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Work, Power
& Energy
CONCEPT NOTES
NOTES
04. Power 25 - 31
Energy : It is possible to give a numerical rating, called energy, to the state of a physical system. The total
energy is found by adding up contributions from characteristics of the system such as motion of objects in it, heat
content of the objects (though that can also be attributed to mechanical vibrations of particles), and the relative
positions of objects that interact via forces. The total energy of a closed system always remains constant. Energy
can not be created or destroyed, but only transferred from one system to another.
Energy comes in a variety of forms, and physicists didn’t discover all of them right away. They had to start
somewhere, so they picked one form of energy to use as a standard for creating a numerical energy scale. One
practical approach is to define an energy unit based on heating of water. The SI unit of energy is the joule, J,
named after the British physicist James Joule. One joule is the amount of energy required in order to heat 0.24 g
of water by 1°C.
Note that heat, which is a form of energy, is completely different from temperature. In standard, formal terminology,
there is another, finer distinction. The word heat is used only to indicate an amount of energy that is transferred,
whereas thermal energy indicates an amount of energy contained in an object.
Once a numerical scale of energy bas been established for some form of energy such as heat, it can easily be
extended to other types of energy. For instance, the energy stored in one gallon of gasoline can be determined by
putting some gasoline and some water in an insulated chamber, igniting the gas, and measuring the rise in the
water’s temperature. (The fact that the apparatus is known as a bomb calorimeter will give you some idea of
how dangerous these experiments are if you don’t take the right safety precautions). Here are some examples of
other types of energy that can be measured using the same units of joules.
Type of energy:
• chemical energy released by burning • energy required to break an object
• energy required to melt a solid substance • chemical energy released by digesting
food
• raising a mass against the force of gravity • nuclear energy released in fission, etc.
Textbooks often give the impression that a sophisticated physics concept was created by one person who had an
inspiration one day, but in reality it is more in the nature of science to rough out an idea and then gradually refine
it over many years. The idea of energy was tinkered with from the early 1800’s onwards, and new types of
energy kept getting added to the list.
Definition of work:
Work is the amount of energy transferred into or out of a system, not taking into account energy
transferred by heat conduction.
[Based on this definition, is work a vector, or a scalar? What are its units?]
The conduction of heat is to be distinguished from heating by friction. When a hot potato heats up your hands by
conduction, the energy transfer occurs without any force, but when friction heats your car’s brake shoes, there is
a force involved. The transfer of energy with and without a force are measured by completely different methods,
so we wish to include heat transfer by frictional heating under the definition of work, but not heat transfer by
conduction. The definition of work could thus be restated as the amount of energy transferred by forces.
fig. 5.1
Consider the situation shown in figure 5.1. A constant force F is applied on a block of mass m along the horizontal
direction. If the block moves by a distance S on the horizontal surface on which it is placed, as shown in figure,
then the work done by the force F is defined as
w = F ⋅S ...(1).
If the force and the displacement are not along the same direction, as shown in figure 5.2, then work done by force
F is calculated by multiplying the force and the component of the displacement along the force, as shown in figure
5.3, therefore, for the given case, work done by force F is
sθ
co
F F
S
θ F(const.)
S
m m
m θ S m
fig. 5.2
fig. 5.3
w = F ⋅ S cos θ
⇒ w = F ⋅ S ⋅ cosθ ...(2)
Here you should note that work done by the force F can also be written as
w = ( F cos θ ) ⋅ S
θ is the component of F along the displacement, as shown in figure 5.4.
and we know that Fcosθ
F(const.)
θ S
m m
F cos θ
work done by F
= force along displacement × displacement
fig. 5.4
Hence, work done by a constant force can also be defined as the product of the displacement and the
component of the force along the displacement.
Our special definition of the word work does not correspond to the daily usage of the term. This may be confusing.
A person holding a heavy weight at rest in the air may say that he is doing hard work- and he may work hard in the
physiological sense-but from the point of view of physics we say that he is not doing any work. We say this
because the applied force causes no displacement. The word work is used only in the strict sense of equation (3).
The unit of work is the work done by a unit force in moving a body a unit distance in direction of the
force. In the mks system the unit of work is 1 newton-meter, called 1 joule.
! !
mg mg θ
! path path
mg mg
h ! h S
S
S cosθ !
mg S cosθ
2 2
fig. 5.8 fig. 5.9
Consider the situation shown in figure 5.8. A particle of mass m is moved on an arbitrary path in a vertical plane.
As the particle is moved from point 1 to point 2, its weight acting on it at different positions during its motion is also
shown in figure. From figure it is clear that work done by gravity can be found by multiplying mg (magnitude of the
force) by the downward displacement h of the body because the component of the displacement of the body
along the force is h only. If you are not satisfied with the discussion above and want to calculate it mathematically,
then you can proceed according to the following way:
Work done by gravity when particle moves from point 1to point 2 as shown in figure 5.9 is
! !
w g = mg ⋅ s
!
= mg ⋅ s cos θ [∵ mg is constant]
= mg. h
= weight of the particle × downward displacement of the particle
w g = mgh
...(4)
(downward motion)
You should note that this work done is independent of the path of the particle. You should also note that “mgh” is
work done by gravity only, not by all forces acting on the particle when it moved from point 1 to point 2.
What would be the work done by gravity when the particle moves from point 2 to point 1? In this case the
displacement of the particle has a component of length h in the vertical direction but this component is in the
!
opposite direction of mg , hence, work done by gravity for this case is
w g = −mgh
...(5)
(upward motion)
You should note that this expression is also independent of the path followed by the particle while moving from
point 2 to point 1.
Now, let me propose a common equation for the equations (4) and (5). When a particle of mass m moves near
earth surface, work done on it by gravity is given by
w g = −mg∆h ...(6)
where ∆h is the change in height of the particle. If the particle goes up by a height h then ∆h = +h and
wg = −mgh , which is in accordance with equation (5). If the particle comes down by a height h then ∆h = –h and
work done by gravity, wg = + mgh, which is in accordance with the equation (4). Hence, for all cases we can use
equation (6). The only restriction while using equation (4), (5) or (6) is that ‘mg’ must be uniform over the path for
which work done is required.
Note that if the particle moves from 1 to 2 and then from 2 to 1, then work done by gravity is zero. Hence, we can
say that work done by gravity in a closed path is zero.
⇒ w = ∫ F ⋅d s ...(8)
1
You should note that when you apply equation (8) for a constant force you get the same result as given by equation
(3).
! !
For a one dimensional case equation (8) can be modified by replacing d s with dx and replacing F with F(x).
Therefore, we get,
xf
w= ∫ F ( x) ⋅ dx ...(9)
xi
fin
= ∫ ( Fxiˆ + Fy ˆj + Fz kˆ ).(dxiˆ + dyjˆ + dzkˆ )
in
fin
= ∫ ( Fx ⋅ dx + Fy ⋅ dy + Fz ⋅ dz )
in
xf yf zf
⇒ w= ∫ Fx ⋅ dx + ∫ F y ⋅ dy + ∫ Fz ⋅ dz ...(10)
xi yi zi
!
If components of F along x, y and z are constant, then equation (10) reduces to
w = Fx ⋅ ∆x + F y ⋅ ∆y + Fz ⋅ ∆z ...(11)
fin
⇒ w= ∫ Ft ⋅ ds ∵ nˆ ⊥ ! !
# d s and tˆ ⋅ d s = ds ...(12)
in
A light spring of spring constant k is stretched from an initial deformation xi to a final deformation x f quasistatically
(i.e., equilibrium is always maintained). Find the work done by
(a) spring force (b) external agent
natural xi
Solution: In figure 5.11 the spring is shown at some arbitrary length
deformation x. As the spring always exerts restoring xf
force, at the shown moment it is applying a force in x
the opposite direction of x. Therefore, dx
Fext
Fsp = −kx (always true) where k is the spring Fsp
constant of the spring.
fig. 5.11
To increase the deformation the external must exert a force in the direction of x and the force exerted
by the external agent, Fext , must have a magnitude equal to that of Fsp because equilibrium is always
maintained. Therefore,
true only if equilibrium
Fext = + kx
is maintained
If the spring is further deformed by dx from the shown position then work done by the spring force is
dwsp = (−kx) ⋅ dx
and work done by external agent is
dwext = (+kx) ⋅ dx
While deforming the spring from xi to x f , we get, total work done by the spring,
xf
wsp = ∫ dwsp = −k ∫ x ⋅ dx
xi
1 1
⇒ wsp = − kx 2f − kxi2 ...(13)
2 2
WORK, POWER & ENERGY www.locuseducation.org
PHYSICS LOCUS 10
and total work done by external agent
xf
wext = ∫ dwext = +k ∫ x ⋅ dx
xi
1 2 1 2
⇒ wext = kx f − kxi ...(14)
2 2
Initially if the spring has its natural length then substituting xi = 0, equation (13) and (14) give
1
w sp = − kx 2f ...(15)
2
1
and wext = + kx 2f ...(16)
2
1
= (−kxi )( x f − xi ) + (−kx f + kxi )( x f − xi )
2 F(x)= – kx
fig. 5.12 =Fsp
1 1
= − kx 2f − kxi2
2 2
• If we put xi = x f in equation (13), then we get wsp = 0. Therefore, we can say that work done by
spring force in a closed path is zero.
! !
⇒ w = Fnet ⋅ ds ...(18)
Therefore, if many forces are acting on a particle, then we have two ways to find out net work done on the
particle:
1. find work done by each force individually and then find the sum of work done by all forces;
2. find the net force, sum of all forces, acting on the particle and then find work done by this net force.
When you are applying the above approach for a particle then no attention is needed but while applying this
concept on a system of particles or on a body you need to be cautious. If points of application of different forces
have different displacements, then equation (17) can not be reduced to equation (18). Hence, in such a case you
are left with only one option and that is of using equation (17).
TRY YOURSELF - I
Q. 7 Two unequal masses of 1 kg and 2 kg are attached to the two ends of a light inextensible string passing
over a smooth pulley as shown in figure. If the system is released from rest, find the work done by the
string on both the blocks in 1 s. (Take g = 10 m/s²)
1 kg
2 kg
! !
Q. 8 A particle moves from a point r1 = (2m)iˆ + (3m) ˆj to another point r2 = (3m)iˆ + (2m) ˆj during which a
$!
certain force F = (5 N )iˆ + (5 N ) ˆj acts on it. Find the work done by the force on the particle during the
displacement.
Q. 9 A block of mass m moving at a speed v compresses a spring through a distance x before its speed is
halved. Find the spring constant of the spring.
As we have already discussed that the normal component of a force does no work, the work is done only by the
tangential component of a force. The tangential component is related to rate of change of speed of the particle. By
dv
the Newton’s 2nd law, ∑ Ft = m , where v is speed of the particle and ∑ Ft denotes the sum of tangential
dt
components of all forces acting on the particle. We can now think of speed as a function of the distance s
measured along the curve (as shown in figure 5.14) and apply the chain rule for derivatives:
v = ds
dt
dv dv ds dv
= ⋅ = v⋅
dt ds dt ds s
dv
∴ ∑ Ft = m ⋅ v ⋅
ds
starting
point
fig. 5.14
ds
where we have used the fact that is just the speed v. The work done by resultant force is thus
dt
fin fin
dv
wnet = ∫ ∑ Ft ⋅ ds = ∫ mv ⋅ ds ⋅ ds
in in
fin fin
= ∫ mv ⋅ dv = m ∫ v ⋅ dv
in in
1 1
or wnet = mv 2f − mvi2 ...(19)
2 2
1
The quantity mv 2 has the same unit as that of work and hence it is a form of energy. As it depends upon the
2
speed of the particle, it is defined as the kinetic energy, k, of the particle. Hence equation (19) can be rewritten
as
wnet = k f − ki
⇒ wnet = ∆k ...(20)
Therefore, net work done on a particle is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the particle. This
theorem is known as the work energy theorem.
