 4. When working with a rear strut suspension system, consult the appropriate service information for the specific procedures.
IV.
Replacing rear shock absorbers A. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. CAUTION: It is important to support the axle during shock removal to prevent the axle from dropping down and causing injury or damaging the brake line. B. Inspect the shock absorbers for the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. Secureness of mounting Condition of rubber bushings Amount of fluid leakage Condition of piston rod and tube
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C. Using the procedure outlined below, remove the shock absorber. NOTE: Do not grasp the piston rod with a wrench or pliers. Use the flats provided at the end of the piston rod. 1. Secure the piston rod to keep it from turning. Remove the upper shock absorber retaining nut, washer, and rubber bushing. Remove the bolts or nut holding the lower end of the shock absorber to the axle and remove the shock absorber.
2. D.
Inspect the shock absorber by fully extending and compressing the piston rod several times. Note the following. NOTE: Extreme force is required to compress a gas-charged shock; therefore, this inspection procedure may be difficult to perform on a gas-charged shock. 1. 2. 3. 4. Is the action rough? Does the shock make any unusual noise? Does the shock exhibit resistance to movement in both directions? Does the shock expand when released from a compressed position (gas charged only)
E.
Hold the shock in an upright position and extend it fully. Then turn it over and compress it fully. Repeat this action three times to expel any air trapped in the hydraulic cylinder. Repeat the step D. Using the procedure outlined below, install the shock absorber. 1. 2. Using appropriate service information, determine any torque specifications related to installing the shock absorber. Hold the removed shock in the upright position and extend it fully. Then turn it over and compress it fully. Repeat this action at least three times to expel any air trapped in the hydraulic cylinder. Fully extend the shock absorber and install the lower mounting washer and grommet, if used, on the piston rod.
F. G.
3.
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4. 5. 6. H. Insert the shock through the upper mounting hole. Install the upper mounting grommet and washer. Then install and tighten the retaining nut to the specified torque. Install and tighten the bolts or nut retaining the lower end of the shock to the specified torque.
Lower the vehicle.
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UNIT X: ELECTRONIC SUSPENSION CONTROL SYSTEMS DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR CONTENTS OF THIS UNIT
I. II. Unit objective Lesson plans A. Lesson 1: Electronic Suspension Control Systems Design 1. 2. Information outline Assignment sheet a. B. AS1-L1-UX: Electronic Suspension Control Systems
Lesson 2: Diagnosing and Repairing Electronic Suspension Control Systems 1. 2. Information outline Job sheets a. b. c. d. e. JS1-L2-UX: Test Electronic Level Control Performance JS2-L2-UX: Leak Test an Electronic Level Control System JS3-L2-UX: Remove and Install an Electronic Level Control Compressor JS4-L2-UX: Test an Electronic Level Control Height Sensor JS5-L2-UX: Test and Diagnose Components of Electronically Controlled Suspension Systems Using a Scan Tool
III.
Unit X Test
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UNIT X: ELECTRONIC SUSPENSION CONTROL SYSTEMS DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completing this unit, students should be able to identify the function and components of common electronic suspension control systems and diagnose and repair the systems. Students will demonstrate mastery of the material by completing the assignment sheet, successfully performing specific tasks on the job sheets, and achieving a score of _____ on the Unit X Test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
After completing the lessons in this unit, students should be able to: Lesson 1 I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Identify the basic difference between conventional and electronic suspension systems. Identify the function and components of electronic level control systems. Identify the function and components of variable-ratio shock or strut systems. Identify the function and components of air spring systems. Identify the function and components of electronic handling control systems. Complete the assignment sheet on electronic suspension control systems (AS1-L1-UX).
Lesson 2 I. II. III. IV. Explain procedures for diagnosing and replacing electronic level control system components. Explain the procedures for testing and diagnosing components of electronically controlled suspension systems using a scan tool. Explain the procedures for diagnosing and servicing the variable-ratio shock or strut system. Explain the procedures for diagnosing air spring systems.
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V. VI. Explain the procedure for diagnosing the electronic handling control system. Demonstrate the ability to: A. B. C. D. E. Test electronic level control performance (JS1-L2-UX). Leak test an electronic level control system (JS2-L2-UX). Remove and install an electronic level control compressor (JS3-L2-UX). Test an electronic level control height sensor (JS4-L2-UX). Test and diagnose components of electronically controlled suspension systems using a scan tool (JS5-L2-UX).
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UNIT X: ELECTRONIC SUSPENSION CONTROL SYSTEMS DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 1: ELECTRONIC SUSPENSION CONTROL SYSTEMS DESIGN
I. Introduction A. Conventional suspension systems, discussed in the last three units, are passive systems in that the springs, shock absorbers, and struts are nonadjustable. During vehicle operation, these components cannot be adjusted for ride height and firmness or response to various road conditions and vehicle maneuvers. In order to improve upon the static conventional suspension systems, manufacturers have developed electronic suspension control systems that enhance vehicle handling and passenger safety and comfort. Many types of electronic suspension control systems are available that vary in capability and complexity. 1. The simplest electronic suspension control system is the level control system, which uses air shocks to automatically adjust vehicle ride height. The most advanced systems, electronic handling control systems, can automatically vary ride height and characteristics as well as control body motion.
B.
2.
C.
The electronic suspension control systems discussed in this unit are the electronic level control, variable-ratio shocks or struts, air spring, and electronic handling control (semi-active and active).
II.
Electronic level control systems A. Electronic level control systems automatically adjust the vehicle ride height according to the vehicle weight by increasing or reducing pressure in the air chambers of the air-adjustable shocks. Components of the electronic level control system 1. Electronic level control systems include air-adjustable shock absorbers, air lines, air compressor, and sensor valve.
B.
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2. Electronic level control systems usually use a positive displacement, single-piston air compressor that is driven by a permanent magnet 12-volt direct current motor. a The compressor is normally mounted in the engine compartment of the vehicle. When the ignition is turned on and weight is added to the vehicle, the compressor runs and supplies compressed air to the shocks. An exhaust solenoid connects to the compressor and receives current from the batterys positive terminal. If weight is removed from the vehicle, the solenoid activates and allows the system to release air to readjust vehicle height.
b.
3.
Electronic level control systems use an air dryer consisting of a dry chemical (desiccant) that absorbs moisture from the atmosphere before it is delivered to the air shocks. a. b. The air dryer also returns moisture to the atmosphere when the air is exhausted. The dryer contains a valving arrangement that maintains a minimum air pressure in the air shocks at all times.
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4. As mentioned above, electronic level control systems include an exhaust solenoid that the height sensor activates. When this occurs, the solenoid exhausts air from the system. The exhaust solenoid also holds the compressor pressure output to a predetermined limit.
5.
A pressure-limiting valve controls the maximum line pressure to achieve the smoothest ride. The limiting valve is not included on all electronic level control systems. When the height sensor activates the relay, the relay completes the electrical circuit to the compressor motor. Most electronic level control systems use an electric height sensor, which is mounted on a frame crossmember. a. A movable arm connects the height sensor to the rear axle. When vehicle height changes, the height sensor activates the relay, which turns the compressor on and off. As indicated above, the action of the compressor provides pressure to the shock air chamber, thus extending the shock and raising the vehicle. The height sensor also controls the operation of the exhaust solenoid. NOTE: In order to prevent unnecessary activation of the compressor during normal ride motion, the sensor has a built-in delay of 10 seconds to 28 seconds. To protect the compressor during a major air leak, the sensor automatically limits the compressor to a maximum running time of 5 minutes.
6. 7.
b.
c.
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III. Variable-ratio shock or strut systems A. B. Variable-ratio shocks and struts automatically control ride quality or they let the driver select the type of ride control desired. Operation 1. 2. When in the automatic (auto) position, the normal ride mode is selected as the base setting for the system. The following conditions cause the system to switch from the normal ride mode to the firm ride mode. a. b. c. d. 3. Engine acceleration above 90% throttle open Vehicle speed above 80 mph (130 kph) Lateral vehicle acceleration above .35 g (acceleration of gravity) Brake system hydraulic pressure above 400 pounds per square inch (psi)
Listed below are the systems seven primary sensors that provide input to the control module. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Ignition module Brake sensor Vehicle speed sensor Accelerometer Driver select Steering wheel position sensor Vehicle height sensor
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4. The actuators convert the signals received from the control module into mechanical motion. They are located on the top of the shock or strut.
5.
Whenever the vehicle switches to the firm ride mode (either automatically or by the driver), an indicator lamp on the dash comes on.
C.
Actuator operation 1. 2. 3.. Some actuators rotate their armatures either clockwise or counterclockwise, depending on the polarity of the input. Other actuators rotate one-quarter turn each time the actuator sends an electrical signal. The actuators open or close an orifice inside the shock or strut to control the ride. In the firm ride mode, more restriction of the fluid flow causes the stiffer ride. NOTE: Some systems use a three-position shock instead of the two-position shock described here.
IV.
Air spring systems A. B. Air springs are located on the front, rear, or both ends of a vehicle. The purpose of air springs is to adjust the spring rate (amount of weight needed to compress the spring) of the vehicle in order to compensate for driving conditions and load.
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C. Air spring systems use the same primary sensors used in variableratio shock and strut systems (see previous page) plus the three listed below. 1. 2. 3. D. E. F. On/off switch Dome light or door ajar sensor Park/neutral switch
An air compressor, which is usually mounted in the engine compartment, fills the air springs. Fill and vent solenoids (valves) control each air spring in the system. The on/off switch, which is located in the trunk, can disable the system so that the air springs are not damaged during lifting or towing. Always turn the switch to the on position when operating the vehicle.
V.
Electronic handling control systems NOTE: Most electronic handling control systems can be categorized as semi-active suspension systems or active suspension systems. A. Semi-active suspension systems use computer-controlled shocks, struts, or air springs to adjust ride characteristics and ride height. These systems control the way the suspension reacts to various road and driving conditions. 1. 2. On rough roads, the suspension adjusts to a softer setting to allow a smoother ride. If the vehicle is at high speeds or being driven aggressively, the system switches to a firmer setting to improve handling. The system may also lower the vehicle ride height at high speeds to improve stability and aerodynamics. Components of semi-active suspensions may include the following: a. b. c. Variable-ratio shocks or struts Air springs Driver's control switch
3.
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d. e. f. g. B. Ride height sensor Control module (computer) Steering wheel position sensor Accelerometer
Active suspension systems are more advanced in that have all the functionality of the semi-active suspensions but also are capable of moving each wheel up and down to control body motion in response to driving conditions. The wheels move up or down during high-speed cornering or evasive maneuvers to prevent body roll and improve traction and steering control. 1. Major components of most active suspension systems a. High-pressure hydraulic cylinders at each wheel control the wheel's movement in reaction to the road condition, minimizing body movement. The control module, a computer, uses complex algorithms to continuously process information and decide the position of each wheel. Pressure sensors at each wheel record the wheel movement and send the information to the control module. Some vehicles use additional sensors (radar or laser) to provide information about irregular road surfaces up ahead before the vehicle drives over them. Accelerometers are additional sensors that measure vehicle acceleration, braking, and cornering and provide the data to the control module. Some systems use springs at each wheel to ensure that the suspension system does not bottom out if the system fails. The springs also help support the weight of the vehicle and thereby take some of the load off of the system.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2.
Some active suspension systems are used in combination with other electronic systems that control steering, braking, traction, and engine output.
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a. The combined effort of these systems helps the driver maintain control of the vehicle in difficult or hazardous road conditions. The systems electronically compare the driver's inputs with how the car is actually responding. If the car's response does not match the driver's inputs, or if the vehicle is in danger of spinning or skidding out of control, the system automatically engages the appropriate suspension, steering, and braking controls to help stabilize the car and help the driver retain control.
b.
3.
To effectively monitor and control the vehicles dynamics, an active suspension system monitors and interacts with the components listed below. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. Accelerometers High-pressure hydraulic cylinders High-pressure hydraulic pump Hydraulic control unit Suspension pressure sensors Radar or laser sensors Brake control module Variable-effort steering controller Traction control system
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UNIT X: ELECTRONIC SUSPENSION CONTROL SYSTEMS DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 2: DIAGNOSING AND REPAIRING ELECTRONIC SUSPENSION CONTROL SYSTEMS
I. Diagnosing and replacing electronic level control system components NOTE: The following procedures cover only the major components of electronic level control systems. These procedures are very general. Refer to the proper service information for complete and detailed instructions for the specific vehicle. A. Procedure for testing the height sensor 1. Depending on the vehicle, either cycle the ignition on and off or turn the ignition on and shift the gear selector from park to reverse and back to park. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. Support the rear axle at normal ride height. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 3. 4. Inspect wiring connections at the height sensor and the sensor ground. Disconnect the link from the height sensor arm. a. Move the height sensor arm up. After a delay of 10 seconds to 28 seconds (time varies depending on the vehicle model), the air compressor should come on. This fills the shock absorber air boots. Once the boots start to fill, move the arm down. The compressor should stop running. After a delay of 10 seconds to 28 seconds, the shocks should start to deflate.
2.
b. c. B.
Procedure for testing compressor performance NOTE: Test the compressor while the compressor is on the car or on a workbench.
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1. 2. Disconnect the wiring harness to the compressor motor and the exhaust solenoid terminals. Disconnect the pressure line from the dryer and connect a 0-pounds per square inch (psi) to 150-psi pressure gauge to the dryer fitting. Connect a 12-volt power supply to the compressor with an ammeter connected in series between the power supply and the compressor.
3.
4. 5.
While monitoring the ammeter reading, run the compressor. Current draw should not exceed 14 amp. When the gauge reaches approximately 110 psi, shut off the compressor. Note whether the pressure holds or leaks down. (Allow the pressure to stabilize.) NOTE: If the compressor runs until it reaches 120 psi to 150 psi, the pressure relief valve in the exhaust solenoid opens and causes the system to leak down. This results in a false leak indication.
6. C.
Compare the results of step 5 above to the manufacturers specifications and take the appropriate action.
Adjusting the height sensor 1. Adjust the height sensor to raise the ride height (less suspension travel activates the compressor) or lower ride height (more suspension travel activates the compressor). Measure the vehicles ride height. See Unit VIII, Lesson 1 for the procedure.
2.
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3. Procedure for raising the ride height a. To change the sensor adjustment, move a slotted adjustment or an adjusting screw on the actuating arm assembly. On many units, an accepted procedure is to raise the ride height by loosening the locknut that retains the metal arm to the plastic height sensor arm. Then slide the plastic actuator arm to change the actuator position. NOTE: As the position of the actuator changes, the compressor activates or deactivates. In this way, the air is added to shocks as needed to achieve the newly adjusted ride height. 4. Procedure for lowering ride height a. b. Loosen the locknut and move the plastic arm downward to the bottom of the slot and retighten the locknut. If it is not possible to adjust the height properly, check the vehicle ride height. Also check if the height sensor used is the proper one for the vehicle.