If positive work is done on a particle then kinetic energy of the particle increases. If work done on a particle is
negative then kinetic energy of the particle decreases. If no work is done on a particle then kinetic energy of the
particle remains unchanged and hence speed of the particle remains constant. At this juncture you should recall the
WORK, POWER & ENERGY www.locuseducation.org
PHYSICS LOCUS 14
very basic definition of work. We had defined it as energy transferred by forces and here the work energy
theorem proves this definition. Now, it is clear that all the work done on a body goes in increasing the kinetic
energy of the body.
Using equation (12) and (20), we can get
dw = dk
= Ft ⋅ ds
dk
⇒ Ft = ...(21)
ds
Therefore, the derivative of kinetic energy with respect to distance covered along the path gives the tangential
component of the net force acting on a particle. The normal component of the net force can be found by multiplying
the mass of the particle by the centripetal acceleration of the particle. We have already learnt that, in order to
change the speed, we need a tangential component of the force (in circular motion). It is in accordance with
equation (21). If the tangential force is zero, then no work is done on a particle and hence its kinetic energy
remains unchanged or we can say that the speed of the particle remains unchanged. Therefore to change the
speed there must be a component of the net force along the tangent to the path and this is exactly what we
discussed while covering non uniform circular motion.
Example – 2
v0
v
wnet = ∆k
wg → work done by gravity;
⇒ wg + w = kf − k
N
0 i
0 wN → work done by normal contact force
1 2 from equation (6),
⇒ mgh + 0 = mv0 − 0 w = mgh
2 g
⇒ v0 = 2 gh ...(22)
As the normal contact force is always perpendicular to the direction of motion, work done by it is
zero.
When a ball falls freely from rest by a distance h, its speed is the same as obtained in equation (22).
During free fall the only force doing work is gravity.
Example – 3
m
In the previous problem suppose that an uncompressed
spring is fixed on the horizontal part of the surface, as
shown in figure 5.17. Now, if the particle is released h
from rest from the position shown in the figure, find the k
maximum compression in the spring if its spring constant
is k.
fig. 5.17
Solution: When compression in the spring is maximum, speed of the ball must be zero at that moment, as shown
in figure 5.18 (c). If x0 be the maximum compression in the spring then applying work energy theorem
on the ball between the instants when it was released from rest and when the compression in the
spring is maximum, we get
N
m N
x0
v
v0
mg v=0
fig. 5.18(a) fig. 5.18(b) fig. 5.18(c)
mg
wnet = ∆k
1
⇒ +mgh − kx02 = 0
2
2mgh
⇒ x0 =
k
You should try to prove that the ball would bounce back to the same point from which it was released.
WORK, POWER & ENERGY www.locuseducation.org
PHYSICS LOCUS 16
Example – 4
In the previous example suppose the spring is removed from the horizontal part of the surface and this part is made
rough. If the coefficient friction between the rough part of the surface and the ball is µ, find the distance covered
by the ball on the horizontal part of the surface before it comes to rest.
wnet = ∆k
N
⇒ wg + wN + w fr = k f − ki
sm µmg
oo v
th
⇒ +mgh + 0 − µ mg ⋅ s = 0 − 0
rough
h Fig. 5.19 (b)
⇒ s= mg
µ
Example – 5
A block of mass m suspended vertically by a light spring of spring
constant k is released from rest when the spring is in its natural
length state, as shown in figure 5.20. Find the maximum elongation
natural
in the spring. k
length
natural length
v=0 position
kx x
a=g mg mg 2mg
x0 x 2x0= k
v(increasing kx0 k
a speed) =xmax
a=0 kx equilibrium
a position
mg vmax
v (decreasing 2kx0=2mg
speed)
a=g
mg maximum
elongation
v=0 position
fig. 5.21 mg
As the block passes the equilibrium position, the spring force exceeds the weight of the block and
hence the block starts decelerating and then after moving some distance with decreasing speed, it
momentarily comes to rest. Obviously when the ball comes to rest, elongation in the spring is maximum.
If xmax is the maximum elongation in the spring then applying work energy theorem on the block
between the moment when it was released and when the elongation is maximum, we get
wnet = ∆k
⇒ wg + wsp = k f − ki
1 2
⇒ +mg ⋅ xmax − kxmax = 0−0 = 0
2
2mg
⇒ xmax =
k
⇒ xmax = 2 x0
where x0 is the elongation in the spring in the equilibrium position.
Note: • At x = xmax block momentarily comes to rest.
• At this position velocity of the block is zero but acceleration is not zero. It has an upward acceleration
of magnitude g, as shown in figure 5.21.
Example – 6
A small ball of mass m is suspended by means of a light thread of
length l. When the ball is hanging vertically it is given a horizontal O
speed u, as shown in figure 5.22. Find the speed of the ball and
tension in the thread supporting the ball when the
thread makes an angle θ with the vertical.
u
Solution: At some angular displacement θ, the situation is m
shown in figure 5.23. Applying work energy
theorem on the ball, we get, fig. 5.22
wall = ∆k
O
ω
⇒ wT + wg = k f − ki
θ
T ⊥
2
1 2 1 v
⇒ 0 + wg = mv − mu 2 # V T
2 2 l
V
l
1 2 1
⇒ −mg ∆h = mv − mu 2
2 2 x s θ
1 2 1 mg
⇒ −mg.x = mv − mu 2
2 2 x = l – l cos θ
⇒ = l (1− cos θ )
v 2 = u 2 − 2gx
fig. 5.23
⇒ v 2 = u 2 − 2 gl(1 − cos θ ) (i)
⇒ v = u 2 − 2 gl(1 − cos θ )
At the position shown in figure 5.23, the ball is moving in a vertical circle of radius l and has a speed
v, therefore, its radial acceleration is v 2 /l. Applying Newton’s 2nd law along the radial direction at
this moment, we get
Fnet = ma
v2
⇒ T − mg cos θ = m
l
mu 2
⇒ T = mg cos θ + − 2mg (1 − cos θ ) [using equation (i)]
l
u2
⇒ T = 3mg cos θ − 2mg + m
l
* You should notice that we had done this problem in the previous chapter also
(CIRCULAR MOTION). That time we solved this problem by analyzing the varying tangential
acceleration of the ball.
Example – 7
m
A small ball is released from the top of a smooth
hemispherical surface fixed on a horizontal plane as shown h
ot
o
in figure 5.24. If m be the mass of the ball and R be the
sm
radius of the hemispherical surface, find the speed of the R
ball and normal contact force between the ball and the
hemispherical surface as a function of θ, where θ is the
angle between radial position of the ball with respect to
fig. 5.24
the centre of the hemisphere and the vertical direction.
Solution: The position of the ball when it moves through an angle θ is shown in figure 5.25. As the ball is moving
on a circular path of radius R, at the shown position it has a centripetal acceleration of magnitude
v 2/R. Although, I am not discussing about the tangential acceleration of the ball at the shown moment,
you should not forget that it is also present. s
Applying Work Energy Theorem, we get, x N
h
ot
o
wall = ∆k m
sm
θ
⇒ wN + wg = k f − kki θ v
2 v
R mg
1 2
⇒ 0 − mg ⋅ ∆h = mv − 0
2 fig. 5.25
1 2
⇒ −mg (− x) = mv
2
⇒ v 2 = 2 gx ...(i)
⇒ v = 2 gx [ x = l (1 − cos θ )]
mv 2
⇒ mg cos θ − N = = 2mg (1 − cos θ ) [using (i)]
l
WORK, POWER & ENERGY www.locuseducation.org
PHYSICS LOCUS 20
* Notice that at θ = cos −1(2/3), N becomes zero. What is the physical significance of this θ ? What
would happen when the ball passes this position?
Example – 8
The kinetic energy of a particle moving along a circle of radius R depends upon the distance covered as k = α s 2 ,
where α is a constant. Find the magnitude of the force acting on the particle as a function of s.
Solution: Let us first find the tangential and normal components of the net force acting upon the particle, then we
can find the net force by adding these two components. If Ft be the tangential component of the net
force, then
dk d (α s 2 )
Ft = =
ds ds
= 2α s
v2
Fn = m
R
2 1
= mv 2
R 2
2
= (α s 2 ) [∵ k = α s 2 ]
R
2α s 2
=
R
∴ Fnet = Ft 2 + Fn2
2
2α s 2
= ( 2α s ) +
2
R
2
s
= 2α s 1 +
R
2α s
= R2 + s2
R
Example – 9
A particle of mass m starts moving so that its speed varies according to the law v = α s , where α is a positive
constant, and s is the distance covered. Find the total work performed by all the forces which are acting on the
particle during the first t seconds after the beginning of motion.
Solution: Using work energy theorem, we have, work done by all forces
wall = ∆k (change in K.E.)
= k f − ki
1 2
= mv − 0 [∵ initially s = 0 ⇒ v = 0 ⇒ k = 0]
2
1 2
= mv
2
1
= mα 2 s ...(i)
2
So, now we have to find s as a function of t. We have
ds ds
=v ⇒ =α s
dt dt
ds
⇒ = α ⋅ dt
s
s t
ds
⇒ ∫ s
= α ∫ dt
0 0
s
2 s =α t 0
t
⇒
0
⇒ 2 s = αt
α 2t 2
⇒ s= ...(ii)
4
mα 2s
∴ wall = [Using (i)]
2
mα 4t 2
= [Using (ii)]
8
Example – 10
A particle of mass m moves along a circle of radius R with a normal acceleration varying with time as an = α t 2,
where α is a positive constant. Find the time dependence of the work done by all the forces.
Solution: We have,
an = α t 2
v2
⇒ = αt2
R
⇒ v 2 = α Rt 2 ...(i)
wall = ∆k
= k f − ki
1 2
= mv − 0
2
1 2
= mv
2
mα Rt 2
⇒ wall = [Using equation (i)]
2
Example – 11
A chain of mass m and length l rests on a rough surfaced table so that one of its ends hangs over the edge.
The chain starts sliding off the table all by itself provided the overhanging part equals 1/3 of the chain length. What
will be the total work performed by the friction forces acting on the chain by the moment it slides completely off
the table?
Solution: When the chain has fallen by a distance x its position on the table is shown in figure 5.26. At this
instant friction is opposing the motion of the chain and is acting towards the left. If µ be the friction
coefficient between the chain and the table and m′ be the mass of the part of the chain on the surface
of the table, then friction force is 2l/3
f = µm ' g x
m 2l
= µ − x g l/3
l 3
fig 5.26 x
µ mg 2l
= − x ⋅ dx
l 3
Therefore, till the moment when the chain leaves the table surface completely (i.e., value of x becomes
2l/3), net work done by friction forces is
w = ∫ dw
x = 2l/3
µ mg 2l
=−
l ∫ − x ⋅ dx
3
0
µ mg 2l 2l ( 2l/3)
2
=− × −
l 3 3 2
µ mg (2l/3)2 2
=− = − µ mgl
l 2 9
You should note that µ was not given in the question. You have to find it on your own. (Of course you
can find it from the statement of the question).