b.
D.
Procedure for leak testing the system NOTE: The leak testing procedure outlined below requires the use of a pressure gauge with a Schrader valve, shut-off valve, and adapters to connect the gauge and the valve to the system that is tested. 1. Tee a pressure gauge into the system between the dryer and the air line with a shut-off valve positioned on the compressor side of the gauge.
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2. 3. 4. 5. Open the shut-off valve and apply shop air through the Schrader valve until the gauge reads 100 psi to 120 psi. If the gauge pressure starts to drop, there is a leak. Isolate the compressor by closing the shut-off valve. If the gauge continues to drop when the shut-off valve closes, the leak is not in the compressor. Leak-test all other components using a soapy water solution. If the gauge pressure stops dropping when the shut-off valve closes, the leak is in the compressor. Apply a soapy water solution to the compressor and watch for air bubbles.
6.
E.
Removing and reinstalling the compressor 1. Procedure for removing the compressor a. Disconnect the electrical connectors from the exhaust solenoid and the motor terminals. Also disconnect the hose from the dryer. Remove the screws that retain the compressor mounting bracket to the vehicle and remove the compressor. Remove the mounting bracket fasteners and then remove the compressor from the mounting bracket. Inspect the condition of the air line and wiring after they are disconnected from the vehicle.
b. c. d. 2.
Procedure for reinstalling the compressor a. b. c. d. Install the compressor in reverse order of the removal procedure. Tighten all fasteners to the specified torque. Lightly pressurize the system by adding air to the compressor service valve. Leak test the air line connection at the compressor with a soapy water solution.
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F. Disassembling, inspecting, and reassembling the compressor NOTE: Service only a limited number of compressor parts. Disassemble the compressor only far enough to allow the required service or replacement of parts. 1. Procedure for disassembling the compressor a. Remove the dryer by rotating the retainer spring 90 and pulling the dryer out of the casting. Remove the O-ring from the casting if it does not come out with the dryer.
b.
Remove the screws connecting the cylinder head assembly to the compressor and remove the cylinder head assembly and O-ring.
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c. Remove the cover screws from the head assembly. Remove the cylinder head cover and gasket, exhaust valve and spring, and solenoid valve and filters.
d.
Remove the motor case screws and pull the case and magnet assembly off the armature. NOTE: There are no serviceable parts in the compressor or motor; therefore, do not continue to disassemble the compressor or motor. If parts within the compressor or motor are defective, replace the entire compressor or motor.
2.
Procedure for visually inspecting the compressor a. Inspect the compressor assembly for wear and damage. If wear or damage exists, replace the compressor and motor assembly as a unit. Inspect the motor for wear or damage. Like the compressor, the motor has no serviceable parts.
b.
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3. Procedure for reassembling a compressor a. b. c. G. Install all compressor parts in reverse order of disassembly. Be sure to replace all defective compressor components. Tighten all fasteners to the manufacturers specified torque.
Removing and reinstalling the height sensor 1. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 2. 3. 4. 5. Disconnect the electrical connector from the height sensor. Disconnect the link from the height sensor arm. Remove the screws connecting the height sensor to the frame and remove the sensor. Install the sensor in reverse order of removal.
II.
Procedure for testing and diagnosing components of electronically controlled suspension systems using a scan tool A. B. C. Connect a scan tool and retrieve diagnostic trouble codes from the electronic suspension control system. Use service information to interpret the diagnostic trouble codes. Using service information, locate a diagnostic chart to determine steps needed to pinpoint problems in the electronic suspension system. Perform the necessary procedures to correct the problem. After repairs have been performed, use the scan tool to test the system to be sure no problems exist.
D. E.
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III. Diagnosing and servicing the variable-ratio shock or strut system NOTE: See Unit VIII, Lesson 2 for information on the service of the airadjustable shock absorber and air lines. A. Diagnosing the variable-ratio shock or strut system 1. 2. 3. 4. B. Check for normal shock or strut action (during a driving test and visual inspection). Check for codes. Check the actuator for proper operation. Use the symptom and diagnostic charts to identify the problem.
Servicing the variable-ratio shock or strut system 1. 2. 3. The system does not require routine service. Like all other shocks and struts, they do wear out. Replace the system if a decrease in ride quality is detected during the inspection.
IV.
Diagnosing air spring systems A. B. C. D. E. Check the vehicle ride height and compare to the manufacturers specifications. Check for leaks. Check for codes. Check the actuator for proper operation. Use the symptom and diagnostic charts to identify the problem.
NOTE: The system does not require routine service. NOTE: Some of these systems develop air leakage problems with age.
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V. Diagnosing the electronic handling control system A. The first step to diagnosing and servicing an electronic handling system is to locate the correct service information because of the variations in system design and diagnostic procedures. Procedures for diagnosing and servicing electronic handling control systems commonly have the following steps. 1. 2. 3. 4. Read and interpret the fault codes. Analyze the information and isolate the system that failed. Replace the defective components. Test the vehicle to be sure the concern has been corrected.
B.
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UNIT XI: WHEEL BEARING AND SPINDLE DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR CONTENTS OF THIS UNIT
I. II. Unit objective Lesson plans A. Lesson 1: Wheel Bearing and Spindle Design 1. Information outline 2. Assignment sheet a. B. AS1-L1-UXI: Wheel Bearings
Lesson 2: Diagnosing and Repairing Wheel Bearings and Spindles 1. 2. Information outline Job sheets a. b. c. d. JS1-L2-UXI: Service Nonsealed Tapered Roller Wheel Bearings JS2-L2-UXI: Remove and Install Sealed Front-Wheel Bearings: Front-Wheel-Drive Vehicles JS3-L2-UXI: Remove and Install Sealed Rear-Wheel Bearings: Front-Wheel-Drive Vehicles JS4-L2-UXI: Remove, Inspect, and Install a Wheel Spindle/Knuckle
III.
Unit XI Test
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UNIT XI: WHEEL BEARING AND SPINDLE DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completing this unit, students should be able to identify the function and design of wheel bearings and spindles and service and replace these components. Students will demonstrate mastery of the material by completing the assignment sheet, successfully performing specific tasks on the job sheets, and achieving a score of on the Unit XI Test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
After completing the lessons in this unit, students should be able to: Lesson 1 I. II. III. Identify the function and design of wheel bearings. Identify the function and construction of the spindle. Complete the assignment sheet on wheel bearings (AS1-L1-UXI).
Lesson 2 I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Identify the tasks required for maintaining wheel bearings. Identify requirements for wheel bearing service and adjustment. Explain the procedures for inspecting and servicing nonsealed wheel bearings. Explain the procedures for adjusting nonsealed wheel bearings and tightening sealed wheel bearings. Explain the procedures for inspecting and servicing sealed wheel bearings. Explain the procedures for inspecting and replacing a spindle/knuckle.
VII. Demonstrate the ability to: A. B. Service nonsealed tapered roller wheel bearings (JS1-L2-UXI). Remove and install sealed front-wheel bearings: front-wheel-drive vehicles (JS2-L2-UXI).
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C. D. Remove and install sealed rear-wheel bearings: front-wheel-drive vehicles (JS3-L2-UXI). Remove, inspect, and install a wheel spindle/knuckle (JS4-L2-UXI).
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UNIT XI: WHEEL BEARING AND SPINDLE DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 1: WHEEL BEARING AND SPINDLE DESIGN
I. Wheel bearings function and design A. B. The wheel bearings at each wheel hub minimize rolling resistance and allow the wheels to rotate freely. Types of wheel bearings 1. Tapered roller bearings a. b. c. 2. C. On rear-wheel-drive vehicles, the most commonly used front-wheel bearing is the tapered roller bearing. The rear wheels of many front-wheel-drive vehicles also use the tapered roller wheel bearing design. The tapered roller bearing is favored because of its load-carrying ability.
Ball bearings are also sometimes used.
Design of the tapered roller wheel bearings 1. The typical rear-wheel-drive vehicle has dual-tapered roller bearings mounted on a stationary spindle at each wheel. a. b. The outer wheel bearing is normally smaller than the inner one. The bearings are positioned so that the tapers face each other. This positioning holds the wheel hub in lateral alignment.
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2. Tapered roller bearings consist of an outer cone (also called a race), inner cone, cage (also called a separator), and the tapered rollers.
a. b. c. d. e.
All bearing surfaces are very hard. The rollers roll on the flat surfaces of the inner and outer cones. The bearing cage (made of steel or plastic) maintains the proper spacing between the rollers. The outer cones press into the hub. The bearing cage also holds the tapered rollers against the inner cone.
NOTE: Ball bearings, whose design is similar to tapered bearings, are used on some vehicles. They are generally found on older model vehicles. D. The front wheels of some front-wheel-drive vehicles use a somewhat modified version of the tapered roller bearing design. In the modified design, a selective spacer placed between the bearings allows for their adjustment.
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E. When the tapered bearings are used on front-wheel-drive vehicles, the outer bearing races press into the steering knuckle and the wheel hub presses into the inner races. Double-row ball or roller bearings 1. The double-row ball or roller bearing is the type of wheel bearing used extensively on the front and rear wheels of today's front-wheel-drive vehicles. The double-row ball or roller bearing has inner and outer races with two grooves in which two rows of balls or rollers roll.
F.
2.
a.
The bearing is nonadjustable, permanently lubricated, and sealed. On some vehicles, the bearing is integrated with the wheel hub. If the bearing and hub are integrated, service them as a complete unit.
b. II.
Spindle function and construction A. A spindle is a stationary axle that supports the wheel hubs on their bearings.
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B. Construction 1. A hex nut threads onto the spindle to retain the bearings and maintain their proper adjustment. A cotter pin locks the nut in place. The outer end of the spindle is slotted, which allows it to accept a special tabbed washer. a. b. 3. The washer keeps the spinning motion of the bearing from transferring to the retaining nut. The washer is installed over the spindle before the nut is installed.
2.
The spindle connects to the wheel via the wheel hub and bearings, which ride on the spindle. The spindle either connects to or is integrated with the steering knuckle. The source of lubrication comes from high-temperature wheelbearing grease, which is packed between the bearings and hub.
4.
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UNIT XI: WHEEL BEARING AND SPINDLE DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 2: DIAGNOSING AND REPAIRING WHEEL BEARINGS AND SPINDLES
I. Maintaining wheel bearings A. Wheel bearings are used on the front wheels of most rear-wheeldrive vehicles, on the rear wheels of many front-wheel-drive vehicles, and on the front wheels of some front-wheel-drive vehicles. Bearing maintenance includes the tasks listed below. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. II. Disassembling the bearings Cleaning the bearings (removing all old lubricants and contaminants) Inspecting the bearings for defects Replacing grease seals Replacing defective bearings Repacking the bearings with the specified lubricant Reinstalling and adjusting the bearings
B.
Wheel bearing service and adjustment A. The vehicle must be lifted before servicing the wheel bearings. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. CAUTION: If the vehicle is raised with a jack for wheel bearing service, make sure that it is supported by safety stands. B. Special tools are available for removing the hub cap. Wheel bearing packers can be used to force grease into the wheel bearing. But for most wheel bearing service, a torque wrench and common hand tools are sufficient.
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C. Many brands of quality wheel bearing lubricants are available. 1. Improper lubricants may break down when exposed to heat, stiffen when exposed to cold, or simply lack the lubricating capability needed for high-speed driving. Always use a high-quality wheel bearing grease. Wheel bearing grease that is identified as suitable for use in disc brake systems is usually acceptable for all applications.
2.
D.
Some wheel bearings on late-model front-wheel-drive vehicles are not serviceable. 1. 2. Do not attempt to lubricate nonserviceable bearings. Replace the entire bearing assembly if it is defective. In some cases, it may be necessary to replace the entire knuckle.
E.
All serviceable wheel bearings have scheduled service intervals ranging from 20,000 miles to 30,000 miles under normal driving conditions.
III.
Inspecting and servicing nonsealed wheel bearings NOTE: Before servicing a wheel bearing, determine whether the bearing is sealed or nonsealed. Although most four-wheel-drive vehicles use sealed bearings, the bearings are individually serviceable after they are removed. Consult the proper service information for inspecting and replacing these bearings. A. Procedure for inspecting nonsealed wheel bearings 1. Use proper lifting equipment to raise and support the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 2. 3. Spin the wheel. The wheel should turn freely without binding or making any noise. Grasp the wheel by the top and bottom of the tire and try to move it in and out. The wheel should move slightly (.001 in to .005 in), as measured by a dial indicator on the drum or rotor. Based on the results, perform the following.
4.
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a. b. If spinning the wheel and moving the tire in and out reveal no problems, no other inspection is required. If the bearings are not noisy but are slightly loose, adjust as necessary. (The adjustment procedure is discussed in Section IV.) If the bearings are noisy or excessively loose or tight, service the wheel bearings.
c. B.
Procedure for servicing nonsealed wheel bearings 1. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 2. 3. Remove the wheel. Encapsulate the brake assembly and remove all asbestos dust. CAUTION: Do not allow brake dust to escape into the environment. Brake dust contains asbestos that can cause cancer if inhaled. 4. Remove the brake caliper or drum. a. b. 5. 6. 7. 8. If the caliper is not to be serviced at this time, leave the hydraulic hose connected. If the hydraulic hose remains connected, make sure the caliper is not hanging on the hose.
Examine the hub assembly. Look for a dust cap at the center of the hub. Remove the dust cap. Remove the cotter pin from the spindle nut. Remove the spindle nut. Carefully remove the washer and the outer wheel bearing from the center of the wheel. CAUTION: Do not drop the bearing.
9.
Slide off the rotor from the spindle.
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CAUTION: Do not place fingers on the friction surface of the rotor. Do not allow the rotor to drag heavily across the spindle threads. 10. 11. 12. Using a brass or wooden drift, reach through the hub and tap the inner grease seal out of the hub. Remove the inner wheel bearing. Using a clean shop towel, wipe the grease out of the hub. Avoid getting grease on the friction surfaces of the rotor. NOTE: If the rotor is in two pieces, work on the hubs with the friction disc removed. CAUTION: Keep all wheel bearings in sets and return them to the spindle from which they were taken. Do not replace defective wheel bearings with used wheel bearings. 13. 14. Inspect the condition of the hub and spindle. Use a solvent to thoroughly wash the wheel bearings (and all of the other parts removed with them). a. Using compressed air, blow out all old grease from the bearing. Make sure to remove all grease from the inside of the bearing. Rewash the bearings and accompanying parts.
b.
CAUTION: Do not allow the bearing to spin on the finger(s) while blow-drying the bearing; doing so may result in personal injury. 15. Examine each bearing carefully and note any imperfections such as chips, pits, scratches, etc. Also examine each bearing for discoloration, which indicates overheating. If any problems are found, replace the bearing. NOTE: Always replace both the bearing and its race if there is any doubt about their condition. 16. Repack each bearing with fresh grease by manually pushing it into the larger side of the bearing assembly until it is forced out of the smaller side of the bearing.
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NOTE: Make sure the bearings are repacked with a grease that is designed to withstand the high temperatures and extreme pressures to which they are exposed. 17. 18. 19. 20. Place the equivalent of 3 tablespoons or 4 tablespoons of grease in the center of the hub. Install the inner wheel bearing and a new grease seal. Carefully slide the hub assembly onto the spindle. Install the outer wheel bearing, washer, and spindle nut. CAUTION: If solvent or grease gets on the drum or disc friction surfaces, clean the surfaces with an acceptable brake cleaning solvent. 21. 22. IV. Adjust the bearing. Procedures for bearing adjustment are described in Section IV. Reassemble the remaining brake and wheel assembly components.