[Suppose you have to find out the speed of the chain at the moment it just leaves the table, then that
can be found by using the result above in the work energy theorem. In this case there are only three
forces acting on the chain: gravity, friction and normal contact force from the table. Normal contact
force is not doing work so you need work done by friction and gravity only to find the change in K.E.
of the chain, which would lead you to the final speed of the chain. And hence in this way you can avoid
complicated equations and their solutions which you’d have encountered if you would have chosen
methods learnt in chapter NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION.]
Example – 12
In the previous example find the work done by gravity (on the chain) for the same duration.
Solution: For the same time interval dt which we considered in the previous example, work done by gravity on
the chain is
ml
dwg = + x g ⋅ dx
l 3
mg l
= + x ⋅ dx
l 3
wg = ∫ dwg
x = 2l/3
mg l
=
l ∫ + x ⋅ dx
3
2l/3
0 x
mg l 2l (2l/3) 2 l/3
= ⋅ +
l 3 3 2
x
fig 5.27
mg 2l 2 2l 2 dx
= +
l 9 9
4
= mgl
9
Note: • In the next topic we will study the concept of CENTRE OF MASS. When you are familiar with
that concept, you find the work done by gravity in a much easier way, although the method
discussed here is also simple and easy.
• If v be the speed of the chain when it just leaves the horizontal surface, then applying work energy
theorem on the chain between the moments when it started sliding over the horizontal surface and
when it just left the surface, we get
wall = ∆k
⇒ wg + w f + wN = k f − ki
4 2 1 2
⇒ mgl + − µ mgl + (0) = mv − 0
9 9 2
4 2 1
⇒ mgl − µ mgl = mv 2
9 9 2
Put the value of µ and then solve the above equation to get v.
Section - 4 POWER
Power:
The rate of doing work by a force with respect to time is defined as power developed by that force. We know that
when a force does work on a body it transfers energy to that body, therefore, power developed by a force is the
rate of energy transfer by that force. Therefore, for power, P, we can write
dw
P= ...(23)
dt
! ds! ! ! ! !
⇒ P =F⋅ = F ⋅v [∵ dw = F ⋅ d s ]
dt
! !
⇒ P = F ⋅v ...(24)
Therefore, power developed by a force is the scalar product of the force and the velocity of point of application
of the force.
The unit of power is Joule/sec which is defined as “watt”.
It is obvious that when force is perpendicular to the velocity, the power developed by the force is zero.
If power developed by a force is known it can be used to calculate the work done by that force. We have,
P = dw/dt
⇒ dw = P ⋅ dt
t2
⇒ w = ∫ dw = ∫ P.dt ...(25)
t1
Here w is the work done by the force which is developing the power P for the time interval [t1, t2 ].
Example – 13
A body of mass m is thrown at an angle α to the horizontal with an initial velocity v0 . Find the mean power
developed by gravity over the whole time of motion of the body, and the instantaneous power of gravity as a
function of time. Assume that the body is thrown at t = 0.
Solution: The average power developed can be defined as the average rate of doing work. Therefore, the
average power developed by gravity for the time interval [0, t] is .
∆wg
P =
∆t
! !
Fg ⋅ ∆r
=
∆t
!
! ! ∆r !
= mg ⋅ v using ∆t = v
v y is the component of v!
= −mg ⋅ v y
in the upward direction
∆wg
∴ Pg =
∆t
mg ⋅ ∆h
=−
∆t
∆h
= −mg
∆t
Now, this result can be used to obtain the desired result.
Example – 14
For the situation given in example-10 find the dependence of the power developed by all forces on t and find the
average value of this power for the first t seconds of motion.
Solution: We have,
an = α t 2
v2
⇒ = αt2
R
⇒ v = αR t
dv
∴ tangential acceleration, at =
dt
⇒ at = α R
Fn = man = mα t 2
Ft = mat = m α R.
= m αR ⋅ αR t
= mα Rt
Again, work done by all forces for the first t seconds of motion can be obtained by either finding the
increment in kinetic energy of the particle or by integrating the power with respect to time. Therefore,
for the time interval [0, t], work done by all forces is
t t
wall = ∫ Pall ⋅ dt = mα R∫ t ⋅ dt
0 0
mα Rt 2
=
2
Therefore, average power developed by all forces for the same interval is
Pav =
work done
=
(
mα Rt 2 /2 )
length of time interval (t )
mα Rt
=
2
Alternate-I: We have, Pall = mα Rt , which is a linear function in t, therefore, the average value of Pall
final value + initial value
Pav =
2
Pall (t ) + 0
⇒ Pav =
2
mα Rt
=
2
Alternate-II: Using work energy theorem for the time interval [0, t] we get,
wall = ∆k = k f − ki = k f
0
1 2 mα Rt 2
⇒ wall = mv =
2 2
∫ f (x) ⋅ dx
f av =
x1
[ x2 − x1]
t t
∫ p(t) ⋅ dt mα R∫ t ⋅ dt
∴ pav = 0
= 0
(t − 0) t
mα Rt
=
2
Alternate-IV: We have tangential acceleration, at = α R , which is constant with time and we also have
vinitial = 0, therefore, distance traveled by the particle along the path for the first t seconds is
1 1
s= ⋅ at ⋅ t 2 = α R t2
2 2
As the tangential force is constant and work done by normal force is always zero, work done by
all forces for the same time interval can be written as
( 1
2
wall = Ft ⋅ s = m α R ⋅ ⋅ α R t 2
)
mα Rt 2
=
2
Therefore, Pall =
(mα Rt / 2) 2
(t )
mα Rt
=
2
• You should try to understand the physical significance of the equation wall = Ft ⋅ s used here.
Just give it a thought, and you are sure to get it.
TRY YOURSELF - II
Q. 1 A heavy stone is thrown from a cliff of height h with a speed v. The stone will hit the ground with maximum
speed if it is thrown
(a) vertically downward
(b) vertically upward
(c) horizontally
(d) the speed does not depend on the initial direction.
Q. 2 Total work done on a particle is equal to the change in its kinetic energy
(a) always
(b) only if the forces acting on it are conservative
(c) only if gravitational force alone acts on it
(d) only if elastic force alone acts on it.
Q. 3 The kinetic energy of a particle continuously increases with time.
(a) The resultant force on the particle must be parallel to the velocity at all instants
(b) The resultant force on the particle must be at an angle less than 90° all the time
(c) Its height above the ground level must continuously decrease
(d) The magnitude of its normal acceleration is increasing continuously.
Q. 4 Under the action of a force, a 2 kg body moves such that its position x as a function of time t is given by
t3
x = , x is in metre and t in second. Calculate the work done by the force in the first 2 second.
3
Q. 5 A block shown in figure slides on a semicircular frictionless A
1.0m
track. If starts from rest at position A, what is its speed 45º
at the point marked B?
B
Q. 6 An object of mass m is tied to a string of length l and a variable force F is applied on it which brings
the string gradually at angle θ with the vertical. Find the work done by the force F.
θ l
F
m
Q. 7 A body of mass m accelerates uniformly from rest to v0 in time t0. As a function of t, the instantaneous
power delivered to the body is :
(a) m v / t (b) mv 2 /t
(c) mvt 2 /t (d) mv 2 /t 2 .
Q. 8 Show that for the same initial speed v0 the speed v of a projectile will be the same at all points at the same
elevation, regardless of the angle of projection.
WORK, POWER & ENERGY www.locuseducation.org
PHYSICS LOCUS 31
Q. 9 A block of mass 10 kg slides down an incline 5 m. long and 3 m high. A man pushes up the block parallel
to the incline so that it slides down at constant speed. The coefficient of friction between the block and the
incline is 0.1. Find:
(a) the work done by the man on the block (b) the work done by gravity on the block
(c) the work done by the surface on the block (d) the work done by the resultant forces on the block
(e) the change in K.E. of the block.
[g = 10 m/s²]
Q. 10 A particle of mass m moves on a straight line with its velocity varying with the distance travelled according
to the equation v = a x , where a is a constant. Find the total work done by all the forces during a
displacement from x = 0 to x = d.
Q. 11 Power delivered to a body varies as P = 3 t2. Find out the change in kinetic energy of the body from t =
2 to t = 4 sec.
Q. 12 Figure shows a rough horizontal plane which ends in a vertical wall, to which a spring is connected, having
a force constant k. Initially spring is in its relaxed state. A block of mass m starts with an initial velocity u
towards the spring from a distance l0 from the end of spring, as shown. When block strikes at the end of
the spring , it compresses the spring and comes to rest. Find the maximum compression in the spring. The
friction coefficient between the block and the floor is µ .
u
k
m µ
l0
Q. 13 A point mass m starts from rest and slides down the surface of a frictionless solid sphere of radius r as in
figure. Measure angles from the vertical and potential energy from the top. Find (a) the change in potential
energy of the mass with angle; (b) the kinetic energy as a function of angle; (c) the radial and tangential
accelerations as a functions of angle (d) the angle at which the mass flies off the sphere. (e) If there is friction
between the mass and the sphere, does the mass fly off at a greater or lesser angle than in part (d)?
m
θ
r
Q. 14 Two disks are connected by a stiff spring. Can one press the
upper disk down enough so that when it is released it will spring
back and raise the lower disk off the table (see figure)? Can
mechanical energy be conserved in such a case?
Q. 15 A smooth sphere of radius R is made to translate in a straight line with a constant acceleration a. A particle
kept on the top of the sphere is releases from there at zero speed with respect to the sphere. Find the
speed of the particle with respect to the sphere as a function of the angle θ it slides.
WORK, POWER & ENERGY www.locuseducation.org
PHYSICS LOCUS 32
While calculating work done by gravity and an ideal spring, you must have noticed that these were independent of
the path of motion of the body. Work done by these forces depends only upon initial and final positions. The same
idea leads to the fact that work done by these forces in a closed path is zero. In later chapters you would see that
coulomb’s forces exhibit similar behaviour. This feature of these forces allow us to group them together in a
different class of forces which are called conservative forces . Therefore a conservative force can be defined
as a force whose work done is always independent of path. Alternatively, we can say that work done by a
conservative force depends only upon initial and final positions or we can say that work done by a conservative
force in a closed path is always zero. You can define a conservative force by any of the three statements. All these
three statements have the same physical significance. Therefore if any force behaves like this, that force can be
defined as a conservative force. Forces which do not satisfy these conditions can be defined as non conservative
forces.
For a while you are urged not to go into conceptual details of this new topic. We will first develop some methods
based on the concept of conservative forces. Learn the method and its application initially, and then we will go into
the conceptual details of conservative forces.
The region in which a conservative force is acting is defined as the conservative force field of that force. For
conservative force fields we associate potential energy with them. Why do we do so? This will be clear to you as
you will proceed with this section. In a conservative force field work done by a conservative force is defined as
negative of change in potential energy of the system. If potential energy is denoted by U, then, we define
wcons = –∆U or ∆U = – wcon ...(27)
Therefore, for gravitational field near the earth’s surface, the change in gravitational potential energy,
∆U g = −wg = −(−mg ∆h) [using (6)]
⇒ ∆U g = +mg∆h ...(28)
and for a spring and block system,
1 1
∆U sp = −wsp = − − kx 2f − kxi2 [using (13)]
2 2
1 2 1 2
⇒ ∆U sp = kx f – kxi ...(29)
2 2
Now, let us use the definition of change in potential energy in the work energy theorem. We have,
wall = ∆k
⇒ wcon + wnoncon = ∆k
⇒ wnoncon = ∆k − wnoncon
⇒ wnoncon = ∆k + ∆U ...(30)
w noncon = ∆E ...(31)
i.e., work done by non conservative forces is equal to the change in mechanical energy of the system.
Now, it should be clear that equations (30) or (31) are equivalent to work energy theorem. Instead of using work
energy theorem we can use either of the two equations (30 or 31). So, what’s the advantage if we do this?
The advantage is that if we proceed by this method we are not supposed to calculate the work done by the
conservative forces. ∆U on the right side of the equation compensates for that. For any conservative force field
generally we obtain a general expression for potential energy or change in potential energy. Once this result is
available, we can use equation (30) for all motions in that field. We need not calculate the work done by conservative
forces for all these motions separately. Equation (30) saves us from calculating work done by conservative forces
which is a must if we follow the work energy theorem method. This is the basic idea behind the development of
this concept. At this level you may not enjoy or realize the importance of this method because in problems at this
level you can calculate both work done by conservative forces and change in potential energy very easily. But in
the next level of study of science, in most of the cases you would find the potential energy method much simpler
and easier than work energy theorem method, because calculating conservative forces and then their work done
will be really cumbersome and more time consuming. You can consider the example of planetary motions and
forces on molecular/atomic levels.
Conservation of mechanical energy:
If there are no non conservative forces present in a conservative force field or work done by non conservative
forces is zero, then from equation (30) or (31), we have,
or ∆E = 0 ...(33)
i.e., change in mechanical energy of the system is zero. This is known as conservation of mechanical energy.
From equation (32) it is clear that if ∆k is +ve then ∆U must be –ve and if ∆k is –ve then ∆U +ve, i.e., increase
in kinetic energy is equal to decrease in potential energy and decrease in kinetic energy is equal to
increase in potential energy. The total energy remains the same. If you want a change in the mechanical
energy of a system, non conservative forces must do work on the system.
Let us further extend equation (32). We have
∆k + ∆U = 0 [when wnoncon = 0]
⇒ (k f − ki ) + (U f − U i ) = 0
⇒ k f + U f = ki + U i
⇒ E f = Ei
Note: While using change in potential energy or mechanical energy in work energy principle you must not
consider work done by conservative forces.
⇒ U f − U i = mg (h f − hi )
But for the assumption above we need to clarify the following issues:
1. If you assume U (h) = mgh + C , where C is a constant, then also equation (34) holds true;
2. From where is the height ‘h’ measured
⇒ U (h) = mgh
Similarly zero deformation (i.e., x = 0) is defined zero potential energy configuration for the spring and block
system. In this case, we get
1 2
U ( x) = kx [using equation (29)] ...(36)
2
Example – 15
wnoncon = ∆U + ∆k
∵ N is always perpendicular
⇒ wN 0 = ∆U g + ∆k to the direction of motion
⇒ ∆U g + ∆k = 0
⇒ v0 = 2 gh
Alternate-II: As the work done by non conservative forces is zero in this case, mechanical energy must be
conserved. Therefore
E f = Ei
⇒ U f + k f = U i + ki
Example – 16
wnoncon = ∆U + ∆k
⇒ wN = ∆U sp + ∆U g + ∆k
⇒ ∆U sp + ∆U g + ∆k = 0 [∵ wN = 0]
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
⇒ kx f − kxi + [mg ∆h ] + mv f − mvi = 0
2 2 2 2
1 2 x f = xmax , xi = 0
⇒ kxmax − mgh + 0 = 0
2 ∆h = −h, vi = v f = 0
2mgh
⇒ xmax = .
k
⇒ ∆U sp + ∆U g = 0 ∵ k f = ki = 0
⇒ ∆U sp = −∆U g
⇒ gain in spring potential energy = loss in gravitational potential energy
⇒ 1 2
kxmax = mgh
2
2mgh
⇒ xmax =
k
Ei = E f
⇒ U sp,i + U g ,i + ki = U sp, f + U g , f + k f
1 2
⇒ 0 + mgh + 0 = kxmax + 0 + 0 ∵ k f = ki = 0
2
2mgh
⇒ xmax =
k
REST
m
h
xmax
k
zero
gravitational initial position final position
P.E. level (a) (b)
fig. 5.30
Example – 17
A string with one end fixed on a rigid wall passing over a fixed 1 m. 1 m.
M
frictionless pulley at a distance of 2m from the wall has a mass C
A
M = 2 kg attached to it at a distance of 1 m from the wall. A
B
mass m = 0.5 kg attached on the free end is held at rest so that
the string is horizontal between the wall and the pulley and vertical
beyond the pulley. What will be the speed with which the mass
M will hit the wall when mass m is released? (g = 9.8 m/s²) m
fig. 5.31
Solution: Here you should notice the following:
• Block B moves in a vertical circle with the centre at A when released from rest, as shown in
figure 5.32.
1 m. 1 m.
M
A C
B θ
1 m.
u
D
v
θ M m
h
fig. 5.32
• If block M hits the wall horizontally with speed v, at that instant upward speed of block m is
u = v cos θ .
• Gravity (a conservative force) is the only force doing net work on the system “block M + block
m”, because work done by the part of the string between the block m and the vertical wall one
the block m is zero (∵ tension force exerted by this part of the string is always perpendicular to
the movement of the block) and the net work done by the remaining part of the string on the two
blocks is also zero (although work done by it on a single block is nonzero) which can be proved
as follows:
At any moment power delivered by the part of C
the string between the blocks to the block M is
negative of power delivered by it to the block
m. You can take the example of the moment just T u
before block M hits the vertical wall, as shown v D T
in figure 5.33. At this moment if v be the speed θ M
s θ m
of the block M and u be the speed of the block vco
m, as shown in figure, and T be the tension in the
only tension forces on the
thread, then power delivered to block m is
blocks from the part of the
Pm = +T ⋅ u string between the blocks are shown
fig. 5.33
u = v cos θ
∴ Pm = −PM
or we can say that the net power delivered to the system “block m and block M” by the string at
this moment is zero. Similarly we can prove this fact for any moment. Hence net work done by the
string on the two blocks during any time interval is zero.
Alternate Way:
As the string is massless, gain in its kinetic energy must be zero, therefore, net work done on it by
the two blocks must be zero. Hence, net work done by the string on the two blocks is also zero.
Now, let us solve for the required unknown v:
Method-I: Let us apply work energy theorem on the system “block m + block M” for the interval starting at
the moment when the system was released from rest and ending at the moment when the block M
is just about to hit the vertical wall. We have,
wall = ∆k = k f − ki
1 1
⇒ wg + wT = mu 2 + MV 2 − (0 + 0)
2 2
1 1
⇒ (+ Mg ⋅ AD − mg ⋅ h) + 0 = m(v cos θ ) 2 + MV 2 ...(i)
2 2
From figure 5.32, we have
AD 1m 1
tan θ = = =
AC 2m 2
2
⇒ cos θ = ;
5
and
h = increase in the length of the string on the left side of the pulley
= DC − BC
= ( ) (
22 + 12 − 1 = 5 −1 )
Putting these values in the equation (i), we get,
2 × 9 ⋅ 8 ×1 − 0 ⋅ 5 × 9 ⋅ 8 × ( ) 1 4 1
5 − 1 = × 0 ⋅ 5 ×V 2 × + × 2 ×V 2
2 2 2
[it is given that m = 0.5 kg and M = 2.0 kg]
Solving the above equation we can find the value of v.
1 1
⇒ (+mgh) + (−Mg.AD) + mu 2 − 0 + Mv 2 − 0 = 0
2 2
Now, putting the appropriate values as we did in the last method, we can solve for v.
In example 6 we have already calculated the speed of the ball and tension in the O
thread at some arbitrary angular position θ with respect to the lowermost position
of the ball if the ball has a speed u at its lowermost position. But at that time you
might have thought that what’s the possibility that the ball would complete the
vertical circle at all? u
m
fig. 5.34
Solution: If the ball is given a horizontal speed u when it is at its lowermost position, as shown in figure 5.34, the
following three cases are possible:
(a) The ball completes the vertical circle.
(b) The ball does not reach the horizontal position and oscillates about its initial position, as shown in
figure 5.35.
fig. 5.35
(c) The ball succeeds in crossing the horizontal position but fails to complete the vertical circle. In this
case we will also discuss whether, when the ball leaves the circle it has zero speed or zero tension
in the string supporting it.
Out of these three possible cases, what actually happens would depend upon the value of u. You
must have an intuition that if u is very small then the ball would oscillate and if u is large than the
ball would complete the vertical circle.
v = u 2 − 2 gl (1 − cos θ )
⇒ v 2 = u 2 − 2 gl (1 − cos θ ) ...(i)
and tension in the thread, T, is given as
mu 2
T = mg (3cos θ − 2) +
l
m
⇒ T = u 2 + gl (3cos θ − 2) ...(ii)
l
⇒ u 2 ≥ gl (2 − 3cos θ )
∵ at θ =π (topmost position)
⇒ u 2 ≥ 5gl ' 2-3cosθ ' has its maximum value
⇒ u ≥ 5 gl
v = gl
Therefore, for u = 5gl , at the topmost position gravity alone is providing the
centripetal acceleration. This fact also gives
v2
mg = m
l
⇒ v = gl
∴ velocity of the ball when it reaches the lowermost position is
using Ei = E f ⇒ k f = ki + loss in P.E.
1 2 1 2
u = 5gl ⇒ mu = mv + mg (2l) ⇒ u = 5gl
2 2
If the speed of the ball at the lowermost position, u, is greater than 5gl , then its
speed at the topmost position is also greater than gl and hence more centripetal
force is required. In this case both tension and gravity contribute to the centripetal
force and hence T > 0.
CASE B: BALL OSCILLATES WITH ANGULAR APTITUDE, θ0, SMALLER
THAN π/2:
Rearrange equations (i) and (ii) to get
v 2 = (u 2 − 2 gl ) + 2 gl cos θ ...(iii)
l
and T = (u 2 − 2 gl ) + 3gl cos θ ...(iv)
m
For this case we have θ ∈ [0, π /2). Therefore from equation (iii) and (iv) it is clear
that if u 2 > 2 gl then neither v nor T becomes zero in this interval of θ. That is neither
the ball stops nor the string becomes slack in this region. We can also say that if
u 2 > 2 gl then string would definitely cross the horizontal position (i.e., θ = π/2
position). Therefore if u 2 < 2 gl then the ball can not deflect by π/2 and it would
oscillate about its lower most position with angular amplitude smaller than π/2. In
such a case, it is clear from equations (iii) and (iv) that speed of the ball vanishes
before the tension in the string. That is, in such a case tension in the string is never zero
and speed of the ball is zero at the extreme position (the position from where it starts
returning back towards lowermost position). These facts could also be explained in
the following way:
The position of the ball is shown at some arbitrary angular position θ in figure 5.37(a).
If v be the speed of the ball at this position then it is obvious from the figure that at this
moment tension force is balancing the radially outward component of gravity as well
as providing the required centripetal acceleration to the ball and hence it is greater
than mg cos θ (radially outward component of gravity). Here tangential component
of gravity, mg sin θ , is retarding the upward (along the circle) motion of the ball as
shown in figure 5.37(a). When speed of the ball becomes zero at some angle θ 0 ,
then also tension has to balance the radially outward component of gravity, mg cos θ 0 ,
WORK, POWER & ENERGY www.locuseducation.org
PHYSICS LOCUS 43
and hence it can not be zero, as shown in figure 5.37(b). In the same figure you
should notice that, at θ = θ0, mg sin θ would accelerate the ball towards its lower
most position.