Adjusting nonsealed wheel bearings and tightening sealed wheel bearings NOTE: Adjustment procedures for nonsealed bearings differ greatly from adjustment procedures for sealed bearings. What is sometimes called an adjustment procedure for sealed bearings is actually a tightening procedure. A. Procedure for adjusting nonsealed bearings (typical rear-wheel-drive wheel bearing arrangement) 1. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Remove the wheel cover (hub cap). Remove the dust cap from the wheel hub. Remove the cotter pin and/or nut locking device. Tighten the spindle nut to the manufacturer's specifications. Loosen the locknut to the manufacturer's specifications.
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7. 8. 9. 10. B. Using a dial indicator, check the play in the bearings at the rotor or hub. Reinstall a new cotter pin or nut holding device and then reinstall the dust cover. Reassemble the remaining components of the brake and wheel assemblies. Lower the vehicle.
Procedure for tightening sealed wheel bearings NOTE: Sealed bearings are tightened, not adjusted. Most fourwheel-drive or front-wheel-drive vehicles have sealed bearings. 1. If a sealed bearing makes noise or does not turn smoothly, disassemble the entire unit in order to evaluate and replace the bearings, if necessary. If replacing the sealed bearings, adjust (or tighten) the new bearings according to the manufacturer's specifications. Procedures for adjusting (tightening) sealed bearings vary among vehicles. Consult the proper repair information for the correct procedure.
2.
NOTE: Some Chrysler and foreign front-wheel-drive vehicles use bearings that cannot be adjusted even though they are not sealed. If these bearings make noise or fail to turn smoothly, the entire unit must be disassembled in order to evaluate and pack the bearings. V. Inspecting and servicing sealed wheel bearings A. Procedure for inspecting sealed wheel bearings 1. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 2. 3. Spin the wheel. The wheel should turn freely without binding or making any noise. Grasp the wheel by the top and bottom of the tire and try to move it in and out. The wheel should move slightly (.001 in to .005 in), as measured by a caliper on the drum or rotor.
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4. Based on the results, perform the following. a. b. 5. B. If spinning the wheel and moving the tire in and out reveal no problems, no other inspection is required. If the bearings are noisy or excessively loose or tight, replace the bearings.
Lower the vehicle.
Procedures for removing and replacing sealed wheel bearings vary greatly. Refer to the proper service information for the procedure that applies to the specific vehicle. NOTE: Some front-wheel-drive vehicles may have wheel bearings that are incorporated into the knuckles. This design requires removing the drive axles and bearings from the knuckle. In most of these designs, the bearings must be pressed in and out of the spindle. See the proper service information for procedures regarding replacing sealed wheel bearings. NOTE: Most sealed wheel bearings are nonadjustable.
VI.
Inspecting and replacing a spindle/knuckle A. Procedure for inspecting spindles NOTE: Under normal service, the spindle seldom fails. Spindle failure is usually caused by damage from an accident or a failed bearing. However, always inspect spindles during normal bearing service. 1. 2. Inspect the grease seal surface for wear or roughness. Inspect the condition of the threads on the end of the spindle. a. If the threads are rough, repair them with a thread chaser. Rough threads make bearing adjustment difficult. If the threads are badly damaged or stripped, replace the spindle.
b. 3.
Inspect the surfaces on which the inner bearing cones rest. a. Dress down minor nicks with a file. The surface should have no burrs or roughness.
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b. c. If there is major damage, replace the spindle. Major damage may prevent the bearing from running true. The inner cones should slide smoothly over the spindle and yet have a snug fit. If the cones are known to be good but still fit loosely, replace the spindle.
B.
Procedure for removing the spindle (a spindle that is integrated with the steering knuckle) NOTE: The following procedure is general. Refer to the proper service information for the precise procedure for the specific vehicle. 1. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. a. If the spring is on the upper control arm, place a suitable spacer, such as a block of wood, between the upper control arm and the frame before raising the vehicle. If the spring is on the lower control arm, place a safety stand under the lower control arm at the spring seat. Do not apply pressure to the safety stand before loosening the ball joint. The spring pressure helps break the ball joint tapers.
b.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Remove the wheel-and-tire assembly. Remove the brake caliper, hub, and rotor assembly. Remove the brake rotor shield from the steering knuckle. Remove the cotter pin and nut. Next, using a suitable taper-breaking tool, remove the tie-rod end from the knuckle. Remove the cotter pin from the upper and lower ball joints. Loosen the upper ball joint nut one or two turns, but do not remove the nut. CAUTION: Do not remove the nut before breaking the taper. To prevent the spring force from unleashing, ensure that the upper and lower ball joint nuts are in place when breaking the tapers.
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a. b. Using a taper-breaking tool, break the taper between the knuckle and the upper ball joint. It sometimes helps to rap the knuckle sharply with a hammer at the ball joint while applying pressure with the taper-breaking tool.
8.
Loosen the lower ball joint nut one or two turns, but do not remove the nut. CAUTION: Do not remove the ball joint nut before applying spring pressure to the spring seat. Failure to support the spring seat before removing the ball joint nut could cause serious injury. a. b. Using a taper-breaking tool, break the taper between the knuckle and the lower ball joint. As with the upper ball joint, a rap with a hammer can be helpful when removing the lower ball joint.
9.
Raise the safety stand just enough to support the lower control arm. CAUTION: The safety stand must always remain under the lower control arm while disconnecting the ball joint.
10. 11. C.
Remove the upper and lower control arm nuts. Remove the spindle/knuckle.
Procedures for installing a spindle (a spindle that is integrated with the knuckle) 1. 2. Thoroughly clean the tapered holes in the knuckle and ball joint studs. Install the knuckle in the upper and lower ball joint studs. a. b. Install and tighten the upper and lower ball joint nuts to the specified torque. Install the cotter pins in both the upper and lower ball joint studs. If necessary, tighten the nuts further to install the cotter pins. Never loosen the nuts to align a cotter pin hole.
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3. 4. 5. Install the tie-rod end. Tighten the nut to the specified torque and install the cotter pin. Install the brake shield and tighten the fasteners to the specified torque. Clean, inspect, and repack the wheel bearings. a. b. 6. Install a new grease seal. Replace any defective bearings.
Install the hub and rotor. a. b. Adjust the wheel bearings according to the manufacturer's specifications. Install a new cotter pin.
7. 8. 9. 10. D.
Install the brake caliper and tighten the fasteners to the specified torque. Install the wheel-and-tire assembly. Tighten the wheel nuts to the specified torque. Lower the vehicle. Apply the brakes to seat the pads against the rotor before moving the vehicle.
Procedure for removing a spindle (a spindle that is separate from the knuckle) NOTE: On some vehicles, particularly four-wheel-drive vehicles, the spindle is separate from the steering knuckle. The rear wheels on front-wheel-drive vehicles also have no steering knuckles on the rear but have removable spindles. 1. 2. Remove the wheel and tire, brake caliper, hub and rotor, or brake drum and backing plate. Remove the bolts holding the spindle to the knuckle or axle.
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3. On some vehicles, adjust the wheel alignment in part by placing shims behind the spindles. If shims are used to align the spindles, note the shims' position and be sure to reinstall them in the same manner.
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UNIT XII: WHEEL AND TIRE DESIGN CONTENTS OF THE UNIT
I. II. Unit objective Lesson plans A. Lesson 1: Wheel Design 1. 2. Information outline Assignment sheet a. B. AS1-L1-UXII: Wheel Basics
Lesson 2: Tire Design 1. 2. Information outline Assignment sheet a. AS1-L2-UXII: Tire Basics
III.
Unit XII Test
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UNIT XII: WHEEL AND TIRE DESIGN UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completing this unit, students should be able to identify the designs and components of wheels and tires used on passenger cars. Students will demonstrate mastery of the material by completing the assignment sheets and achieving a score of _______ on the Unit XII Test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
After completing the lessons in this unit, students should be able to: Lesson 1 I. II. III. IV. Identify the characteristics of wheel construction. Identify the different types of wheel designs. Identify important facts about wheel maintenance. Complete the assignment sheet on wheel basics (AS1-L1-UXII).
Lesson 2 I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Identify the purpose and basic design of tires. Identify the characteristics of tire construction. Identify the characteristics of tire cord body construction Identify the characteristics of tire grading and rating systems. Identify the characteristics of tire sizing. Identify the characteristics of specialty tires (compact spares).
VII. Identify the characteristics of other specialty tires. VIII. Identify the forms of identification for tires. IX. Complete the assignment sheet on tire basics (AS1-L2-UXII).
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UNIT XII: WHEEL AND TIRE DESIGN LESSON 1: WHEEL DESIGN
I. Basic wheel construction A. B. Wheels are made from stamped steel or cast or forged aluminum or alloys. A wheel consists of the following basic parts. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Holes for the mounting wheel lugs Rim Hole for a valve stem Dropped center section Bead section
C. D.
The wheel usually has between four and six mounting holes that connect the wheel to the wheel hub of the vehicle. Wheel sizes are designated by the diameter of the wheel from bead to bead and also by the width of the wheel between the rim flanges. Common wheel diameters for passenger vehicles are 12 in, 13 in, 15 in, and 16 in.
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E. Many wheels have safety rims. 1. The rims have a safety ridge near the lip of the wheel ridge that helps keep the tire from entering the inner depressed part of the wheel. This lip helps to prevent the bead from unseating if the vehicle corners hard or if the tire goes flat while the vehicle is moving.
2.
F. G.
The inner depressed area allows for tire bead clearance; a tire machine is then used to stretch the other bead over the wheel ridge. Valve stems 1. Valve stems are mounted into a wheel. This enables the addition or removal of air from the tire.
2. 3.
If the valve stems are made from rubber, they snap into the hole. Other valve stems are made from metal that are held in place with a nut.
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4. 5. H. The valve core is located within the stem, allowing air to enter when inflating. A small return spring keeps a tight seal around the valve core.
Wheel offset 1. Factory-installed wheels are designed with proper clearance for brake and suspension components. Wheels are also designed to distribute the vehicle load evenly on the wheel bearings. Offset is the distance in inches between the vertical centerline of the rim and the mounting flange of the wheel center.
2.
a.
If the centerline of the rim is inboard to the mounting flange of the wheel center, it is considered a positive offset. If the centerline of the rim is outboard to the mounting flange of the wheel center, it is considered a negative offset.
b.
II.
Types of wheel designs A. Stamped steel wheels 1. One type of automotive wheel design is made from stamped steel. The wheel consists of two pieces: the center and the rim. a. The center section is riveted or spot welded to the rim (the outer portion).
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b. The mounting holes are tapered to match the tapered wheel nuts (lug nuts). The tapering helps to center the wheel on the wheel studs. These wheels are commonly dressed out with a hubcap.
c. B.
Cast and forged wheels 1. 2. 3. 4. Many wheels today use lighter materials than steel such as aluminum and aluminum alloys. Lighter vehicles have better fuel efficiency. Aluminum wheels usually have a high-quality finish, so the hubcaps are not normally used. The term "mag wheels" is commonly given to wheels made from magnesium or other alloys.
C.
Wheels with tire pressure sensors 1. In an effort to reduce accidents due to underinflated tires, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration has issued legislation requiring all new passenger vehicles to be equipped with tire pressure monitoring systems. Many tire pressure monitoring systems use battery-operated sensors that send radio signals to a receiver module. The basic operation of the system is as follows. a. A tire pressure sensor, mounted on the rim and in the valve stem hole of all four wheels on the vehicle and the spare, senses tire pressure and temperature.
2.
b.
The sensors send the data about each tire to a receiver module. If the tire pressure goes below or above a certain level that is programmed in the system, the module sends a signal to a display on the dashboard to warn the driver.
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3. Basic components a. Tire pressure sensors, which are composed of a transmitter, battery, valve stem with core and cap, mounting nut, and sealing grommet
b. c. 4.
Electronic receiver module with dashboard console for digital display Special magnet tool for programming the tire pressure sensors
The following are the advantages of maintaining the proper tire pressure. a. b. c. Enhanced safety due to fewer tire blowouts and improved vehicle handling Better fuel economy Longer tire life
III.
Wheel maintenance A. Wheel offset 1. When replacing a wheel or installing an aftermarket wheel, use a wheel that has the same offset (positive or negative) as the original. Many aftermarket wheels have an offset that is different from the original factory wheel. a. b. A difference in the offset can affect wheel alignment, vehicle handling, and tire wear. A different offset could also affect weight distribution on the spindle and wheel bearings. This causes premature failure of these components.
2.
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B. Wheel runout (See Unit XIII, Lesson 3 for more information.) 1. Always replace damaged wheels. Wheels can become damaged from accidents, age (rust), and hitting large potholes or curbs. a. b. c. d. C. Rims are measured for runout to determine if the wheel is out-of-round. Wheels can have lateral or radial runout. Lateral or radial runout is measured with a dial indicator. If the wheel runout exceeds the manufacturer's specifications, replace the wheel. Excessive wheel runout may cause the vehicle to shimmy or vibrate.
Torque specifications 1. It is important to torque all wheels (steel or alloy) to the proper specifications for the following reasons. a. b. c. d. If the lug nuts are not tight enough, the wheel may fall off while it is driven. The lug nuts may vibrate loose. Once they are loose, the wheels can shear the studs off of the hub. If the lug nuts are too tight, the disc brake rotor may become distorted or warped. If the lug nuts are too tight, the driver may not be able to loosen the lug nuts with a hand lug wrench in an emergency. If the wheel studs or nuts become stripped, premature failure occurs.
e.
NOTE: Lug nut torque specifications typically range from 80 ft-lb (foot-pounds) to 120 ft-lb, but always check the manufacturer's specifications.
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2. Tighten the lug nuts in the correct sequence. Failure to do so could result in bending or warping the wheel, brake drum, or brake rotor.
3.
When tightening the lug nuts, ensure that the taper of the lug nut is toward the wheel.
a. b.
Snug the lug nut up to the wheel. Then tighten in the correct sequence and to the correct specifications with a torque wrench (manually) or with a torque stick (using pneumatic tools).
4.
Antitheft lug nuts are used on many cars today. a. Usually, one antitheft lug nut is used per wheel to prevent someone from stealing wheels and tires from a vehicle.
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b. The manufacturer supplies a special lug nut key that loosens and tightens the antitheft lug nut.
5.
Torque sticks are a set (usually four to eight pieces) of color-coded, long-shafted sockets. The shafts have a different diameter. a. b. c. They work in combination with a pneumatic (impact) wrench to install lug nuts. The thicker the shaft's diameter, the higher the torque provided. The manufacturer of the torque sticks provides an application chart for most vehicles.
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UNIT XII: WHEEL AND TIRE DESIGN LESSON 2: TIRE DESIGN
I. Purpose and basic design of tires A. Automotive tires provide traction and absorb road shocks. They must perform well on a variety of road surfaces and in various driving conditions. 1. 2. B. Tires must provide traction on asphalt, concrete, gravel, and dirt. Tires must also function as effectively on wet or snow-covered roads as on dry roads.
Most of the tires used today are tubeless; however, some tube tires are still produced. 1. In a tubeless tire, the tire and wheel retain air under pressure. a. b. 2. A synthetic gum rubber liner is built into the tire to prevent air from leaking through the tire fabric. Tire manufacturers use natural and synthetic rubber components in the construction of the tire.
In tires using tubes, both the tire and an inner tube are mounted on a wheel. The tube is inflated and retains the air inside the tire. Tires with tubes are seldom used in today's cars and light trucks.
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II. Tire construction A. The three basic types of cord body construction for passenger tires are bias, belted bias, and radial ply. All tire types have the following components: beads, cord body, tread, and sidewall.
1.