θ θ0 T
v 2
T
! v=0
v
mg
0
co
θ
sθ
in
inθ
gs
0
mg
s
m
mg
cos
θ
fig. 5.37 (a) fig. 5.37 (b)
(T > mg cos θ) (T = mg cos θ )
T=0
v=0
fig. 5.38 π/2
(ball just reaches the
horizontal position) mg
u = 2gl
Horizontal
IV I line
fig. 5.40
mg
acceleration to the ball, as discussed before. Hence, in u sin
mg
cos
this quadrant tension can never be zero. fig. 5.41
θ
If the ball just manages to reach the horizontal position then at this moment alongwith the speed of
the ball tension in the thread also becomes zero because at this position the radial acceleration and
the radial component of gravity both are zero, as shown in figure 5.38 and hence there is no
requirement of tension in the thread. Using work energy theorem or conservation of mechanical
energy we can prove that for this to happen u should be 2gl .
Quadrant II: Some arbitrary position of the ball when it is in quadrant II is shown in figure 5.42(a). It is obvious
from the figure that as the ball moves up, its speed decreases and component of gravity along the
radially inward direction increases and hence requirement of tension force becomes less and less as
the ball moves up in this quadrant. Eventually at the highest point of the circle the speed of the ball
becomes minimum and the contribution of gravity in centripetal force becomes maximum and hence
at this position requirement of tension is minimum, as shown in figure 5.42(b). Therefore this position
can be defined as the critical position, because if the ball crosses this position successfully, i.e., if
the string is taut in this position, it would always be taut or we can say that the ball would complete
the vertical circle.
v v
T
m
T
gc
v 2/! mg
θ
os
in
gs
v 2/!
m
θ
O O
k f = ki + loss in P.E.
we get,
1 1
mu 2 = mv 2 + mg (2l )
2 2
⇒ u 2 = gl + 4 gl
⇒ u = 5gl
Note: • To just complete the vertical circle you can not assume zero speed at the highest point. Why so? Try
to answer it on your own.
• The only difference between the analysis of the ball in quadrant II and III is that when the ball is
moving in quadrant II, it is speeding down and while it is moving in quadrant III, it is speeding up.
Similar argument can be given for quadrants I and IV.
Summary:
• When 2 gl < u < 5 gl : The ball leaves the vertical circular path at some position (which
would depend upon u) in the IInd quadrant and thereafter moves
in a parabolic path.
ZERO P. E. LEVEL
m
µs k
θ F
Q. 9 The particle m in figure is moving in a vertical circle of radius R inside a
track. There is no friction. When m is at its lowest position, its speed is P
v0 . (a) What is the minimum value vm to v0 for which m will go completely θ R
around the circle without losing contact with the track? (b) Suppose v0 v0
is 0.775 vm. The particle will move up the track to some point at P at
m
which it will lose contact with the track and travel along a path shown
roughly by the dashed line. Find the angular position θ of point P.
Q. 10 A chain of length l and mass m lies on the surface of a smooth sphere of radius R > l with one end tied to
the top of the sphere.
(a) Find the gravitational potential energy of the chain with reference level at the centre of the sphere.
(b) Suppose the chain is released and slides down the sphere. Find the kinetic energy of the chain, when
it has slide through an angle θ.
dv
(c) Find the tangential acceleration of the chain when the chain starts sliding down.
dt
Q. 11 A spherical ball of mass m is kept at the highest point in the
space between two fixed, concentric spheres A and B (see figure). Sphere B
The smaller sphere A has a radius R and the space between the θ
two spheres has a width d. The ball has a diameter very slightly d O
less than d. All surfaces are frictionless. The ball is given a gentle R
push (towards the right in the figure). The angle made by the
Sphere A
radius vector of the ball with the upward vertical is denoted by θ
(shown in the figure)
(a) Express the total normal reaction forces exerted by the spheres on the ball as a function of angle θ.
(b) Let N A and N B denote the magnitudes of the normal reaction forces on the ball exerted by the
spheres A and B, respectively. Sketch the variations of N A and N B as functions of cos θ in the
range 0 ≤ θ ≤ π by drawing two separate graphs, taking cos θ on the horizontal axes. Also sketch
the variations of NA and NB as functions of θ.
Ft ⋅ ds = −dU .
∂U
Ft = −
Hence, ∂s ...(38)
!
i.e., the projection of the conservative force at a given point in the direction of the displacement dr equals the
derivative of the potential energy U with respect to a given direction, taken with the opposite sign. The designation
of a partial derivative ∂/∂s emphasizes the fact of differentiating with respect to a finite direction.
!
The displacement dr can be resolved along any direction and, specifically, along the x, y, z coordinate axes. For
! !
example, if displacement dr is parallel to the x axis, it may be described as dr = dxiˆ. The work performed by
!
the conservative force F over the displacement dr! parallel to the x axis is
! ! !
F ⋅ dr = F ⋅ (dxiˆ) = Fx ⋅ dx,
!
where Fx is the x-component of the force F . Substituting the last expression into equation (38), we get
∂U
Fx = − ...(39)
∂x
where the partial derivative symbol implies that in the process of differentiating U ( x, y, z) should be considered
as a function of only one variable, x, while all other variables are assumed constant. It is obvious that the equations
for Fy and Fz are similar to that for Fx. So, having reversed the sign of the partial derivatives of the function U
!
with respect to x, y, z, we obtain the components Fx , Fy and Fz of the conservative force F .
Hence, we have
!
F = Fxiˆ + Fy ˆj + F2kˆ
! ∂U ˆ ∂U ˆ ∂U ˆ
⇒ F = – i+ j+ k ...(40)
∂x ∂y ∂z
The quantity in parentheses is referred to as the scalar gradient of the function U and is denoted by grad U or
∇U. Generally the second, more convenient, designation where ∇(“nabla”) signifies the operator
∂ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ
∇ = iˆ + j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
is used. Consequently, we can write,
!
F = − ∇U ..(41)
!
i.e., the conservative!force F is equal to the potential energy gradient, taken with the minus sign. Put simply, the
conservative force F is equal to the antigradient of potential energy.
Example – 19
The potential energy of a particle in certain conservative field has the following form:
(a) U(x, y) = – αxy, where α is a constant;
! ! ! ! !
(b) U (r ) = a ⋅ r , where a is a constant vector and r is the position vector of the particle in the field.
Find the conservative field force corresponding to each of these cases.
Solution: (a) We have,
! ∂U ˆ ∂U ˆ
F = − i+ j
∂x ∂y
∂(α xy) ˆ ∂(α xy) ˆ
= i+ j
∂x ∂y
∂x ˆ ∂y ˆ
=αy i +α x j
∂x ∂y
= α ( yiˆ + xjˆ)
!
(b) We have, a = a xiˆ + a y ˆj + az kˆ and
!
r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ
Example – 20
A conservative force F(x) acts on a 1.0 kg particle that moves along the x-axis. The potential energy U(x) is given
as U ( x) = a + ( x − b) 2 where a = 20 J, b = 2 m. and x is in meters. At x = 5.0 m the particle has a kinetic energy
of 20 J. It is known that there is no other force acting on the system. Based upon this information, answer the
following questions:
(a) What is the mechanical energy of the system?
(b) What is the range of x in which the particle can move?
(c) What is the maximum kinetic energy of the particle and the position where it occurs?
(d) What is the equilibrium position of the particle?
Solution: We have,
U ( x) = a + ( x − b) 2
= 20 + ( x − 2) 2
We know that at x = 5.0, K.E. = 20 J, therefore, mechanical energy of the particle,
E = Potential energy, U + kinetic energy, k
= U (at x = 5) + k (at x = 5)
= 20 + (5 − 2) 2 + 20
= 49 J . [Ans.(a)]
We know that,
E= U+k
⇒ k = E −U
= 49 − 20 + ( x − 2) 2
= 29 − ( x − 2) 2
⇒ ( x − 2) 2 ≤ 29
⇒ x 2 − 4x + 4 − 29 ≤ 0
⇒ x 2 − 4 x − 25 ≤ 0
U ( x) = 20 + ( x − 2) 2. U (J )
The plots of E and U(x) are shown in figure 5.43. From the
graph it is clear that at x = 7.38 and x = –3.38 U becomes
E =49J
equal to E, hence, at these positions k = 0 (because E = k + 49
U). For x > 7.38 and x < –3.38, U become greater than E and
hence k would acquire –ve value, which is never possible.
Therefore, particle can move only for x greater than –3.38 20
and smaller than 7.38. As the sum of k and U is constant, k
would be maximum when U is minimum. Therefore, at x =2, k X(m)
–3.38 O 2 7.38
is maximum and is equal to 49 – U = 49 – 20 = 29 J. At x = 2,
slope of U is zero, therefore, at x = 2, F(x), which negative
of slope of U, is also zero. Therefore, x = 2 is equilibrium fig. 5.43
position of the particle. U
Nature of Equilibrium:
Whenever a conservative force is the only force acting on a
particle, equilibrium positions of the particle can be determined
from the graph of U when plotted against the position of the
particle.
x
Consider the case shown in figure 5.44. In this figure potential O x1 x2
energy, U, of a particle under the action of a conservative force
F(x) is plotted against the position of the particle, x. fig. 5.44
justified that for values of x very close to x1 but greater than x1 force, F(x), is positive, i.e., it acts away from x1 ,
as shown in figure 5.45. Now, suppose a particle in equilibrium at x = x1 is slightly displaced from this position the
either side and released under the action of conservative force, F(x), only. What would happen now? The force
on the particle would act away from the equilibrium position x = x1 and the particle would never come back to
this equilibrium position. Such an equilibrium position is defined as unstable equilibrium position.
Now, let us analyze the behaviour of F(x) in the vicinity of a
minima of U. In figure 5.46 x = x2 is a minima of U. Arguments y
similar to what I provided in the previous paragraph lead to the
fact that in the vicinity of x2 (a minima of potential energy)
conservative force, F(x), acts always towards x2 . Therefore, if
a particle is displaced from x2 on either side and released from
rest and thereafter only conservative force, F(x), acts upon it, it
will return back to its equilibrium position ( x = x2 ) . (A little more x
o x2
thought would give an idea of oscillation about equilibrium F (x ) F (x )
position, which I don’t want to discuss here.) Such an equilibrium
position is defined as a unstable equilibrium position. fig 5.46
Therefore, the position where potential energy, U, Possesses a maxima (first derivative of U is zero and second
derivative is negative) is an unstable equilibrium position and the position where potential energy possesses a
minima (first derivative of U is zero and second derivative is positive) is a stable equilibrium position. Therefore,
in example 20, x = 2, was a stable equilibrium position.
Example – 21
The potential energy of a particle in a certain field has the form U = a/r 2 − b/r, where a and b are positive
constants, r is the distance from the centre of the field. Find:
(a) the value of r0 corresponding to the equilibrium position of the particle, examine whether this position
is stable;
(b) the range of the attraction force.