Beads are bands of strong steel wire that fasten to the tire plies and are molded to the inner circumference of the tire. The beads hold the tire in position on the rim. The cord body consists of layers of rubber-impregnated fabric (plies). These layers are molded together in rubber to form the tire. a. b. c. The cord body connects to the steel bead wires. The way the plies are assembled determines the design of the tire's construction (radial plies, belted bias, etc.). The number of plies determines the tire's load-carrying capacity.
2.
3.
The tread is the part of the tire that contacts the road. The tread rubber is molded directly to the cord body. a. b. Rubber is also molded to the cord body sidewalls. Manufacturers use varying tread designs and rubber compounds to comply to specific tire designs.
4.
The sidewall connects the tread to the bead. The tire's sidewall is made from rubber compounds that absorb shocks and irregularities in the road. The flexibility in the sidewall gives the vehicle a smooth ride.
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B. Tires are made from various compounds, as listed below. 1. 2. Fabric (steel, nylon, aramid fiber, fiberglass, polyester) Rubber (natural and synthetic) a. b. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. III. The sidewall rubber is not as thick as the rubber on the tread. The rubber compounds contain antioxidants that help prevent cracking from the sun's ultraviolet radiation.
Reinforcing chemicals (carbon black, silica, resins) Antidegradants (antioxidants) Adhesion promoters (cobalt salts, brass on wire, resins on fabrics) Curatives (cure accelerators, activators, sulfur) Processing aids (oils, tackifiers, peptizers, softeners)
Cord body construction A. Bias ply tires consist of two or more plies placed one on top of another. The cords run in a crisscross (bias) pattern from bead to bead. Plies are constructed of rayon, nylon, polyester, etc.
B.
Belted bias tires are constructed like bias ply tires, but they have two or more layers of tread-reinforcing plies or belts that wrap around the circumference of the tire under the tread.
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1. 2. 3. C. These belts do not extend to the sidewalls. They are positioned under the tread area only. The belts are usually constructed of fiberglass, rayon, or steel. The added belts allow for better wear and handling and increased puncture resistance.
In radial ply tires, the plies of the cord body run in straight lines parallel to each other and perpendicular to the beads.
1.
The plies are at right angles to the tire tread. Two or more belts, made of either fabric or steel, lay on top of the cord body under the tread section. Radial ply tires are used on a majority of today's passenger cars. a. b. They offer better traction, increased tread life, and a softer ride at medium and high speeds. They also create less rolling resistance, a measurement of how much friction a tire produces as it rolls on the road. Lower rolling resistance allows for better fuel economy.
2.
NOTE: Do not use both radial and bias ply tires on the same vehicle because these two types of tires have different handling characteristics. IV. Grades and ratings A. The Uniform Tire Quality Grading Standards, developed by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, are quality standards used for passenger car tires. These standards provide the criteria to rate tires in the categories of tread wear, traction, and ability to dissipate heat.
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NOTE: A tire's rating in these various categories is molded into the tire's sidewall during its construction. The following graphic shows some of the information found on tires.
1.
In the category of tread wear (length of tread life), each tire is assigned a grade number (e.g., 90, 100, etc.). The tread life increases as the number increases. For example, a tire with a grade of 180 should wear twice as long as one with a grade of 90. The letters A, B, and C are used to rate a tire's ability to provide traction on wet roads. A tire with an A rating offers the best traction under wet conditions, whereas C offers minimum traction under wet conditions. The letters A, B, and C are also used to indicate the tire's ability to dissipate or resist heat. A tire with a rating of A has the greatest ability to dissipate or resist heat, whereas a tire rated C has the least ability to resist heat.
2.
3.
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B. A tire's speed rating indicates the maximum speed at which a tire can operate safely. Speed ratings are not valid if the tire is damaged, under- or overinflated, or overloaded. Letters are used to designate the maximum speed rating of the tire, as listed below. S T U H V Z C. 112 mph 118 mph 124 mph 130 mph 149 mph +149 mph
A tire's load range is given to identify the maximum weight each tire size can carry. 1. 2. The P-metric system indicates load range in kilograms and pounds. The alphanumeric system indicates load range with letters. a. b. c. For cars and light trucks, the letters that designate a common load range are B, C, D, and E. Cars usually have a load range of B, whereas light trucks have tires with load ranges of C, D, or E. Some manufacturers use other designations: SL (standard load) and XL (extra load).
D.
A tire's ply ratings are a general indication of its load-carrying capacity. 1. 2. The ply rating is molded into the tire's sidewall. The ply rating number is not necessarily the same as the number of actual plies. For example, a tire with a two-ply sidewall may actually have a four-ply rating. A tire would receive this rating if it had the carrying capacity of four plies.
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3. The following table represents common ratings that usually, but not always, correlate with each other. The maximum pressure (max press) listed below is measured in pounds per square inch (psi)
Common Comparisons for Car and Light Truck Radial Tires Load Range Ply Rating PSI Max Press
B C D E
E. Load index 1.
4 6 8 10
35 50 65 80
Some manufacturers use a new marking system to designate load index. These two- to three-digit numbers usually precede a speed-rating letter. The higher the load index number, the greater the load that the tire can carry. For example, a tire sidewall may have a marking of 90H. The 90 stands for the load index; the H stands for the speed rating.
2. F.
Some tire manufacturers use the letters M and S to identify that the tire performs as required in mud or snow. Tires with this designation are commonly called all-season tires.
V.
Sizing A. In order to understand tire sizing, it is first important to understand aspect ratio. 1. Aspect ratio is the relationship of a tire's height to its width.
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2. Another term for aspect ratio is profile, or series. For example, a 70-series tire is 70% as tall as it is wide. The most common series are 60, 70, 75, and 80.
B.
A combination of U.S. and metric units is used to designate most tires today. A common tire size is P225/60R16. Below is an explanation of the alphanumeric designations. 1. The first letter indicates the tire type. a. b. c. d. 2. P = passenger car (as shown in the above example) T = temporary C = commercial LT = light truck
The next three digits indicate the section width in millimeters. In the example above, 225 = 225 millimeters. Section width is the measurement from the outer sidewall to the inner sidewall at the widest part of the tire when the tire is mounted and inflated. The next two digits indicate the aspect ratio: section height/ section width. In the example above, the section height is 60% of the section width. The next letter indicates the construction type. a. R = radial (as shown in the example cited)
3.
4.
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b. c. 5. C. B = belted bias D = diagonal (bias)
The next digit indicates the rim diameter in inches. In the example cited, 16 in.
Alphanumeric sizing was once the accepted standard by which tires were sized. 1. A typical alphanumeric size is FR70-15. Below is an explanation of what the letters and numbers mean. a. b. c. d. 2. F = size range R = radial ply construction 70 = aspect ratio 15 = rim diameter in inches
Metric sizing eventually replaced the alphanumeric system.
VI.
Specialty tires: compact spares A. A temporary-use spare is a type of compact spare tire that is most commonly supplied with passenger cars today. 1. 2. 3. The compact spare tire takes up less space in the vehicle's trunk or luggage compartment than a full-size spare tire. Temporary-use spares are designated with a T in the alphanumeric size. Inflation on temporary spares is usually about 60 psi, but the top speed is rated at only about 50 mph.
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B. A space-saver spare is another type of spare tire that is supplied with the vehicle. 1. 2. C. This type of tire is inflated with a special air compressor that comes with the vehicle. Normal inflation is about 35 psi. While inflating the tire, ensure that there are no folds in the sidewall of the tire.
A lightweight-skin spare is an additional type of spare tire that is included in the vehicle. This type of tire is a bias ply tire with a reduced tread depth. The estimated tread life is only about 2,000 miles.
CAUTION: Do not substitute compact spare tires for normal tires. They are not rated for the speed or distance of normal (passenger) tires. Use them only for emergencies. Drive the vehicle only a short distance and at reduced speeds until reaching a service facility. VII. Other specialty tires A. Some tire manufacturers are designing and producing run-flat tires. These tires, also called extended mobility tires (EMTs), eliminate the need for a spare and safety stands. 1. 2. Run-flat tires have stiffer sidewalls that support the vehicle even if the tire loses its air pressure. Automotive manufacturers that install these tires as normal tires usually install a tire pressure monitoring system on the vehicle. This system alerts the driver if a tire has lost or is losing pressure. The driver can safely operate the vehicle on run-flat tires for about 125 miles with no air pressure to reach a service facility.
3. B.
Self-sealing tires have a special sealant lining on the inside of the tire that seals small punctures with diameters up to 3/16 in.
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VIII. Forms of identification for tires A. Tire placard 1. Most vehicles have a placard that is permanently located on the vehicle. It is usually on the driver's door jamb. An placard example is shown below.
MFD BY 03/99 GVWR GAWR FRT GAWR RR 2200KG(4850LB) 1134XG(2500LB) 1225KG(2700LB) THIS VEHICLE CONFORMS TO ALL APPLICABLE U.S. FEDERAL MOTOR VEHICLE SAFETY AND THEFT PREVENTION STANDARDS IN EFFECT ON THE DATE OF MANUFACTURE SHOWN ABOVE. 1GNCT18W4XK187526 TYPE: M.P.V. MODEL: T10516 PAYLOAD = 348KG(768LB) TPBS TIRE SIZE SPEED RTG RIM COLD TIRE PRESSURE FRT P235/70R15 S 15X7J 220KPA(32PSI) RR P235/70R15 S 15X7J 220KPA(32PSI) SPA P235/70R15 S 15X7J 240KPA(35PSI) SEE OWNERS MANUAL FOR MORE INFORMATION.
2.
The driver and service technician should refer to the tire placard for tire information (e.g., inflation pressure, maximum vehicle load, and tire size).
B.
DOT/MOT number 1. Tires have a number designated by the DOT (U.S. Department of Transportation) or MOT (Canada Ministry of Transportation). This number identifies where and when the tire was manufactured and identifies the tires for warranties and recalls.
2.
C.
Tire Performance Criteria (TPC) specification 1. The TPC specification, molded on the sidewall, serves as a rating and identifier for original equipment tires on GM vehicles. This specification ensures that the tire has met the size and performance standards (noise, handling, rolling resistance, traction, endurance, etc.) for the specific vehicle.
2.
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UNIT XIII: WHEEL AND TIRE DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR CONTENTS OF THIS UNIT
I. II. Unit objective Lesson plans A. Lesson 1: 1. 2. Inspecting and Rotating Tires
Information outline Job sheets a. b. JS1-L1-UXIII: Inspect and Inflate Tires JS2-L1-UXIII: Rotate Tires
B.
Lesson 2: Mounting Tires and Repairing Punctures 1. 2. Information outline Job sheets a. b. c. d. JS1-L2-UXIII: Dismount, Inspect, and Mount Tires JS2-L2-UXIII: Dismount, Inspect, and Mount a Tire on a Wheel Equipped With a Tire Pressure Sensor JS3-L2-UXIII: Repair Punctures in Tubeless Tires JS4-L2-UXIII: Inspect, Diagnose, and Calibrate a Tire Pressure Monitoring System
C.
Lesson 3: Principles of Wheel Balance and Runout 1. 2. Information outline Assignment sheet a. AS1-L3-UXIII: Wheel Balance and Runout
D.
Lesson 4: Testing for and Correcting Wheel-and-Tire Assembly Runout and Imbalance 1. Information outline
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2. Job sheets a. b. III. Unit XIII Test JS1-L4-UXIII: Measure a Wheel-and-Tire Assembly for Radial and Lateral Runout JS2-L4-UXIII: Balance Wheel-and-Tire Assemblies
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UNIT XIII: WHEEL AND TIRE DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completing this unit, students should be able to inspect, inflate, mount, rotate, and repair tires as well as measure runout and balance wheel-and-tire assemblies. Students will demonstrate mastery of the material by completing the assignment sheet, successfully performing specific tasks on the job sheets, and achieving a score of _______ on the Unit XIII Test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Lesson 1 I. II. III. IV. V. Explain procedures for inflating and inspecting tires. Explain the procedure for removing the wheel-and-tire assembly. Explain the procedures for installing the wheel-and-tire assembly. Explain the procedure for rotating the tires. Demonstrate the ability to: A. B. Lesson 2 I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Explain the procedure for dismounting tires. Explain the procedures for inspecting and mounting tires. Explain the procedure for dismounting a tire on a wheel equipped with a tire pressure sensor. Explain the procedures for inspecting and mounting a tire on a wheel equipped with a tire pressure sensor. Explain the procedure for inspecting, diagnosing, and calibrating a tire pressure monitoring system. Explain the procedures for repairing a tubeless tire with the patch-plug and patch methods. Inspect and inflate tires (JS1-L1-UXIII). Rotate tires (JS2-L1-UXIII).
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VII. Demonstrate the ability to: A. B. C. D. Lesson 3 I. II. III. Identify the differences between static balance and dynamic balance. Identify the characteristics of wheel runout. Complete the assignment sheet on wheel balance and runout (AS1-L3-UXIII). Dismount, inspect, and mount tires (JS1-L2-UXIII). Dismount, inspect, and mount a tire on a wheel equipped with a tire pressure sensor (JS2-L2-UXIII). Repair punctures in tubeless tires (JS3-L2-UXIII). Inspect, diagnose, and calibrate a tire pressure monitoring system (JS4-L2-UXIII).
Lesson 4 I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Explain the procedures for testing a wheel-and-tire assembly for radial runout. Explain the procedures for testing a wheel-and-tire assembly for lateral runout. Explain the procedures for checking the wheel for lateral and radial runout. Explain the procedures for match mounting a wheel-and-tire assembly. Explain the procedures for balancing a wheel. Demonstrate the ability to: A. B. Measure a wheel-and-tire assembly for radial and lateral runout (JS1-L4-UXIII). Balance wheel-and-tire assemblies (JS2-L4-UXIII).
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UNIT XIII: WHEEL AND TIRE DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 1: INSPECTING AND ROTATING TIRES
I. Inflating and inspecting tires A. Inflating tires 1. Tires should be inflated to the factory-recommended pressure. a. The recommended tire pressure for a vehicle's original equipment is found on the tire placard, which is usually located on the driver's door jamb. If the original tires have been replaced, use the tire manufacturer's specification.
b. 2.
Tire pressure should be checked while the tires are cool (at 50F to 70F). The tires are usually sufficiently cool after the car has been immobile for about 3 hours or if the car has been driven less than 1 mile. NOTE: A tire reduces in air pressure about 1 pound per square inch (psi) for every 10 drop in temperature. In addition, a tire increases in air pressure about 1 psi for every 10 increase in temperature. When tires become hot because of driving, their pressure may increase as much as 6 psi.
3. 4.
Test the inflation pressure with a pencil-type tire gauge at least once a month or before a long trip. Also check the spare tire. Procedure for checking tire pressure a. b. c. Remove the cap from the valve stem. Press the tire gauge on the stem to obtain the pressure reading. Compare the reading to the pressure recommended by the vehicle manufacturer. If the pressure is high, press the metal stem in the center of the valve to release air from the tire and recheck the pressure with the tire gauge. Repeat this step until the correct pressure is reached.
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If the pressure is low, add air and recheck the pressure with the tire gauge. Repeat this step until the correct pressure is reached.
d. e.
Reinstall the valve stem caps. If stem extensions are used, make sure they are in place.
CAUTION: If stem caps and valves are not in place, dirt and moisture may enter the valve core, causing leaks. B. Procedure for checking tire wear and condition 1. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. NOTE: Most tires have built-in tread wear indicators that appear as 1/2-in-wide bands when the tread is worn to 1/16 in. 2. Check the tread wear indicators. If the indicators appear in two or more adjacent grooves at three or more locations around the tire, replace the tire.
3.
Use a tread depth gauge to measure the tire wear. This gauge usually indicates increments of 1/32 (1/16 in = 2/32 in).
4.
Inspect the tires for exposed tread fabric. Replace any tire that has worn through the tread.
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5. 6. 7. Inspect the tires for lumps or knots caused by broken or damaged tire plies. Replace tires that have lumps or knots. Inspect tires for deep cuts, especially cuts that expose the fabric. Replace tires that have deep cuts. Inspect tires for flat spots on the tread surface. The cause of flat spots is hard brake applications at high speeds or defective tire construction. Replace tires that have flat spots. Inspect tires for foreign objects (nails, screws, etc.) that have penetrated the tire. If any of these objects are found, repair or replace the tire. Inspect the tires for missing valve stem caps. If the stem caps are missing, replace them. Inspect the tires for signs of tread separation. Separations resemble blisters on the tire's tread or sidewall. Inspect the tires for broken or bent wheels. If there is damage, replace the wheel. To ensure the wheel is straight, manually spin each wheel-and-tire assembly and watch for excessive runout (wobble). Inspect the tires for abnormal wear caused by overinflation, underinflation, lack of rotation, or incorrect wheel alignment.
8.
9. 10. 11.
12.
a. b. c. d.
Underinflation, lack of rotation, or hard cornering causes wear on the shoulders. Overinflation or hard acceleration causes wear in the center. Incorrect wheel alignment (camber) causes wear on one side. Bald spots occur when the tire is out of balance.
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e. II. Feathered edges result from incorrect wheel alignment (toe).
Procedure for removing the wheel-and-tire assembly A. Using a suitable prying tool, carefully pry off the wheel cover. NOTE: If the wheel is equipped with a locking-type wheel cover, remove the trim cover from the lock bolt. Next, use a special wheel bolt wrench to remove the lock bolt.
CAUTION: Handle the wheel covers carefully to avoid injury and to avoid damaging the covers. Many wheel covers have very sharp metal edges. Consult the owner's information if the wheel covers are difficult to remove. B. Loosen the lug nuts one turn. If using an electric or pneumatic impact tool, skip this step and go to step C below. NOTE: Some vehicles are equipped with one antitheft lug nut on each wheel. Use a special socket or key to remove the antitheft lug nut.
C.
Raise the vehicle until the tires are off the floor and then secure the vehicle.
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CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. D. Remove the lug nuts and remove the wheel. CAUTION: Torque sticks are designed for tightening lug nuts, not loosening them; using torque sticks to loosen lug nuts will damage the sticks. Use the correct size impact socket when using electric or pneumatic impact wrenches. III. Procedure for installing the wheel-and-tire assembly A. B. Clean dirt and corrosion from the wheel hub mounting area and from the center pilot hole of the wheel. Place the wheel on the hub and install the lug nuts finger-tight. NOTE: Make sure the tapered part of the lug nut goes toward the wheel.
C.
Using the proper wrench, tighten the nuts alternately to draw the wheel evenly against the hub. Shown below are the tightening sequences for (A) a four-bolt wheel and (B) a five-bolt wheel.
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1. If using an electric or pneumatic impact tool with torque sticks, tighten all lug nuts completely in an alternating pattern (or in a star pattern for five lug nuts). If tightening the lug nuts manually, lower the vehicle and finish tightening the lug nuts with a torque wrench to the manufacturer's specified torque rating.
2.
CAUTION: To prevent rotor distortion, do not use an air wrench to replace lug nuts on hubs with disc brakes. D. Install the wheel cover. CAUTION: To prevent damage to the wheel covers during installation, hit the cover only around the outer circumference with a soft-faced rubber mallet. E. IV. If the wheel is equipped with a tire pressure monitoring system, perform the procedure to register the wheel with the system.
Rotating the tires A. Rotating the tires, which involves moving the tires to a different location on the vehicle, lengthens the life of the tires. Because tires wear differently and at different rates, it is important to rotate them every 7,500 miles or at the intervals that the tire manufacturer specifies. CAUTION: If abnormal tire wear is discovered during rotation, correct the cause before completing the rotation. NOTE: If the spare tire is a full-size tire, include it in the rotation. Never include compact spare tires in the rotation.
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B. Two popular types of tire rotation patterns are shown below.
C.
Procedures for rotating tires NOTE: Tires can be rotated in various patterns; however, the rotation pattern must meet the tire manufacturer's recommendation. For example, some radial tires are unidirectional. This means that their rotation pattern resembles the bias rotation pattern more closely than a typical radial rotation pattern. 1. 2. Loosen the wheel-and-tire assemblies as described earlier in Section II. Raise and support the vehicle so that all four wheels are off the ground. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. 3. Rotate the wheel-and-tire assemblies in the chosen pattern. a. b. Inspect the condition of the tires during the rotation. Inspect the condition of the wheel studs and lug nuts. Replace any defective wheel studs or lug nuts according to the instructor's directions.
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CAUTION: Some tires are directional. This means that they have a special tread designed to roll in only one direction. As a result, they should not be crossed from one side of the vehicle to the other. This type of tire normally has an arrow molded into the sidewall that indicates the direction of rotation. CAUTION: Some wheels are directional. This means that they can rotate only in one direction. As a result, they should not be moved from one side of the vehicle to the other. The purpose of directional wheels is to help cool the brakes. c. 4. Inflate all tires to the recommended pressure
Install the wheel-and-tire assemblies as described in Section III. CAUTION: To prevent rotor distortion, do not use an air wrench to replace lug nuts on hubs with disc brakes.
5.
If the wheels are equipped with a tire pressure monitoring system, perform the procedure to register the wheels with the system in their new location.
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UNIT XIII: WHEEL AND TIRE DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 2: MOUNTING TIRES AND REPAIRING PUNCTURES
I. Procedure for dismounting tires CAUTION: Dismount or mount tires only with a tire changing machine (also called a tire changer). Using tire irons or pry bars to mount or dismount tires can damage tire beads. A. B. C. Deflate the tire by removing the valve core with a valve core tool. Using wheel weight pliers, remove all wheel weights. Mount the wheel-and-tire assembly securely on a tire changer according to the instructions from the manufacturer of the tire changer. Break the beads loose from the rim according to the instructions from the manufacturer of the tire changer.
D.
E.
To prevent bead damage and make removal easier, lubricate both beads with a tire rubber lubricant or a mild soapy water solution. NOTE: Do not use a petroleum-based oil or silicone as a lubricant.
F.
Remove the tire beads according to the instructions from the manufacturer of the tire changer. CAUTION: Failure to follow the tire changer's instructions carefully could result in serious personal injury.
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CAUTION: To avoid bead damage, do not force the mounting tool or allow it to hang up on the tire beads. II. Procedure for inspecting and mounting tires A. B. Clean the wheel. Both bead seats must be free of dirt and rust. Use a wire brush to clean the bead seats. Inspect the wheel for damage. NOTE: Wheels that are cracked or obviously bent must be replaced. Wheels that are suspected of being bent or distorted should be tested for excessive runout. The procedure is discussed in Unit XIII, Lesson 4. C. Inspect the valve stems according to the procedure outlined below. 1. 2. Bend the rubber valve stems from side to side and look for signs of deterioration or cracking. If the stems are defective, replace them. NOTE: It is a good practice to replace the valve stems when mounting new tires. 3. 4. D. Clean any rust or debris from the stem hole by using a wire brush from the inside of the wheel. Apply a rubber lubricant or rubber sealer to the new stem and pull it through the hole. Use a special valve stem installer tool.
Inspect the tire that requires mounting according to the following procedure. 1. 2. 3. Inspect the condition of the tire beads. Discard tires that have badly torn or damaged beads. Inspect for punctures or damage to the tire tread or sidewall. Clean all foreign material from inside the tire.
E.
Lubricate both tire beads with a rubber lubricant or a mild soapy water solution. CAUTION: Inadequate lubrication can damage beads or make installing and seating the beads difficult. Too much lubrication can cause the tire to slip on the rim.
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NOTE: If the tire tread is directional, note the direction of the tread before mounting. F. Using the instructions provided by the manufacturer of the tire changer, mount the tire on the wheel. NOTE: If the bead of the tire or wheel is pitted, add a liberal amount of tire bead sealer to both tire beads. G. Inflate and inspect the tire according to the procedure outlined below. 1. Inflate the tire until both beads pop out on the rim. a. Do not allow pressure to exceed 25 pounds per square inch (psi). Popping out the beads at pressures over 25 psi can damage the rim. If the tire continues to inflate but does not pop, do not continue to add air. Deflate the tire. Break and relube the beads before continuing.
b.
CAUTION: Keep fingers out and away from the bead seating area while popping up the beads. 2. After the beads have popped, continue to inflate the tire to 40 psi. Passenger car tires should never exceed 40 psi. NOTE: This additional pressure helps to seat the beads properly on the rim. 3. 4. Install the valve core and adjust the tire pressure to the recommended pressure. Place some soapy water in the valve stem at the valve core. Bubbles in the water indicate leaks. NOTE: Leaks around the valve core are fairly common. If leaks are discovered, loosen the valve core. Retighten and recheck the core. If it still leaks, replace the valve core and recheck for leakage. 5. 6. Install the valve stem cap or valve stem extension. Pour some soapy water around both tire beads. Bubbles in the water indicate leaks around the tire bead and wheel.
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H. Visually inspect the tire for uneven bead seating. NOTE: The distance from the edge of the rim to the concentric rim-locating ring on the tire should be equal around the circumference of the tire. A tire that is not concentric with the rim cannot be balanced accurately and may have excessive runout. These conditions result in unacceptable performance.
NOTE: The concentric rim-locating ring is molded into the tire. The ring is visible just outside of the rim when the tire is mounted on the wheel. 1. 2. I. III. Check the distance from the edge of the rim on the wheel to the concentric rim locating ring on the tire. If the wheel and tire are not concentric, deflate the tire and break and reseat the beads.
Rebalance the tire.
Procedure for dismounting a tire on a wheel equipped with a tire pressure sensor CAUTION: Dismount or mount tires only with a tire changing machine (also called a tire changer). Using tire irons or pry bars to mount or dismount tires can damage tire beads. A. Deflate the tire by removing the valve core with a valve core tool. Retain the valve core for reinstallation. CAUTION: The valve cores used for tire pressure sensors are specially made for the sensors. Replacing the valve cores with types that are not designed for the system may cause the sensors to corrode and malfunction.
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B. C. Using wheel weight pliers, remove all wheel weights. Procedures for dismounting a tire on a wheel with a tire pressure sensor vary. Use the vehicle manufacturer's instructions for dismounting the tire to ensure that the tire pressure sensor is not damaged.
D.
Mount the wheel-and-tire assembly securely on a tire changer according to the instructions from the manufacturer of the tire changer. Break the beads loose from the rim. To prevent bead damage and make removal easier, lubricate both beads with a tire rubber lubricant or a mild soapy water solution. NOTE: Do not use a petroleum-based oil or silicone as a lubricant.
E. F.
G.
Remove the tire beads according to the instructions from the manufacturer of the tire changer. CAUTION: Failure to follow the tire changer's instructions carefully could result in serious personal injury. CAUTION: To avoid bead damage, do not force the mounting tool or allow it to hang up on the tire beads.
IV.
Procedures for inspecting and mounting a tire on a wheel equipped with a tire pressure sensor A. B. Clean the wheel. Both bead seats must be free of dirt and rust. Use a wire brush to clean the bead seats. Inspect the wheel for damage. NOTE: Wheels that are cracked or obviously bent must be replaced. Wheels that are suspected of being bent or distorted should be tested for excessive runout. The procedure is discussed in Unit XIII, Lesson 4.
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C. Inspect the valve stem of the tire pressure sensor according to the procedure outlined below. 1. 2. Bend the rubber valve stems from side to side and look for signs of deterioration or cracking. In the tire pressure monitoring systems that are currently being installed by most manufacturers, the valve stem is part of the sensor. If the valve stem is damaged or defective, the tire pressure sensor will have to be replaced. CAUTION: The valve stems used for tire pressure sensors are specially made for the sensors. Replacing the valve stems with types that are not designed for the system may cause the sensors to corrode and malfunction. CAUTION: Do not use a rubber sealant to install the new stem because sealant can clog the pressure sensor. NOTE: Some early tire pressure sensors are located in the center of the rim and do not use the valve stem as a part of the system. On those systems, the valve stems are serviced normally. 3. Before installing the valve stem, clean any rust or debris from the stem hole by using a wire brush from the inside of the wheel.
D.
Inspect the tire that requires mounting according to the following procedure. 1. 2. 3. Inspect the condition of the tire beads. Discard tires that have badly torn or damaged beads. Inspect for punctures or damage to the tire tread or sidewall. Clean all foreign material from inside the tire.
E.
Lubricate both tire beads with a rubber lubricant or a mild soapy water solution. CAUTION: Inadequate lubrication can damage beads or make installing and seating the beads difficult. Too much lubrication can cause the tire to slip on the rim. NOTE: If the tire tread is directional, note the direction of the tread before mounting.
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F. Procedures for mounting a tire on a wheel with a tire pressure sensor vary. Use the vehicle manufacturer's instructions for mounting the tire to ensure that the tire pressure sensor is not damaged. Mount the tire on the wheel. Inflate and inspect the tire according to the procedure outlined below. 1. Inflate the tire until both beads pop out on the rim. a. Do not allow pressure to exceed 25 pounds per square inch (psi). Popping out the beads at pressures over 25 psi can damage the rim. If the tire continues to inflate but does not pop, do not continue to add air. Deflate the tire. Break and relube the beads before continuing. CAUTION: Keep fingers out and away from the bead seating area while popping up the beads. 2. After the beads have popped, continue to inflate the tire to 40 psi. Passenger car tires should never exceed 40 psi. NOTE: This additional pressure helps to seat the beads properly on the rim. 3. Install the valve core and adjust the tire pressure to the recommended pressure. CAUTION: The valve cores used for tire pressure sensors are specially made for the sensors. Replacing the valve cores with types that are not designed for the system may cause the sensors to corrode and malfunction. 4. Install the valve stem cap or valve stem extension. CAUTION: The valve caps used for tire pressure sensors are specially made for the sensors. Replacing the valve caps with types that are not designed for the system may cause the sensors to corrode and malfunction. 5. Pour some soapy water around both tire beads. Bubbles in water indicate leaks around the tire bead and wheel.
G. H.
b.
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H. Visually inspect the tire for uneven bead seating. NOTE: The distance from the edge of the rim to the concentric rim-locating ring on the tire should be equal around the circumference of the tire. A tire that is not concentric with the rim cannot be balanced accurately and may have excessive runout. These conditions result in unacceptable performance.
NOTE: The concentric rim-locating ring is molded into the tire. The ring is visible just outside of the rim when the tire is mounted on the wheel. 1. 2. I. J. Check the distance from the edge of the rim on the wheel to the concentric rim locating ring on the tire. If the wheel and tire are not concentric, deflate the tire and break and reseat the beads.
Rebalance the tire. Use a special tool to register the tire pressure sensor with the tire pressure monitoring system. See the next section for this procedure. NOTE: All the tire pressure sensors on the vehicle may need to be registered, not just one. Consult the manufacturer's instructions.
V.
Procedure for inspecting, diagnosing, and calibrating a tire pressure monitoring system A. Check the accuracy of the tire pressure monitoring system by performing the following steps on each wheel. 1. Check the air pressure in the tire with an air gauge that is known to be accurate and compare the reading to the one from the system.
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2. If the gauge and system readings do not match within specifications, reregister the wheel with the system and perform step 1 again. If the gauge and system readings still do not match, replace the tire pressure sensor.
3. B.
Procedure for replacing the tire pressure sensor. 1. 2. Remove the wheel-and-tire assembly from the vehicle. Dismount the tire from the wheel using the procedure outlined in Section III. NOTE: The following steps for replacing the tire pressure sensor are general. Consult the appropriate service information for the procedure that applies to the specific vehicle. 3. Remove the nut that retains the sensor to the wheel and remove the sensor from the wheel.
4. 5. 6. 7. C. D. E.
Replace the sealing grommet at the base of the valve stem. Clean the area where the grommet contacts the wheel, making sure the wheel surface is not damaged. Install the new pressure sensor on the wheel. Install the retaining nut and tighten it to the torque specified by the manufacturer.
Mount the tire on the wheel using the procedure outlined in Section IV. Rebalance the tire. Install the wheel-and-tire assembly on the vehicle.
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F. Reregister the tire pressure sensors with the tire pressure monitoring system. NOTE: The following steps for registering the tire pressure sensors are general. Consult the appropriate service information for the procedure that applies to the specific vehicle. 1. 2. Place the magnet tool, which is supplied with the system, over the wheel's valve stem. Access the correct menu in the computer module and register the wheel with the system at the proper location on the vehicle. Move the magnet to each of the other wheels, including the spare, and register them in the same manner. Exit the program after the module displays that the procedure is complete. Use an accurate gauge to check the air pressure in each tire and ensure that the readings match those from the tire pressure monitoring system within specifications.