Solution: (a) At equilibrium position:
dU
=0
dr
d (a/r 2 − b/ r )
⇒ =0
dr
−2a b
⇒ + =0
r3 r2
2a
⇒ b=
r
2a
⇒ r=
b
∴ r0 = 2a/b
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PHYSICS LOCUS 54
2a b
d − 3 + 2
Now, d U d ( − dU dr )
2
r r
= =
dr 2 dr dr
6a 2b
= −
dr 4 r 3
d 2U 6a 2b
∴ At r = r0 , = −
dr 2 r04 r03
6a ⋅ b4 2b ⋅ b3
= −
16a 4 8a3
3 b4 1 b4
= −
8 a3 4 a3
1 b4
=
8 a3
d 2U
Therefore, at r = r0 , is positive and hence this is a stable equilibrium position.
dr 2
(b) Radial component of force, Fr (r ), is antigradient of U with respect to r. therefore,
dU
Fr (r ) = −
dr
2a b
= −
r3 r2
When this force is attractive, it must be along radically inward direction and hence it should be
negative. That is,
Fr (r ) < 0
2a b
⇒ − <0
r3 r3
2a 2a
⇒ −b < 0 ⇒ <b
r r
2a
⇒ r>
b
2a 2a
Therefore, for r < , Fr (r ) is repulsive, at r = , Fr (r ) vanishes and for r > 2a/b, Fr (r ) is
b b
attractive.
Here m0 is the mass of the particle when at rest with respect to the observer, called the rest mass; m is the mass
of the particle measured as it moves at a speed v relative to the observer; and c is the speed of light, having a
constant value of approximately 3 ×108 meters/sec. Experimental checks of this equation can be made, for
example, by deflecting high-speed electrons in magnetic fields and measuring the radii of
–31
18×10
–31
16×10
–31
[ The way an electron’s mass increases as its speed
14×10
m, kg
m = m0 (1 − β 2 )−1/2.
To find the kinetic energy of a body, we compute the work done by the resultant force in setting the body in
motion. We have,
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PHYSICS LOCUS 56
v ! ! 1
K = ∫ F ⋅ dr = m0v 2
0 2
for kinetic energy, when we assumed a constant mass m0. Suppose now instead we take into account the variation
of mass with speed and use m = m0 (1 − β 2 )−1/2 in our previous equation. We find that the kinetic energy is no
1
longer given by 2 m0v 2 but instead is
K = mc 2 − m0c 2 = (m − m0 )c 2 = ∆mc 2. ...(43)
The kinetic energy of a particle is, therefore, the product of c and the increase in mass ∆m resulting from the
2
motion.
Now, at small speeds we expect the relativistic result to agree with the classical result. By the binomial theorem we
can expand (1 − β 2 ) −1/2 as
(1 − β 2 ) −1/2 = 1 + β 2 + β 4 +
1 3 5
β 6 + ........ .
2 8 16
( 1
) 1
= m0c 2 1 + β 2 + ....... − 1 ≅ m0c 2 β 2 = m0v 2 ,
2 2
1
2
which is the classical result. Notice also that when K equals zero, m = m0 as expected.
The basic idea that energy is equivalent to mass can be extended to include energies other than kinetic. For
example, when we compress a spring and give it elastic potential energy U, its mass increases from m0 to
m0 + U/c 2. When we add heat in amount Q to an object, its mass increases by an amount ∆m, where ∆m is
Q/c 2. We arrive at a principle of equivalence of mass and energy: For every unit of energy E of any kind
supplied to a material object, the mass of the object increases by an amount
∆m = E/c 2
This is the famous Einstein formula
E = ∆mc 2 . ...(44)
In fact, since mass itself is just one form of energy, we can now assert that a body at rest has an energy m0c 2 by
virtue of its rest mass. This is called its rest energy. If we now consider a closed system, the principle of the
conservation of energy, as generalized by Einstein, becomes
∑(m0c 2 + ∈) = constant
or ∆(∑ m0c 2 + ∑ ∈) = 0,
where ∑ m0c is the total rest energy and ∑ ∈ is the total energy of all other kinds. As Einstein wrote, “Pre-
2
relativity physics contains two conservation laws of fundamental importance, namely the law of conservation of
energy and the law of conservation of mass; these two appear there as completely independent of each other.
Through relativity theory they melt together into one principle.”
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PHYSICS LOCUS 57
Because the factor c 2 is so large, we would not expect to be able to detect changes in mass in ordinary mechanical
experiments. A change in mass of 1 gm would require an energy of 9 ×1013 joules. But when the mass of a particle
is quite small to begin with and high energies can be imparted to it, the relative change in mass may be readily
notice able. This is true in nuclear phenomena, and it is in this realm that classical mechanics breaks down and
relativistic mechanics receives its most striking verification.
A beautiful example of exchange of energy between mass and other forms is given by the phenomenon of pair
annihilation or pair production. In this phenomenon an electron and a positron, elementary material particles
differing only in the sign of their electric charge, can combine to literally disappear. In their place we find high-
energy radiation, called γ-radiation, whose radiant energy is exactly equal to the rest mass plus kinetic energies of
the disappearing particles. The process is reversible, so that a materialization of mass from radiant energy can
occur when a high enough energy γ-ray, under proper conditions, disappears; in its place appears a positron-
electron pair whose total energy (rest mass + kinetic) is equal to the radiant energy lost.
TRY YOURSELF - IV
Q. 3 The potential energy of a conservative system is given by U = ax 2 − bx where a and b are positive
constants. find the equilibrium position and discuss whether the equilibrium is stable or unstable.
Q. 4 Give physical examples of unstable equilibrium. Of stable equilibrium.
Q. 5 “The position of maximum potential energy is the position of unstable equilibrium”. State whether the
statement is true of false, with short reason.
Q. 6 For the potential energy curve shown in figure U
U
Q. 7 In the figure shown the potential energy U of a particle is
plotted against its position ‘x’ from origin. Then which of
the following statement is correct. A particle at :
(a) x1 is in stable equilibrium
(b) x2 is in stable equilibrium x
O x1 x2 x3
(c) x3 is in stable equilibrium
(d) none of these
U
Q. 8 The given plot shows the variation of U, the potential A
energy of interaction between two particles with the
distance separating them, r :
E
(i) B and D are equilibrium points
(ii) C is a point of stable equilibrium B F
r
(iii)The force of interaction between the two particles D
C
is attractive between points C and D and repulsive
between points D and E on the curve.
(iv) The force of interaction between the particles is repulsive between point E and Fon the curve.
Which of the above statements are correct.
(a) (i) and (iii) (b) (i) and (iv)
(c) (ii) and (iv) (d) (ii) and (iii)
Q. 10 If the magnitude of the force of attraction between a particle of mass m1 and a mass m2 is given by
mm
F = k 1 2 2 where k is a constant and x is the distance between the particles, find (a) the potential
x
energy function and (b) the external work required to increase the separation of the masses from x = x1
to x = x1 + d.
[Assume, U = 0 when x → ∞ ].
Q. 11 The magnitude of the force of attraction between the positively charged nucleus and the negatively charged
e2
electron in the hydrogen atom is given by F = k 2 where e is the charge of the electron, k is a constant,
r
and r is the separation between electron and nucleus. Assume that the nucleus is fixed. The electron,
initially moving in a circle of radius R1 about the nucleus, jumps suddenly into a circular orbit of smaller
radius R2.
(a) Calculate the change in kinetic energy of the electron, using Newton’s second law.
(b) Using the relation between force and potential energy, calculate the change in potential energy of the
atom.
(c) Show by how much the total energy of the atom has changed in this process. (The total energy will
prove to have decreased; this energy is given off in the form of radiation.)
[Assume, U = 0 when x → ∞ ].
Q. 12 Given below (figure) are examples of some potential energy functions in one dimension. The total energy
of the particle is indicated by a cross on the ordinate axis. In each case, specify the regions, if any, in which
the particle cannot be found for the given energy. Also, indicate the minimum total energy the particle must
have in each case. Think of simple physical contexts for which these potential energy shapes are relevant.
U(x) U(x)
U(x)
U (x ) U3
U0
U2
U0
U1 E
E
(a) U0 (b) U0 (c) O x
(d) -b/2 -a/2 a/2 -b/2
x
E a b
E
x x –U1 U1
O a O a b c d
Example – 22
A block of mass 2.0 kg is moved from rest on a rough horizontal surface by applying a force F ( x) = 15 + x − x 2
from x = 0 ⋅ 0 to x = 1⋅ 0. If friction coefficient between the block and horizontal surface be 0 ⋅ 2 , find the gain in
kinetic energy of the block. [Take g = 10 m/s²]
Solution: According to the work energy theorem,
x2
= ∫ F ( x) ⋅ dx − µ mg ⋅ d [d = 1 ⋅ 0 m.]
x1
1
= ∫ (15 + x − x 2 ) ⋅ dx − 0 ⋅ 2 × 2 ⋅ 0 × 10 × 1 ⋅ 0
0
1 1
1 x2 x3
= 15 x0 + − −4
2 0 3 0
1 1
= 15 + − − 4
2 3
= 11.17 J.
Example – 23
f θ f
mg cosθ
mgsinθ
mg
fig. 5.49
As the body is being moved slowly, net force on the body should be zero and friction would be kinetic
in nature. Therefore,
F = µ N = µ mg cos θ
dw = F ⋅ ds [∵ ds is along F ]
= [µ mg cos θ + mg sin θ ] ⋅ ds
Now, if we define the horizontal direction as the x-direction and vertically upward direction as the y-
direction, as shown in figure 5.50, then we have
ds ⋅ cos θ = dx y
ds dy
and ds ⋅ sin θ = dy θ
dx
Therefore,
x
dw = µ mg ⋅ dx + mg ⋅ dy fig. 5.50
fin fin
w = ∫ dw = ∫ µ mg ⋅ dx + ∫ mg.dy
in in
⇒ w = µmg ⋅ l + mg ⋅ h
Note: As the body is moved slowly or we can say as the equilibrium is always maintained, gain in K.E. of the
body must be zero. Therefore, using work energy theorem, we get,
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PHYSICS LOCUS 62
wall = ∆k = 0
⇒ wF + wN + w f + wg = 0
⇒ (µ mgl + mgh) + 0 + w f − mgh = 0
⇒ w f = −µ mgl
⇒ work done by friction force = –µmg • l
Now, notice the result obtained above for the work done by the friction force. This work done is equivalent
to the work friction would have done if the body was given the same horizontal displacement on a horizontal
surface with the same roughness.
Example – 24
AB is a quarter of a smooth circular track of radius r = 4m., as shown in figure 5.51. A particle P of mass m = 5
kg moves along the track from A to B under the action of the following forces:
(i) A force F1, always directed towards B, its magnitude is O r B
constant and is equal to 4 newton.
(ii) A force F2, which always directed along the tangent to F1 F2
the circular track, its magnitude is (20 – s) newton, r
where s is the distance traveled. F3
= F1 ⋅ dl ⋅ sin α !
∵ for infinitesimally small displacement dl ,
= F1 ⋅ ds ⋅ sin α !
dl = ds(distance moved along path)
π θ we have, θ = s/r
= F1 sin + ⋅ r ⋅ dθ
4 2 ⇒ s = r ⋅θ
⇒ ds = r ⋅ dθ
π θ
= 16 sin + ⋅ dθ
4 2
!
In the same time interval ‘dt’, work done by F2 is given as
! !
dw2 = F2 ⋅ dl
! !
= F2 ⋅ dl ∵ F2 & dl
= F2 ⋅ ds
= (20 − s) ⋅ ds
!
∴ Net work done by F1 is
w1 = ∫ dw1
π /2
π θ
= 16 ∫ sin 4 + 2 ⋅ dθ
0
π /2
−16 π θ
= cos +
(1/2) 4 20
= 16 2 J
= 22.63 J
!
and net work done by F2 is
w2 = ∫ dw2
π r/2
= ∫ (20 − s) ⋅ ds
0
π r/2
π r/2 s2 π r π 2r 2
= 20 s0 − = 20 × −
2 0 2 8
= 105.8 J
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PHYSICS LOCUS 64
! !