3. 4. 5.
VI.
Procedures for repairing a tubeless tire with the patch-plug and patch methods NOTE: Use step A through step F and then step G for the patch-plug method or step H for the patch method. CAUTION: Plug repairs or aerosol sealants provide only temporary repair. To achieve permanent tire repairs, use one of the following procedures. A. If a tire is suspected of having a leak, inflate the tire to the maximum recommended pressure. Immerse the tire in a tank of water or apply a soapy water solution to all areas of the tire. In either case, bubbles will appear at the leak. NOTE: In addition to the tire, the cause of leakage is sometimes from the valve stems, valve cores, and wheels. B. C. After locating the puncture, mark the hole with a tire crayon and then dismount the tire. Remove the foreign object that caused the puncture if the object is still in the tire.
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D. E. F. Dismount the tire and mount it in a tire-spreading tool. Inspect the tire for damaged beads. Discard the tires with badly torn beads. Inspect the tire for cuts, exposed cord, separations, etc., as described in Unit XIII, Lesson 1. NOTE: It is possible to permanently repair punctures and nail holes that have a diameter up to 1/4 in and that are confined to the tread area. These repairs can be made only from inside the tire. Never repair tires worn below 1/16 in. The illustration below shows the normal repairable area of a tire.
G.
Installing a patch-plug 1. Clean out the puncture with a tungsten carbide rod tool.
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2. Buff the area with a tungsten carbide buffing wheel driven by a 3/8-in drill or pneumatic tool. Buff to achieve a finely grained bonding surface.
3. 4.
Do not burn the rubber with the buffing wheel. Do not buff until the cord body is exposed through the inner rubber lining. Clean the buffing dust from the inside of the tire. NOTE: Do not use a petroleum solvent to clean the buffed area. Petroleum may neutralize the chemicals in the patching cement.
5.
Apply an even coat of patching cement to the puncture and the buffed area. Allow the cement to dry thoroughly.
6.
Select a patch-plug that has a stem slightly larger than the puncture. Remove the protective backing from the patch-plug.
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7. Coat the patch-plug with cement and insert it through the puncture. Use a special installation tool to pull the plug through the hole. Pull until the base of the patch presses against the tire.
8.
Bond the patch firmly to the tire by rolling over the patch with a patch wheel. Keep the strokes close together to avoid trapping air under the patch.
9.
Cut off the protruding end of the plug approximately 1/8 in above the tread surface.
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10. Remount the tire and check the repair for leaks by either immersing it in a water tank or applying soapy water to the punctured area. Rebalance the tire. NOTE: When repairing radial tires, use only patches or patch-plugs that are designated for radial tires. H. Installing a tire patch NOTE: Follow step A through step F as previously outlined. NOTE: Repairing a tire with a patch is similar to repairing it with a patch-plug. 1. Buff the inner surface of the tire in the same manner as described in the patch-plug method. Clean the buffing dust from the tire. Probe the tire to ensure nothing is still in the puncture. CAUTION: Do not use a tungsten carbide rod as described in the patch-plug procedure; doing so enlarges the puncture. 3. 4. 5. Coat the buffed area with patching cement and allow it to dry. Peel the protective backing from the patch and center it over the puncture. Bond the patch carefully to the tire. Remount the tire and check the repair for leaks by either immersing it in a water tank or applying soapy water to the punctured area. Rebalance the tire.
11.
2.
6.
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UNIT XIII: WHEEL AND TIRE DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 3: PRINCIPLES OF WHEEL BALANCE AND RUNOUT
I. Static and dynamic balance A. If a wheel-and-tire assembly is heavier at one point than another, the assembly is said to be out of balance. 1. 2. 3. B. Imbalanced wheel-and-tire assemblies result in a rough ride. Imbalanced wheel-and-tire assemblies also shorten the life of the tires and damage steering and suspension components. Tires can be balanced by using either the static method or the dynamic method.
Static balance 1. Static balance means the weight of the wheel-and-tire assembly is distributed equally around the axis of wheel rotation (the spindle). a. If a wheel-and-tire assembly is in static balance, the wheel has no tendency to rotate on its own, regardless of its position. If the wheel-and-tire assembly is not statically balanced, the assembly rolls on its own until the heavy spot is at the bottom.
b.
2.
A statically out-of-balance wheel-and-tire assembly tramps or hops as the car moves down the road.
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a. b. C. The speed at which the tramp occurs depends upon the degree to which the wheel is out of balance. The greater the imbalance, the lower the speed at which the tramp is noticed.
Dynamic balance 1. Dynamic balance can be defined as balance in motion. If a wheel-and-tire assembly is in dynamic balance, it must also be in static balance. However, a wheel-and-tire assembly that is balanced statically is not necessarily balanced dynamically. To achieve dynamic balance, weight must be distributed equally around the axis of rotation. Weight must also be distributed equally in regard to the centerline of the wheel-and-tire assembly. Listed below are some principles of dynamic balance. a. Imagine a stick with equal weights attached to each end. Imagine this same stick attached to a pivot, as shown in the illustration below. If the stick is spun around, the path of its rotation is at a right angle to the pivot (axis of rotation).
2.
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b. If the weights are shifted, as shown in the illustration below, the stick remains in static balance. However, if the stick is spun with the weights in their shifted position, the stick is forced out of its axis of rotation due to dynamic imbalance. The stick tends to wobble each half revolution due to the heavy weights attempting to line up with the center of rotation.
c.
To compensate for this dynamic imbalance, weight must be placed equally around the centerline of the stick. In the case of an automobile wheel, the same is true: weights must be placed around the centerline of the tire, as indicated in the illustration below.
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d. II. Wheel runout A. When wheel tramp or vibration is evident, the cause must be determined before corrective action can be taken. In addition to improper balance, radial or lateral wheel runout may be causing the tramp or vibration. NOTE: When wheel tramp or vibration is evident, it is advisable to check runout before balancing a wheel. B. In a wheel-and-tire assembly with radial runout, the distance from the spindle to the ground changes as the assembly rotates, thus causing the assembly to hop or tramp. A wheel-and-tire assembly with excessive radial runout is commonly referred to as being outof-round. Lateral runout is a sideways wobble of the wheel-and-tire assembly. The wobble occurs as the assembly rolls. Lateral runout is often referred to as shimmy. If the front wheels have lateral runout, the steering wheel may oscillate. Correcting the dynamic balance of the tire also corrects any static imbalance.
C.
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UNIT XIII: WHEEL AND TIRE DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR LESSON 4: TESTING FOR AND CORRECTING WHEEL-AND-TIRE ASSEMBLY RUNOUT AND IMBALANCE
I. Procedure for testing a wheel-and-tire assembly for radial runout (out-ofround) NOTE: Before testing runout, the vehicle should be driven. Driving the vehicle warms the tires and eliminates any irregularities that may have developed as a result of the vehicle being stationary. CAUTION: Drive the vehicle only with the instructor's approval. NOTE: Check and, if necessary, correct wheel bearing adjustment. A. Raise and secure the vehicle. Make sure the tires are raised 3 in to 4 in off the floor. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. B. Position the wheel-and-tire runout gauge (a dial indicator with a roller attached to the plunger) on the center rib of the tire.
C. D.
Rotate the wheel one full revolution and zero the runout gauge at the low spot of the wheel-and-tire assembly. Rotate the wheel again and mark the high spot on the tread. Also mark the wheel bolt nearest the high spot on the tire. NOTE: The specification for radial runout is usually no more than .125 in. Check the proper service information for the vehicle to be serviced.
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E. If radial runout is within specifications, perform the lateral runout test. Refer to the information on lateral runout tests found later in this lesson. If radial runout is not within specifications, perform the following procedure. 1. Unbolt the wheel and rotate it two studs on the hub. Repeat steps C and D on the previous page.
F.
2.
If, after performing steps C and D, runout is still excessive, mark the location of the new high spot on the tire. a. If this second high spot mark is near the first high spot mark, either the wheel or the tire is causing the runout. Match mount the tire and wheel. (Refer to the match mounting information presented later in this lesson.) If the second high spot mark lines up with the first wheel stud mark, the hub or the hub assembly is defective. Replace the defective components.
b.
II.
Procedure for testing a wheel-and-tire assembly for lateral runout (wobble) NOTE: Before testing runout, the vehicle should be driven. Driving the vehicle warms the tires and eliminates any irregularities that may have developed as a result of the vehicle being stationary. CAUTION: Drive the vehicle only with the instructor's approval. NOTE: Check and, if necessary, correct wheel bearing adjustment. A. Raise and secure the vehicle. Make sure the tires are raised 3 in to 4 in off the floor. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions.
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B. Position the wheel-and-tire runout gauge (a dial indicator with a roller attached to the plunger) on the tire sidewall. Make sure it is as close to the tire shoulder as possible without interference from the markings on the outside of the tire.
C. D.
Rotate the wheel one revolution. Mark the low spot on the tire and zero the gauge. Rotate the wheel again and mark the high spot on the tread. Also mark the wheel bolt nearest the high spot on the tire. NOTE: The specification for lateral runout is usually no more than .060 in. Check the proper service information for the vehicle to be serviced.
E.
If lateral runout is within specifications, the lateral runout test is complete. NOTE: If both radial and lateral runout are within specifications, the wheel-and-tire assembly should be balanced.
F.
If lateral runout is not within specifications, perform the procedure outlined below. 1. Unbolt the wheel and align the low spot mark on the tire as closely as possible to the wheel bolt that was marked as the high spot in step D above. Repeat steps C and D above. If, after performing steps C and D, lateral runout is still excessive, mark the location of the new high spot on the tire.
2. 3.
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a. If this second high spot mark is near the first high spot mark, either the wheel or the tire is causing the runout. Match mount the tire and wheel. (Refer to the match mounting information presented later in this lesson.) If the second high spot mark is near the low spot marked in the first observation, the hub or hub assembly is defective. Replace the defective components.
b.
III.
Procedure for checking the wheel for lateral and radial runout A. B. C. Remove the wheel from the vehicle and dismount the tire. Reinstall the wheel on the vehicle and tighten wheel nuts evenly to the specified torque. Place the dial indicator on the vertical and horizontal bead seats and measure the lateral runout and then the radial runout while rotating the wheel. If the runout is excessive when compared to specifications, replace the wheel. NOTE: The specification for wheel lateral and radial runout is usually half the wheel-and-tire assembly specified tolerance.
D.
IV.
Procedures for match mounting a wheel-and-tire assembly NOTE: The procedure for match mounting a wheel-and-tire assembly is the same for correcting both radial and lateral runout. NOTE: Most new tires come with a yellow dot on the sidewall. Match the yellow dot with the valve stem hole. A. B. C. Mark the runout high spot on the wheel and tire. Using a tire changing machine (also called tire changer), deflate the tire and break the beads loose. Measure the lateral and radial runout of the wheel as described earlier in this lesson. If the wheel is defective, replace it.
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D. Rotate the tire on the rim 180 from its original position. Inflate the tire to the specified pressure.
E.
Install the wheel on the vehicle and recheck the runout. If runout is within specifications, proceed with balancing the tire. If runout is still excessive, the tire must be replaced.
V.
Balancing a wheel-and-tire assembly A. Wheel imbalance is corrected by determining the location of the imbalance and then determining where to place weights to correct the imbalance. Two types of wheel balancers are the bubble balancer and the off-vehicle computerized balancer. 1. A bubble balancer can achieve only a static balance. It works much like a carpenter's level.
B.
a.
If the tire has a heavy spot, the balancer tilts and throws the bubble off center. (The bubble moving out of a circle on the balancer indicates off center.)
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b. Weight is then applied at various positions on the tire. When the proper amount of weight is added at the proper locations, the bubble moves back into the center of the circle.
2.
An off-vehicle computerized balancer is the most commonly used balancer today. a. b. This type of balancer corrects both static and dynamic imbalance. The computerized balancer is simple to operate and achieves a high degree of accuracy. After spinning the wheel-and-tire assembly, the balancer indicates how much weight is needed and where the weight should be placed.
C.
Wheel weights 1. Wheel weights are made of lead. Wheel weights range from 1/4 oz to several oz and are usually marked in both ounces and grams. Wheel weights are usually attached to the rim by steel clips, which are molded into the lead weight. Stick-on weights are also available for custom wheels. The illustration below shows some of the various types of weights available.
2.
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NOTE: It is important to use the correct type of weights that correspond to the wheel design. Using incorrect types of weights may cause them to fall off the wheel after the vehicle is driven. D. Procedure for balancing wheels 1. Before balancing tires with any type of balancer, clean any foreign material from the tire tread and wheel assembly. Even small pebbles can affect wheel balance. Inspect the tire condition. Discard tires with tread worn to 1/16 in or less. Also discard tires with bulges, separations, or other obvious damage. Remove all old wheel weights. Balance the wheel according to the directions provided by the manufacturer of the balancer. Install weights securely on the wheel. Loose weights can fly off while the car is moving. Recheck wheel balance after weights are installed.
2.
3. 4. 5. 6.
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UNIT XIV: WHEEL ALIGNMENT DIAGNOSIS, ADJUSTMENT, AND REPAIR CONTENTS OF THIS UNIT
I. II. Unit objective Lesson plans A. Lesson 1: Diagnosing Various Steering, Suspension, and Wheel Alignment Concerns 1. 2. Information outline Assignment sheet a. 3. AS1-L1-UXIV: Steering, Suspension, and Wheel Alignment Concerns
Job sheet a. JS1-L1-UXIV: Diagnose Various Steering, Suspension, and Wheel Alignment Concerns
B.
Lesson 2: Principles of Wheel Alignment 1. 2. Information outline Assignment sheet a. AS1-L2-UXIV: Wheel Alignment Principles
C.
Lesson 3: Measuring and Correcting Wheel Alignment 1. 2. Information outline Job sheets a. b. c. JS1-L3-UXIV: Measure and Correct Front-Wheel Alignment JS2-L3-UXIV: Measure and Correct Rear-Wheel Alignment JS3-L3-UIV: Diagnose Alignment Concerns Caused by Damaged Components
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III. Unit XIV Test
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UNIT XIV: WHEEL ALIGNMENT DIAGNOSIS, ADJUSTMENT, AND REPAIR UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completing this unit, students should be able to diagnose steering, suspension, and wheel alignment concerns and correct all adjustable alignment angles on front and rear suspensions. Students will demonstrate mastery of the material by completing the assignment sheets, successfully performing specific tasks on the job sheets, and achieving a score of on the Unit XIV Test.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
After completing the lessons in this unit, students should be able to: Lesson 1 I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Identify the causes of vibration at highway speeds. Identify the characteristics and causes of wheel shimmy. Identify the characteristics of rough or damaged wheel bearings. Identify the characteristics and causes of wander. Identify the characteristics and causes of lateral pull. Identify the characteristics and causes of hard steering.
VII. Identify the characteristics and causes of poor steering return. VIII. Explain the procedures for diagnosing steering, suspension, and wheel alignment concerns during a road test. IX. X. Complete the assignment sheet on steering, suspension, and wheel alignment concerns (AS1-L1-UXIV). Demonstrate the ability to: a. Diagnose various steering, suspension, and wheel alignment concerns (JS1-L1-UXIV).
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Lesson 2 I. II. III. Identify the characteristics of wheel alignment. Identify the wheel alignment angles and settings. Complete the assignment sheet on wheel alignment principles (AS1-L2-UXIV).
Lesson 3 I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Identify the types of equipment used for wheel alignment. Explain the procedure for making prealignment checks. Identify the interrelationship of wheel alignment angles. Explain the procedures for adjusting front-wheel camber. Explain the procedures for adjusting front-wheel caster. Explain the procedures for adjusting front-wheel toe.
VII. Explain the procedures for rear-wheel alignment. VIII. Explain the procedures for four-wheel alignment. IX. X. Explain the procedure for diagnosing alignment concerns caused by damaged components. Demonstrate the ability to: a. b. c. Measure and correct front-wheel alignment (JS1-L3-UXIV). Measure and correct rear-wheel alignment (JS2-L3-UXIV). Diagnose alignment concerns caused by damaged components (JS3-L3-UXIV).
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UNIT XIV: WHEEL ALIGNMENT DIAGNOSIS, ADJUSTMENT, AND REPAIR LESSON 1: DIAGNOSING VARIOUS STEERING, SUSPENSION, AND WHEEL ALIGNMENT CONCERNS
I. Causes of vibration at highway speeds A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. II. Poor road surface Tire and wheel imbalance Bent wheels or excessive radial or lateral runout Defective tires Improper tires for the vehicle Driveline imbalance Engine imbalance Dragging or sticking brakes
Characteristics and causes of wheel shimmy A. The primary characteristic of wheel shimmy is the shaking of the front wheels. 1. 2. 3. B. Wheel shimmy usually begins at a lower speed than other types of vehicle vibration. The shimmy usually transfers through the steering linkage. This causes the steering wheel to shake back and forth. In some instances, shimmy can become severe enough to make the driver lose control of the vehicle.
Some of the causes of wheel shimmy are listed below. 1. 2. 3. Wheel-and-tire imbalance Excessive wheel-and-tire runout Uneven tire pressure
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4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. III. Badly or abnormally worn tires Defective tires Wheels that are severely out of alignment Defective steering stabilizer Tires and wheels that are too large for the vehicle Misaligned front-wheel-drive axles
Characteristics of rough or damaged wheel bearings A. B. C. Rough or damaged wheel bearings usually produce a low rumbling or growl at slow speeds. At higher speeds, rough wheel bearings often make a howling or whining sound. Wheel bearing noise usually increases and decreases as the steering turns from side to side.
NOTE: Certain types of pavement and uneven or unusual tire wear can produce noise similar to wheel bearing noise. IV. Characteristics and causes of wander (also referred to as directional instability) A. B. Wander is a problem in which the driver must make constant steering corrections to keep the vehicle on a straight path. Listed below are some of the causes of wander. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Low or uneven tire inflation Badly worn tires Incorrect front-wheel alignment Incorrect rear-wheel alignment on front-wheel-drive vehicles Incorrect steering gear adjustment Loose wheel bearings Worn steering pads
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V. Characteristics and causes of lateral pull A. Lateral pull is a problem in which the vehicle pulls to one side as the car is driven straight on a level road. The two types of lateral pull are as follows: 1. 2. One type occurs when the vehicle is in motion. The other type occurs only during braking. Lateral pull that occurs only during braking indicates a brake or suspension problem.
B.
Listed below are some of the causes of lateral pull. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Defective radial tire (This is one of the leading causes of pull.) Uneven tire pressure Malfunction in the power steering control valve or power cylinder Incorrect wheel alignment Dragging brake Broken or weak rear spring
VI.
Characteristics and causes of hard steering A. B. Hard steering is a problem in which the steering wheel requires greater than normal effort to turn. Listed below are some of the causes of hard steering. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Excessively tight steering gear adjustment Incorrect wheel alignment Low tire pressure Low or incorrect steering gear lubricant Inadequate steering and/or suspension joint lubrication
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VII. Characteristics and causes of poor steering return A. Poor steering return means that the steering wheel has difficulty returning to the straight-ahead position after a turn. After the steering wheel turns, it should return to the straight-ahead position on its own. Listed below are some of the causes of poor steering return. 1. 2. 3. 4. Steering gear adjusted too tight Incorrect wheel alignment (especially excessive positive caster) Lack of steering linkage or suspension lubrication Binding in steering column
B.
VIII. Procedures for diagnosing steering, suspension, and wheel alignment concerns during a road test CAUTION: Road test a vehicle only with the instructor's approval. Conduct the road test in an area with little or no traffic. Never exceed the legal speed limit during the road test. Always wear safety belts. An assistant should record all observations made during the road test. Do not attempt to drive and record results at the same time. A. B. Drive the vehicle on a variety of road surfaces to ensure that rough or uneven pavement is not causing the problem. Drive the vehicle slowly (under 15 mph) in a straight line and note any wheel shimmy. Watch the steering wheel for any back-and-forth movement. Note any lateral shaking in the vehicle body. While driving slowly (under 15 mph), listen for any wheel bearing noise. If there is noise, note which wheel the noise is coming from. Steer from side to side while driving. Note any increase in noise. Slowly accelerate to highway speed. Note any shimmy during acceleration. Front-wheel-drive axle shaft misalignment may cause shimmy to occur at a certain speed. NOTE: During the road test, remember that a vibration may occur at any speed up to and including highway speed.
C.
D.
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E. Listen for vibration and note what parts of the car seem to be vibrating. 1. If the steering wheel, hood, dash, etc., are vibrating, the problem is likely an improper runout of the front wheel and tire or improper balance. If the vibration seems to move through the vehicle seat and body, the problem is likely in the rear wheel and tire.
2. F.
Powertrain vibration problems can sometimes mislead the technician. Use the procedure below to diagnose the vibration more precisely. 1. Increase the vehicle's speed past the point at which the vibration occurs. Release the accelerator and carefully slip the transmission selector into neutral. Allow the vehicle to coast until it reaches the speed at which the vibration occurs. a. b. If the vibration does not change, the cause is probably in the tires, wheels, or suspension. If the vibration stops or changes noticeably while the vehicle is coasting in neutral, the problem is likely in the driveline. If the vibration increases or persists with increasing speed, the problem could be in the tires, wheels, drums, or rotors. If the problem disappears as the speed increases, the problem may involve wheel-and-tire runout.
2.
c.
d. G.
Listen for wheel bearing noise at highway speed. At highway speed, defective wheel bearings usually whine. CAUTION: When driving at highway speed, do not turn the steering wheel rapidly from side to side as in the low-speed test.
H.
Follow the procedure outlined below to determine if the vehicle wanders. 1. While driving straight, allow the steering wheel to move on its own.
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CAUTION: Never completely let go of the steering wheel. 2. If the vehicle wanders to one side, return the vehicle to its straight path. After relaxing the grip again, see if the vehicle wanders to the other side. a. If it is necessary to constantly correct the vehicle steering to the right and left, the problem is wander. NOTE: If wander is detected, drive the vehicle on different road surfaces. Some surfaces, such as those with a crown, may cause the vehicle to wander.
b. I.
If the car leads to the same side every time the steering is corrected, the problem is lateral pull.
Drive the vehicle on a flat, level surface and note any lateral pull. Lateral pull is characterized by a constant pull in the same direction. Carefully apply the brakes to see if the pull occurs only when braking. During the road test, note any hard steering or poor steering return. Some vehicles are designed to steer harder than others; however, excessively hard steering should be obvious. The steering should always return to the straight-ahead position when coming out of a turn. NOTE: Although a road test usually cannot provide a final diagnosis, the information obtained during the test can help provide a better idea of the nature of the concern. One can compare the symptoms noted during a road test to the appropriate diagnostic charts. NOTE: Be aware that the cause of steering and suspension concerns can be relatively simple problems such as any of the following: excessive or uneven tire wear, incorrect air pressure in tires, radial tire pull, or a lack of steering and suspension lubrication.
J.
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UNIT XIV: WHEEL ALIGNMENT DIAGNOSIS, ADJUSTMENT, AND REPAIR LESSON 2: PRINCIPLES OF WHEEL ALIGNMENT
I. Characteristics of wheel alignment A. B. C. Wheel alignment is the proper adjustment of the front and rear suspension and steering angles. Wheel alignment improves vehicle handling by preventing such problems as wander and lateral pull. Wheel alignment also reduces tire wear by minimizing slipping and scuffing of the tires. The wheel alignment angles discussed below are referred to as the vehicle's steering geometry.
II.
Wheel alignment angles and settings A. Camber is the inward or outward tilting of the wheels from a true vertical position. 1. Positive camber refers to wheels that tilt out at the top, causing the wheels to be farther apart at the top than at the bottom. Negative camber refers to wheels that tilt in at the top, causing the wheels to be closer at the top than at the bottom.
2.
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3. A vehicle is normally set with a slightly positive camber (a slight outward tilt at the top). a. When the vehicle is loaded and rolling down the road, the wheels tend to move inward at the top and thus are brought into a vertical position. If the camber is set at 0 (truly vertical), the top of the wheels tilt inward (negative camber) as the vehicle moves.
b.
4.
The purposes of camber are described below. a. b. Camber puts the point at which the tire contacts the road at or near the center of the tire tread. Camber provides for easy steering by allowing the inner wheel bearing and spindle assembly to carry the vehicle weight. Camber prevents tire wear. Camber can be used to compensate for road crown.
c. d. 5.
The effects of incorrect camber are described below. a. Incorrect camber causes excessive wear on the suspension components, particularly the ball joints and wheel bearings. Incorrect camber causes excessive wear on one side of the tire tread. NOTE: Excessive negative camber causes wear on the inside of the tire tread. Excessive positive camber causes wear on the outside of the tire tread. c. Excessive unequal camber causes the vehicle to pull to one side. NOTE: The vehicle pulls toward the side with the most positive camber. NOTE: When possible, use unequal camber to compensate for road crown. The spread between the camber readings between the two front wheels should not exceed .5.
b.
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6. 7. B. Camber is measured by the number of degrees that the wheel's centerline tilts away from a truly vertical position. Although camber is adjustable on most vehicles, it is not adjustable on some front-wheel-drive vehicles.
Caster is the backward or forward tilt of the steering knuckle/ spindle from a truly vertical position in relation to the ball joints or strut. 1. 2. The backward tilt of the ball joints or strut is called positive caster. The forward tilt of the ball joints or strut is called negative caster.
3.
Caster has little to do with tire wear. a. Caster allows for directional control of the vehicle by causing the front wheels to stay in the straight-ahead position or return to the straight-ahead position when coming out of a turn. Caster also can be used to offset road crown.
b. 4.
The effects of incorrect caster are described below. a. Too much positive caster or too little negative caster results in hard steering, shimmy, and the transfer of road shock to the driver. Too little positive caster or too much negative caster results in high-speed instability, wander, and weave.
b.
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c. Excessive unequal caster causes the vehicle to pull toward the side of the least positive or most negative caster. NOTE: Unequal caster can be used to offset road crown. NOTE: In order to compensate for road crown, adjust the caster so that the right side has slightly more positive caster with a maximum spread of .5 to .75 between the right and left sides. 5. In order to maintain a good steering return, vehicles with power steering need more positive caster than those with manual steering. Cars equipped with manual steering need less positive caster to ease steering effort. Caster is measured by the number of degrees the ball joints or struts tilt from a truly vertical position. Caster is usually adjustable on rear-wheel-drive vehicles but is seldom adjustable on front-wheel-drive vehicles.
6. 7. C.
Steering axis inclination (SAI) (also called ball joint or kingpin inclination) 1. SAI is a nonadjustable, built-in alignment angle. SAI is an angle that is similar to caster. Like caster, SAI affects the handling characteristics of the vehicle. SAI accomplishes the following purposes. a. b. c. d. 3. Distributes the weight of the vehicle more nearly under the road contact of the tire Reduces the need for excessive camber Provides a pivot point around which the wheel turns and produces easy steering Aids steering stability
2.
Both SAI and caster are aligned with the tilt of the steering axis. a. The steering axis is the imaginary line through either the lower and upper ball joints or the lower ball joint and the top of the strut, as viewed from the side of the wheel.
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b. SAI is the tilt of the steering axis, as viewed from the front of the vehicle.
4.
SAI is also similar to camber in that both angles align with the position of the wheels in relation to the chassis. a. b. Incorrect SAI can prevent the proper adjustment of camber. Incorrect SAI is also an indication of bent or damaged control arms, ball joints, steering knuckles, or vehicle frame.
5.
The point at which the imaginary SAI line intersects with the road surface affects the vehicle's steering effort and stability. a. If the imaginary centerline through the ball joints was vertical, it would intersect the road surface some distance inward of the point at which the tires contact the road. In this arrangement, the effort required to steer the wheel is high because the full travel contact surface turns sideways to the actual direction of travel. This results in high turning effort and excessive tire wear.
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b. With increased SAI, the point of intersection is close to the center of the tire tread contact area. Because the tires turn about this center, less scrubbing action occurs when the wheels turn. Steering effort and tire wear are therefore reduced.
6.
The distance between the point at which the SAI and the wheel centerline intersect the ground is called the scrub angle. a. b. c. If the pivot point is inside the tire centerline contact point, the pivot point is called the positive scrub radius. If the pivot point is outside the tire centerline contact point, the pivot point is called the negative scrub radius. Only the vehicle's manufacturer can determine the amount and type of scrub radius.
D.
The included angle is the camber angle combined with the SAI angle. The included angle determines the point of intersection of the wheel and ball joint centerlines.
E.
Toe 1. Toe is a measurement of the difference in distance between the front and rear of opposing tires. a. b. The purpose of toe is to achieve directional stability while the vehicle is moving. Toe is an adjustable angle that affects tire wear.
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c. 2. Toe is measured in inches, millimeters, or degrees. The condition called toe-in occurs when the distance between the front of the wheels is less than the distance between the back of the wheels.
3. 4.
The condition called toe-out occurs when the distance at the front of the wheels is greater than at the back of the wheels. Rear-wheel-drive vehicles are usually set slightly toe-in because the force created as the vehicle rolls forward tends to force the front of the tires outward. Many front-wheel-drive vehicles are set with a slight toe-out because the tires tend to move together at the front as the vehicle rolls forward. Effects of incorrect toe a. b. c. d. Excessive toe causes feathered tire wear. Excessive toe causes tires to squeal during cornering. Too much toe-in causes either feathered wear or wear to the outside of the tire located on the right axle. Too much toe-out causes either feathered wear or wear to the inside of the tire located on the left axle. NOTE: A vehicle that is set with zero toe wanders.
5.
6.
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F. Toe-out on turns (also called front-wheel turning angle or turning radius) 1. Toe-out on turns is the difference in the angles between the two front wheels and the vehicle frame during a turn. a. b. 2. Toe-out on turns is usually a nonadjustable angle that controls the tracking of the front wheels during turns. Toe-out on turns is used to minimize tire wear while cornering.
The inner wheel follows a smaller radius than the outer wheel when the vehicle is rounding a curve. Therefore, the inner wheel axle must be at a sharper angle to the vehicle's frame than the outer wheel axle. a. b. The inner wheel is toed out a greater distance. Toe-out on turns is achieved by the inward angle of the steering knuckle arms at the point where they connect to the steering linkage.
3.
Toe-out on turns is adjustable on some vehicles. But incorrect toe-out on turns often indicates that a suspension component is bent or broken. If the toe-out on turns is incorrect, the tires wear excessively during cornering. A tire with excessive wear squeals during cornering. The squeal occurs even at low speeds.
4.
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G. Thrust angle 1. The angle formed between the vehicle centerline and the thrust line is called the thrust angle. The thrust angle determines the vehicle's tracking. a. b. The vehicle centerline is an imaginary line from the center of the front to the center of the rear of a vehicle. The thrust line is a line that is perpendicular to a vehicle's rear axle.
2.