Work done by F3 : As F3 is a constant force, work done by F3 ,
w3 = F3 × displacement along F3
= F3 × r = 25 × 4 J = 100 J
∴ Change in K.E. of particle,
∆k = wall
⇒ k f − ki = w1 + w2 + w3
1 2 1 2
⇒ mvB − mv A = ( 22.63 + 105 ⋅ 8 + 100 ) J
2 2
2 × 228 ⋅ 43
∴ vB = + 100
5
= 13 ⋅ 83 m/s.
Example – 25
Solution: (i) Let us denote the elastic constant (spring constant) of the rope by k and its unstretched length by
l0. The maximum length of the rope is l1 = h − h0 = 23 m, whilst in equilibrium it is
l2 = (23 − 8)m = 15 m. Initially, and at the jumper’s lowest position, the kinetic energy is zero. If
we ignore the mass of the rope and assume that the jumper’s centre of mass is half-way up his
body, we can use conservation of energy to write
1
mgh = k (l1 − l0 ) 2.
2
In addition, in equilibrium,
mg = k (l2 − l0 ).
Dividing the two equations by each other we obtain a quadratic equation for l0 ,
l02 + 2(h − l1)l0 + (l12 − 2hl2 ) = l02 + 4l0 − 221 = 0,
which gives l0 = 13 m.
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PHYSICS LOCUS 65
(ii) When the falling jumper attains his highest speed, his acceleration must be zero, and so this must
occur at the same level as the final equilibrium position (l = l2 ).
Again applying the law of conservation of energy,
1 2 1
mv + k (l2 − l0 ) 2 = mg (l2 + h0 ),
2 2
where the ratio m/k is the same as that obtained from the equilibrium condition, namely,
m l2 − l0
= .
k g
Substituting this into the energy equation, shows that the maximum speed of the jumper is
v = 18 ms −1 ≈ 65 km h −1. It is easy to see that his maximum acceleration occurs at the lowest
point of the jump. Since the largest extension of the rope (10 m) is five times that at the equilibrium
position (2 m), the greatest tension in the rope is 5 mg. So the highest net force exerted on the
jumper is 4mg, and his maximum acceleration is 4g.
Example – 26
There are two conservative fields of forces:
! !
(i) F = ayiˆ; (ii) F = axiˆ + byjˆ.
Are these forces conservative?
Solution: Let us find the work performed by each force over the path from a certain point 1( x1, y1) to a certain
point 2( x2, y2 ) :
! !
(i) dw = F ⋅ dl = (ayiˆ) ⋅ ( dxiˆ + dyjˆ )
= ay ⋅ dx
x2
∴ w = ∫ dw = a ∫ y ⋅ dx ;
x1
! !
(ii) dw = F ⋅ dl = ( axiˆ + byjˆ ) ⋅ ( dxiˆ + dyjˆ )
= ax ⋅ dx + dy ⋅ dy
x2 y2
∴ w = ∫ dw = a ∫ x ⋅ dx + b ∫ y.dy
x1 y1
In the first case the integral depends on the type of y(x) function, that is, on the shape of the path.
Consequently, the first field of force is not a conservative field. In the second case both integrals
do not depend on the shape of the path: they are defined only by the coordinates of the initial and
final points of the path: the second field of force is a conservative field.
Example – 27
!
In a certain conservative field a particle experiences the force F = a( yiˆ + xjˆ) , where a is a constant, and iˆ and
ĵ are unit vectors of the x and y axes respectively. Find the potential energy U ( x, y) of the particle in this field.
!
Solution: Let us calculate the work performed by the force F
over the distance from the point O (Fig.) to an y
arbitrary point P( x, y). Taking advantage of this p(x, y)
work being independent of the shape of the path,
we choose one passing through the points OMP and
consisting of two rectilinear sections, then
M ! ! P ! !
wOP = ∫ Fdr + ∫ Fdr . j
0 M
0
The first integral is equal to zero since at all points of i M(x, 0)
! !
the OM section y = 0 and F ⊥ dr . Along the section fig. 5.54
! ! !
MPx is constant, therefore, F ⋅ dr = F ⋅ ˆjdy
= F y d y = a x d y and therefore,
P
wOP = 0 + ax ∫ dy = axy.
M
We know that this work must be equal to the decreases in the potential energy, i.e., wOP = U O − U P.
Assuming U O = 0, we obtain U P − wOP , or
U ( x, y) = −axy.
∂U ∂U
dU = dx + dy.
∂x ∂y
Taking into account that ∂U/∂x = −Fx = −ay and ∂U/∂y = −Fy = −ax, we get
dU = −a( ydx + xdy) = d (−axy).
hence U(x, y) = –axy.
EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE
[ LEVEL - I ]
Q. 1 Which of the following can be negative
(a) kinetic energy (b) potential energy
(c) mechanical energy (d) energy.
Q. 2 Work done by force of friction
(a) can be zero (b) can be negative
(c) can be positive (d) any of the above.
Q. 3 If force is always perpendicular to motion:
(a) speed is constant (b) velocity is constant
(c) work done is zero (d) K.E. remains constant.
Q. 4 A block of mass m slides down a smooth vertical circular track. During the motion, the block is in
(a) vertical equilibrium (b) horizontal equilibrium
(c) radial equilibrium (d) none of these.
Q. 5 Two equal masses are attached to the two ends of a spring of spring constant k. The masses are pulled out
symmetrically to stretch the spring by a length x over its natural length. The work done by the spring on
each mass is
1 2 1 2
(a) kx (b) – kx
2 2
1 2 1 2
(c) kx (d) – kx .
4 4
Q. 6 A small block of mass m is kept on a rough inclined surface of inclination θ fixed in an elevator. The
elevator goes up with a uniform velocity v and the block does not slide on the wedge. The work done by
the force of friction on the block in time t will be (wrt to the ground)
(a) zero (b) mgvt cos²θ.
(c) mgvt sin θ cos θ (d) mgvt sin2θ.
Q. 7 An elevator is moving upward with an acceleration a (and velocity v) when a man inside the elevator lifts
a body of mass m through a height h (in time t). The average power developed by the man is (wrt
elevator)
m( g + a) h 1
(a) (b) m( g + a)(v + at )
t 2
mgh 1
(c) (d) mg (v + at ) .
t 2
Q. 8 A particle is rotated in a vertical circle by connecting it to a string of length l and keeping the other end of
the string fixed. The minimum speed of the particle when the string is horizontal for which the particle will
complete the circle is
(a) gl (b) 2gl
(c) 3gl (d) 5gl
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PHYSICS LOCUS 68
Q. 9 A block of mass m is moving with a constant acceleration a on a rough horizontal plane. If the coefficient
of friction between the block and ground is µ, the power delivered by the external agent after a time t from
the beginning is equal to :
(a) ma²t (b) µmgat
(c) µ(a + µg)gt (d) m(a + µg)at.
Q. 10 The block of mass m is pulling, vertically up with constant speed, by applying force P. The free end of the
string is pulled by l meter, the increase in potential energy of the block is :
mgl
(a)
2
(b) mgl
(c) 2 mgl P
mgl
(d) .
4 m
Q. 11 A block of mass M is pulled along a horizontal surface by applying a force at an angle θ with the
horizontal. The friction coefficient between the block and the surface is µ. If the block travels at a uniform
velocity, the work done by this applied force during a displacement d of the block is
µMgd cos θ µMgd
(a) (b)
cos θ + µ sin θ cos θ
µMgd sin θ µMgd cos θ
(c) (d)
cos θ + µ sin θ sin θ
Q. 12 A spring placed horizontally on a rough horizontal surface is compressed against a block of mass m
placed on the surface so as to store maximum energy in the spring. If the coefficient of friction between the
block and the surface is µ, the potential energy stored in the spring is
µ² m² g ² 2µm 2 g 2 µ2 m2 g 3µ2 mg 2
(a) (b) (c) (d) .
2k k 2k k
Q. 13 Work done in time t on a body of mass m which is accelerated uniformly from rest to a speed v in time t1
as a function of time t is given by
2
1 v 2 v 2 1 mv 2 1 v2 2
(a) 2 t m t (b) m
t1
t (c) t (d) m 2 t .
1 2 t1 2 t1
Q. 14 A block of mass m moving with a velocity v0 on a smooth horizontal floor collides with a light spring of
stiffness k that is rigidly fixed horizontally with a vertical wall. If the maximum force imparted by the spring
on the block is F, then:
v0 k
(a) F ∝ m
m
(b) F∝ k
(c) F∝ v0 B
m
(d) None of these.
x
(c) 1/ m (d) m.
Q. 16 A body is moved along a straight line by a machine delivering constant power. The distance moved by the
body in time t is proportional to
(a) t 1/ 2 (b) t 3/ 4
(c) t 3/ 2 (d) t 2 .
Q. 17 Potential energy function U(r) corresponding to the central force F= K/r² would be
(a) K r (b) K/r
(c) Kr² (d) K/r².
Q. 18 A motor drives a body along a straight line with a constant force. The power P developed by the motor
must vary with time t as figure.
Y Y Y Y
(a) P
(b) P (c) P (d) P .
O X O X O X O X
t t t t
Q. 19 A particle at rest on a frictionless table is acted on by a horizontal force which is constant in size and
direction. A graph is plotted of the work done on the particle W, against the speed of the particle v. If there
are no frictional forces acting on the particle, how graph will look like.
Y Y Y Y
(a) W
(b) W (c) W (d) W .
O X O X O X O X
v v v v
!
( )
Q. 20 A particle is acted upon by a conservative force F = 7iˆ − 6 ˆj N (no other force is acting on the particle).
Under the influence of this force particle moves from (0, 0) to (–3m, 4m), then
(a) work done by the force is 3 J (b) work done by the force is –45 J
(c) at (0, 0) speed of the particle must be zero (d) at (0, 0) speed of the particle must not be zero
OBJECTIVE
[ LEVEL - II ]
Q. 1 The potential energy of a particle varies with position x according to the relation U ( x ) = x 3 − 4 x. The
point x = 2 is a point of
(a) stable equilibrium (b) unstable equilibrium
(c) neutral equilibrium (d) none of the above
Q. 2 The K.E. of a body moving along a straight line varies with time as shown in the figure. The force acting on
the body is
KE
(a) zero
(b) constant
(c) directly proportional to velocity
(d) inversely proportional to velocity t
Q. 3 A ball is projected vertically upwards with an initial velocity. Which of the following graphs best represents
the K.E. of the ball as a function of time from the instant of projection till it reaches the point of projection?
Y Y Y Y
O X O X O X O X
t t t t
Q. 4 A small spherical ball is suspended through a string of length l. The whole arrangement is inside a vehicle
which is moving with velocity v. Now suddenly the vehicle stops and ball starts moving along a circular
path. If tension in the string at the highest point is twice the weight of the ball then
(a) U ( x ) = E (b) U ( x ) = 0
d 2U ( x )
(c) dU ( x ) = 0 (d) =0
dx dx 2
Q. 6 A block of mass 1 kg slides down a curved track that is one quadrant of a circle of radius 1 m. Its speed
at the bottom is 2 m/s. The work done by the frictional force is (g = 10 m/s2)
(a) –8 J
R =1m
(b) +8J
(c) 9J
(d) –9J.
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PHYSICS LOCUS 71
Q. 7 A mass of M kg is suspended by a weightless string. The minimum horizontal force that is required to
displace it until the string makes an angle of 45° with the initial vertical direction is :
(a) Mg ( 2 − 1) (b) Mg ( 2 + 1)
Mg
(c) mg 2 (d) .