The vehicle frame should be parallel to the centerline. The angles formed by the axles intersecting the vehicle centerline should be 90. If the rear wheels are square with each other and the rear axle is at right angles with the centerline, the thrust angle is 0. A thrust angle that is not 0 can cause the vehicle to pull to one side and have excessive tire wear. It can also affect braking control. Vehicles with an incorrect thrust angle may appear to be running (tracking) sideways down the road. This sideways movement is called dog tracking. A thrust angle to the right of the centerline is called positive. A thrust angle to the left of the centerline is called negative. The thrust angle is not adjustable on most rear-wheel-drive vehicles. a. Broken spring tie bolts or broken spring leaves cause improper thrust angle. As a result, the axle assembly shifts. Another cause of improper thrust angle is frame damage due to an accident.
3.
4. 5.
b. 6.
On front-wheel-drive vehicles, incorrect thrust angle is more common.
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a. The rear toe and camber are adjustable on many of these vehicles. Adjusting the rear toe and camber can easily correct the problem if the cause of the damage is not the spring, axle, or frame. On front-wheel-drive vehicles, aligning the rear wheels can correct improper thrust angles.
b.
NOTE: Newer wheel aligning equipment that is capable of measuring alignment at all four wheels can detect improper thrust angle. H. Setback 1. Setback is a condition in which one of the vehicle's wheels sets farther toward the rear of the vehicle than the wheel on the other side. Excessive setback is usually the result of a frontal impact that pushes one wheel toward the rear of the vehicle.
2.
Most modern alignment equipment can measure setback. Most vehicles can tolerate a slight amount of setback without any problems. But setback is not adjustable. To correct excessive setback, replace the components or straighten the vehicle's frame.
I.
Ride height 1. Before making any alignment adjustments, check the vehicle's ride height and make necessary corrections. If the ride height is incorrect, the other wheel alignment angles are thrown off. Incorrect ride height can be adjusted on some torsion bar suspension systems, but otherwise springs or other suspension parts must be replaced to correct ride height.
2.
NOTE: See Unit VIII, Lesson 1 for details on vehicle ride height.
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UNIT XIV: WHEEL ALIGNMENT DIAGNOSIS, ADJUSTMENT, AND REPAIR LESSON 3: MEASURING AND CORRECTING WHEEL ALIGNMENT
I. Types of wheel alignment equipment NOTE: The design and complexity of wheel alignment equipment vary greatly. The equipment may consist of either simple gauges or complex electronic machines. A. Many facilities use electronic wheel alignment equipment that consists of a rack, console, monitor, and keyboard. 1. 2. 3. 4. The equipment has sensors that are placed at each wheel. These sensors send signals to a panel or screen on the monitor. The screen shows misalignment and provides guidance for the adjustment procedures. The operator enters the alignment specifications into the machine. The operator can then print out a sheet showing alignment specifications, actual readings before alignment, and readings taken after completing alignment.
B.
Turntables are sometimes used during wheel alignment to allow the front wheels to turn easily during the procedure. 1. The turntables are marked in degrees. a. b. c. 2. The vehicle is placed on the turntables with the wheels straight ahead. The turntables are then set on the 0 mark. The wheels are then turned to check the caster and toe-out on turns.
Wheel alignment is performed by placing the vehicle on a level floor with the front wheels resting on turntables. (The vehicle is not raised.)
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NOTE: For this procedure, it is very important that the vehicle rests on a level surface. If wheel alignments are performed in this manner, it may be difficult to reach adjustment devices. 3. The most convenient way to align the wheels is by using a lift equipped with turntables. The lift raises the vehicle on a level surface and allows access to the adjustments under the vehicle.
NOTE: Many special tools are designed to assist in adjusting the wheel alignment. II. Procedure for making prealignment checks NOTE: Perform the following tasks in this procedure before measuring or adjusting the alignment. A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. J. K. Make sure the tires are at the proper inflation pressure. Make sure all tires are the same size. Check and adjust the wheel bearing adjustment, if necessary. Inspect for loose, worn, or damaged steering and front and rear suspension components. Test the condition of the ball joints. Check for wheel-and-tire assembly runout. Check and adjust the steering gear adjustment. Check for excessive vehicle loads. Remove any excessive loads, if found. Check and correct the vehicle ride height. Remove any dirt and mud from the wheels, tires, or suspension. Check the manufacturer's alignment procedures for specific instructions. Some manufacturers require having a full gas tank during alignment. Others require adding weight to the car to simulate passenger weight.
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III. Interrelation of wheel alignment angles NOTE: The wheel alignment angles are referred to as the vehicle's steering geometry. A. The various alignment angles are interrelated; therefore, alignment angles need to be adjusted in a specific order. The manufacturers of alignment equipment usually provide information that gives the order for checking and adjusting the various angles. Front-wheel angles are usually checked in the order listed below. This order ensures that an angle that is properly set is not changed. No matter what the order of angle adjustment is, always recheck the other angles after changing each angle. 1. 2. 3. 4. Caster Camber Toe Toe-out on turns
B.
NOTE: Due to the variations in procedures for diverse types of alignment equipment, this lesson discusses procedures only for changing adjustable angles. Refer to the equipment manufacturer's instructions for directions on using a particular alignment machine. CAUTION: Never attempt to correct the alignment by heating or bending the steering or suspension components. If it is not possible to correct the alignment through normal adjustment procedures, replace the defective parts. IV. Adjusting front-wheel camber A. Depending on the suspension design, a variety of methods are used to adjust the front-wheel camber.
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1. One common adjustment method involves adding or removing shims from the upper control arm shaft mounting points. Moving an equal number of shims on both the front and rear of the arm adjusts the camber without affecting the caster.
B.
Slotted holes at the upper control arm mounting points are also used to adjust front-wheel camber. Moving both the front and rear of the arm an equal distance in the same direction adjusts the camber without affecting the caster.
C.
Vehicles that have the spring on the upper control arm usually have an eccentric cam adjustment, which can be used to adjust the frontwheel camber. NOTE: Eccentric cam adjustment or slotted hole adjustment is used at the lower connecting point of some strut vehicles.
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D. Eccentric cam adjustment is also found at the upper control arms of some vehicles with short- and long-arm suspension. When the cam adjustment is moved an equal distance to the front and rear, the camber is adjusted without affecting the caster.
V.
Adjusting front-wheel caster A. Many of the procedures for adjusting the camber apply to adjusting the caster. When adjusting either the caster or camber, be careful to adjust only those angles that are not within specifications. As in front-wheel camber adjustment, the front-wheel caster can be adjusted by adding or removing shims at one end of the upper control arm. But adding or removing shims also adjusts the camber. Removing shims from one end and adding the same shims to the other end should adjust the caster without affecting the camber. Slotted adjustment and eccentric cam adjustment on the upper control arm allow for adjustment of the front-wheel caster as well as front-wheel camber. Vehicles with the spring on the upper control arm and some strut vehicles are equipped with adjustable strut rods that correct the caster. Changing the strut rod adjustment moves the lower control arm forward or backward to adjust the caster.
B.
C.
D.
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VI. Procedure for adjusting the front-wheel toe A. To adjust the front-wheel toe, use the adjusting sleeve to increase or decrease the tie-rod length. The procedure is outlined below.
1.
Center the steering wheel with the front wheels pointing straight ahead. NOTE: If the vehicle is equipped with power steering, start the engine and move the steering wheel back and forth several times to center the steering. Turn off the engine and lock the steering wheel in the straight-ahead position with a steering wheel locking clamp. A few manufacturers specify that the engine be running while adjusting the toe.
2.
Loosen the tie-rod clamp bolts and adjust the toe. NOTE: Key the tie-rods about the same length.
3.
Tighten the clamp bolts to specification. Make sure the tie-rods are centered in their bowls. Do not allow the gap in the sleeve clamp to line up with the gap in the sleeve. Position the clamps according to the manufacturer's instructions.
B.
Other methods for adjusting the toe involve using either an optical system or a computer-assisted toe adjuster. Because both of these machines adjust the toe relative to the vehicle's centerline, they provide the most accurate toe adjustment.
VII. Procedure for rear-wheel alignment A. Rear-wheel alignment can be performed on a machine designed to align all four wheels at once. Rear-wheel alignment can also be performed on a two-wheel alignment rack. The vehicle is simply backed onto the two-wheel alignment rack.
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B. Caster, camber, and toe are adjustable on the rear wheels of many front-wheel-drive vehicles. Caster, camber, and toe on the rear wheels are commonly adjusted by removing the wheel spindle and installing selective shims between the spindle and axle. NOTE: Generally, adjust the caster before the camber. Adjust the alignment in the sequence the manufacturer prescribes. Making adjustments in the wrong sequence can result in improper alignment. 1. 2. Add or subtract shims from one end of the pivot shaft only to adjust caster. Install shims on the upper or lower side of the spindle to adjust the camber.
3.
Install shims in the front or rear of the spindle to adjust toe.
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C. Eccentric cams, which connect to the interconnecting points of the lower control arms, also provide a means for adjusting the toe on the rear wheels of front-wheel-drive vehicles. The cams adjust the length of the control arms to adjust the toe.
VIII. Procedure for four-wheel alignment A. Four-wheel alignment ensures that all four wheels are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the imaginary centerline of the vehicle. In past years, vehicles with unibodies had enough front alignment adjustment to cover imperfections in the rear axle. Today's vehicles do not have adequate adjustment. Four-wheel alignment provides less rolling resistance, better fuel economy, and longer tire life. Four-wheel alignment also ensures that the vehicle drives and tracks straight ahead when the steering wheel is centered. Four-wheel alignment can be performed either on two-wheel alignment equipment or on four-wheel equipment. NOTE: If using two-wheel alignment equipment to perform a four-wheel alignment, take extra steps to ensure that the vehicle's centerline is correct. Four-wheel alignment equipment usually checks these centerlines automatically. Align the rear wheels first by backing the vehicle onto the equipment. D. Procedure for performing a four-wheel alignment NOTE: The following procedure is general and does not apply to all alignment equipment or vehicles. For more specific procedures, refer to the procedure from the manufacturer of the alignment equipment or to the proper vehicle service information. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Perform all prealignment procedures. Set the rear camber, if necessary. Set the rear toe, if necessary. Set the caster and camber on one of the vehicle's front sides. Set the caster and camber on the other front side of the vehicle. Set the front toe.
B.
C.
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IX. Diagnosing alignment concerns caused by damaged components A. Because of wear or damage, it is not always possible to solve alignment concerns by performing normal alignment procedures. The following procedures are recommended for identifying hidden problems. 1. 2. Measuring the wheelbase to check for front-wheel setback Checking the alignment of the front engine cradle NOTE: On front-wheel-drive vehicles in which the lower control arms are attached to the engine cradle, a shift in the cradle's position or damage to the cradle may upset SAI as well as caster or camber. 3. 4. B. Checking and comparing SAI and included angle readings side-to-side Checking the vehicle's turning radius (toe-out on turns)
Generally, the alignment angles listed above cannot be adjusted. Alignment concerns involving these angles are usually resolved by replacing damaged steering or suspension components or repairing structural damage. Procedures for diagnosing alignment concerns caused by damaged components 1. Perform a road test to confirm the concern. CAUTION: Always obtain the instructor's approval before conducting a road test. Conduct the road test in an area with little or no traffic. Never exceed the legal speed limit during the road test. Always wear safety belts. An assistant should record all observations made during the road test. Do not attempt to drive and record results at the same time. 2. 3. Position the vehicle on alignment equipment and perform a prealignment inspection. See Section II. Check alignment settings and compare them to specifications. Make any necessary adjustments.
C.
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4. Measure the vehicle's wheelbase to check for front wheel setback.
a. b.
Steer the wheels so that they are straight ahead. On the right side of the vehicle, use a tram gauge to measure from the center of the front wheel to the center of the rear wheel. Repeat the measurement on the left side of the vehicle. Compare these measurements and note any difference from side to side. Determine the necessary action.
c. d. 5.
Check the alignment of the front engine cradle. a. b. Locate the vehicle manufacturers specifications for cradle measurements and alignment. Use proper lifting equipment to raise the vehicle. CAUTION: When lifting a vehicle, always use proper lifting equipment and observe all safety precautions. c. Perform the following steps to check engine cradle alignment. Remove any components that are blocking access to the cradle mounting points. NOTE: Clean dirt and debris from all measurement points to ensure accurate measurements.
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Perform diagonal measurements from the vehicle's center point (or manufacturer's designated position) to each of the engine cradle mounting points.
6.
To check for cradle damage or distortion, perform the following measurements. a. Perform width measurements of engine cradle mounting points at the front and back of the cradle. See measurements A in drawing. Perform length measurements of engine cradle mounting points at both sides of the cradle. See measurements B in drawing.
b.
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c. Perform diagonal measurements of engine cradle mounting points. See measurements C in drawing.
7.
Compare all measurements to specifications to determine if the cradle is damaged or misaligned. a. b. If the cradle is damaged, the cradle will need to be straightened or replaced. If the cradle is misaligned, loosen all cradle mounting bolts, move the cradle to the correct position, and retighten the mounting bolts.
8.
Position the vehicle on the alignment equipment to measure the steering axis inclination (SAI) and included angle. NOTE: Some types of computerized alignment equipment provide SAI and included angle readings as part of the camber and caster measurement. a. b. c. d. e. f. Start at the left front wheel. Lock the front brakes using a brake pedal depressor. Steer the wheels straight ahead. Steer the wheels to the left until the indicator is aligned (normally about 20 left). Steer the wheels to the right until the indicator is aligned (normally about 20 right). Record the SAI and included angle readings.
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g. h. Repeat the procedure for the right front wheel and record the readings. Compare the SAI and included angle readings to specifications. Determine the necessary action.
NOTE: SAI measurements that are not within the specifications indicate a bent or damaged front strut or spindle. 9. Check the vehicle's turning radius (toe-out on turns). NOTE: Ensure that the front-wheel toe setting is correct before checking the turning radius. a. b. c. d. Steer the wheels straight ahead. Steer the wheels to the left until the left front wheel is at 20. Record the reading. Steer the wheels to the right until right front wheel is at 20. Record the reading. Compare the readings to specifications. Determine the necessary action.
NOTE: Turning radius readings that are not within the specifications indicate a bent or damaged front steering arm.
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70-1805-S

Module 5: Steering and Suspension Systems

Automotive Technology Curriculum

2006 Edition Student Reference

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

Automotive Technology Module 5: Steering and Suspension Systems Student Reference

Project Coordinator: Erica Kassel

Editor: Janis Levsen

Graphic Artists: Chris Benedict Jacqueline Craig

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

Perform primary functions. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Diagnosis Disassembly Measurement Repair Assembly Adjustment

Perform a comprehensive four-wheel alignment on a structurally sound vehicle.

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. C. D.

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

Determine the necessary action.

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

Use the following chart as a guide to leak diagnosis and correction.

Symptom Leakage around the dipstick

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

Symptom Leakage at the hose connection

Loose bolts Defective O-ring or gasket

Leakage at the sector shaft seal Leakage through the gearing

Worn or damaged seal Cracked or porous gear housing

Leakage at the hose fitting Leakage through the gear housing

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

Unit III Test