2
Q. 8 A ring of mass m can slide over a smooth vertical rod as shown in figure. The ring is connected to a spring
of force constant k = 4 mg/R, where 2R is the natural length of the spring. The other end of spring is fixed
to the ground at a horizontal distance 2R from the base of the rod. If the mass if released at a height 1.5 R,
then the velocity of the ring as it reaches the ground is :
m
(a) gR
(b) 2 gR 1.5 R
(c) 2gR
2.0 R
(d) 3gR .
Q. 9 A particle which is constrained to move along the X-axis is subjected to a force in the same direction
which varies with the distance x of the particle from the origin as f(x) = – kx + ax³. Here k and a are
positive constants. For x > 0, the functional form of the potential energy U(x) of the particle is
[JEE]
U(x) U(x) U(x) U(x )
x x x x
(a) (b) (c) (d) .
!
Q. 10 The potential energy function associated with the force F = 4 xyiˆ + 2 x 2 ˆj is :
(a) U = −2 x 2 y (b) U = −2 x 2 y + constant
(c) U = 2 x 2 y + constant (d) not defined
Q. 11 An automobile engine of mass M accelerates and a constant power P is applied by the engine. The
distance x covered in time t is given by
1/ 2 1/ 2
8 Pt 3 8 Pt 3
(a) x= (b) x=
9M M
1/ 2 1/ 2
Pt 3 Pt 3
(c) x= (d) x= .
9M M
60°
m
m A
B
(a)
the minimum value of coefficient of friction between the mass 4 m and the surface of the table is 0.50
(b)
the work done by gravitational force on the block m is positive when it moves from A to B
(c)
the power delivered by the tension when m moves from A to B is zero.
(d)
the kinetic energy of m in position B equals the work done by gravitational force on the block when it
moves from position A to position B.
Q. 13 A particle of mass m moves on the x-axis under the influence of a force of attraction towards the origin O
given by F = –k/x² iˆ . If the particle starts from rest at a distance a from the origin the speed it will attain
to reach the origin will be :
2k a − x 2k a + x
12 12
m ax m ax
(a) (b)
m a − x
12 12
k ax
m a − x 2k ax
(c) (d) .
!
Q. 14 The potential energy for a force field F is given by U ( x, y ) = cos ( x + y ) . The force acting on a particle
π
at a position given by coordinates 0, is -
4
(a) −
2
(
1 ˆ ˆ
i+j ) (b)
2
(
1 ˆ ˆ
i+ j )
1 3 ˆ 1 3
(c) 2 i + 2 j (d) 2 i − 2
ˆ ˆ ˆj
Q. 15 A machine delivers constant power to a body moving along a straight line. The distance moved in time ‘t’
increases by what factor from to t = 2 to t = 8 sec.
(a) 8 (b) 4
(c) 4 2 (c) 2 2
Q. 16 A partical moves in a circular path of radius r and its centripetal acceleration is given by : ac = k 2 rt 2 here
k is a constant. The power delivered to the particle is
(a) 2π m k 2 r 2 (b) m k 2 r 2t
m k 4 r 2t 5
(c) (d) 0
3
WORK, POWER & ENERGY www.locuseducation.org
PHYSICS LOCUS 73
Q. 17 If wall = ∆kE then where does the ∆PE (if any) go?
(a) Not accounted in the formulae (b) We should add an extra term
(c) Has been taken care of in RHS (d) Has been taken care of in LHS v
Q. 18 A stone is thrown off a cliff at a speed v at an angle θ with the horizontal. The
plot of its speed with which if hits the earch as a function of θ is: θ
v
v
θ
(a) –90º +90º 180º 270º (b) θ
+90º 180º 270º
v v
(c) (d)
θ θ
Q. 19 A ball is tied to a string and given a horizontal velocity as shown. When will the string slack?
2 gl − u 2 2 gl − u 3
(a) θ = cos
−1
(b) θ = cos −1
3gl 4 gl
θ
2 u2
−1 4 u2
(c) θ = cos − (d) θ = cos −1 −
3 6 gl u
3 3gl
Q. 20 A block (B) is attached to two unstretched springs S1 and S2 with spring constant k and 4k, respectively.
The other ends are attached to identical supports M1 and M2 not attached to the walls. The springs and
support have negligible mass. There is no friction anywhere. The block B is displaced towards wall 1 by
a small distance ‘x’ and released. The block returns and moves a maximum distance y towards wall 2.
y
Displacements x and y are measured with respect to the equilibrium position of the block B. Find .
x
2 1
M2 M1
S2 S1
B
2 x 1
M2 M1
S2 S1
B
x
1 1
(a) 4 (b) 2 (c) (d)
2 4
SUBJECTIVE
[ LEVEL - I ]
R
th
Initial Position
Q. 4 A body of 4kg mass is placed on a horizontal surface and experiences a force varying with distance as
shown in the graph. Find the speed of the body when the force ceases to act on it.
F(t)
30
20
10
x(mts)
O
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Q. 5 Find the average frictional force needed to stop a car weighing 500 kg in a distance of 25 m if the initial
speed is 72 km/h.
! !
Q. 6 An object is displaced from position vector r1 = (2iˆ + 3 ˆj)m to r2 = (4iˆ + 6 ˆj )m under a force
!
F = (3x 2iˆ + 2 yjˆ) N . Find the work done by this force.
x3
Q. 7 If potential energy of a particle moving along x-axis is given by: U = − 4 x + 6 . Here, U is in joule
3
and x in metre. Find positions of stable and unstable equilibrium.
Q. 9 If the system is released from rest, determine the speeds of both masses after B has moved 1 m. Neglect
friction and the masses of pulleys
A
36 kg
Stationary
Pulley B
4kg
Q. 10 A block of mass m attached with an ideal spring of force
constant k is placed on a rough inclined plane having
inclination θ with the horizontal and coefficient of friction k
1
µ = tan θ . Initially the block is held stationary with the m
2
spring in its relaxed state, find the maximum extension in
θ
the spring if the block is released.
Q. 11 The system shown in figure is in equilibrium. Determine
the acceleration of all the loads immediately after the lower
thread keeping the system in equilibrium has been cut.
Assume that the threads are weightless, the mass of the
pulley is negligibly small and there is no friction at the
point of suspension. Also find the elastic potential energy
stored at this moment in the left string.
m1 m3
Q. 12 A smooth table is placed horizontally and a spring of
unstretched length l0 and force constant k has one end k k
fixed to its center. To the other end of the spring is attached
a mass m which is making n revolutions per second m2 m4
around the center . Show that the radius r of this uniform
circular motion is kl0 /( k − 4π 2 mn 2 ) and the tension T
in the spring is 4 π 2 mkl0 n 2 /( k − 4π 2 mn 2 ) .
nail
Q. 17 The nail in figure is located a distance d below the point of suspension. Show that d must be at least 0.6l
if the ball is to swing completely around in a circle centered on the nail.
Q. 18 Consider the situation shown in figure. Mass of
block A is m and that of block B is 2m. The
force constant of spring is K. Friction is absent A
everywhere. System is released from rest with
the spring unstretched. Find:
B
(a) the maximum extension of the spring xm
xm
(b) the speed of block A when the extension in the spring is x =
2
x
(c) net acceleration of block B when extension in the spring is x = m .
4
B m
Q. 20 A smooth narrow tube in the form of an arc AB of a
circle at centre O and of radius r is fixed so that A is
vertically above O and OB is horizontal. Particles P of
mass m and Q of mass 2m with a light inextensible string A
of length (πr/2) connecting them are placed inside P
the tube with P at A and Q at B and released from rest.
Assuming the string remains taut during motion, find the r
speed of particles when
P reaches B. B
O
Q
R
Q. 1 There is a fixed frictionless ring and three strings pass
over it symmetrically as shown. The system is released 120°
from rest when the three strings are in the horizontal
plane. What is the work done by gravity after sufficient
time has passed? It is given that M > 3m.
m l
Assume there is
no friction anywhere and all collisions cause the
colliding bodies to stick together. m M m
1m
Q. 2 The spring is initially horizontal and its natural length is
0.317 mts. It is free to slide on a cylinder fixed perpen-
dicular to the wall, as shown. The joint at A is a spheri- 1m
1m
cal joint capable of rotating in all directions. The block frictionless cylinder
is released and allowed to come to rest. What is the
work done on the block by the wall w? A 1m
(g = 1 m/s2) The spring constant is 20 N/m. The wall 5kg
Q. 3 You whirl a stone attached to a string in a horizontal circle as shown. What is the net work done by tension
on the stone when the stone is brough to this state from the state of rest in vertical position?
g = 1 m/s2, L = 2 mts, m = 3 kg.
ω = 1 rad/s2
III II
IV I
L
8
Q. 9 A ring of mass m = 1.2 kg can slide over a smooth vertical rod. A light string attached to the ring is passing
over a smooth fixed pulley at a distance of L = 0.5 m from the rod as shown in the figure. At the other end
of the string mass M = 3 kg is attached, lying over a smooth fixed inclined plane of inclination angle 37°.
The ring is held in level with the pulley and released. Determine the velocity of the ring when the string
makes an angle (α = 37°) with horizontal.
L
m
M 37°
37°
Q. 10 Two bars of masses m1 and m2 connected by a non-deformed light spring rest on a horizontal plane. the
coefficient of friction between the bars and the surface is equal to µ. What minimum constant force has to
be applied in he horizontal direction to the bar of mass m1 in order to shift the other bar?
Q. 11 The potential energy corresponding to a certain two-dimensional force field is given by
1
U ( x, y) = k ( x 2 + y 2 ). (a) Derive Fx and Fy and describe the vector force at each point in terms of its
2
cartesian coordinates x and y. (b) Derive Fr and Fθ and describe the vector force at each point in terms
of the polar coordinates r and θ of the point. (c) Can you think of a physical model of such a force?
Q. 12 The system of mass A and B shown in the figure is released from rest with x = 0, determine the velocity of
mass B when x = 3 m.
4m 4m
m A
√2 B
m
4 2
x x
Q. 13 The potential energy of a 2 kg particle free to move along the x-axis is given by U ( x) = − 5 J
b b
where b = 1m. Plot this potential energy, identifying the extremum points. Identify the regions where
particle may be found and its maximum speed. Given that the total mechanical energy is (i) 36; (ii) –4 J.
Q. 14 A particle of mass m is kept on a fixed, smooth sphere of radius R at a position where the radius through
the particle makes an angle of 30° with the vertical. The particle is released from this position. (a) What is
the force exerted by the sphere on the particle just after the release ? (b) Find the distance travelled by the
particle before it leaves contact with the sphere.
Q. 15 A particle of mass m is kept on the top of a smooth sphere of radius R. It is given a sharp impulse which
imparts it a horizontal speed v. (a) Find the normal force between the sphere and the particle just after the
impulse. (b) What should be the minimum value of v for which the particle does not slip on the sphere ? (c)
Assuming the velocity v to be half the minimum calculated in part (b), find the angle made by the radius
through the particle with the vertical when it leaves the sphere. y
!
(e) F = ayiˆ
Q. 18 A wedge of mass M with a smooth quarter circular plane, is kept
on a rough horizontal surface. A particle of mass m is released m
from rest from the top of the wedge as shown in the figure. When
the particle slides along the quarter circular plane, it exerts a force
on the wedge. The wedge begins to slide when the particle exerts M
a maximum horizontal force on it. Find the coefficient of friction
between the wedge & the horizontal surface.
m 2 3− 5 5 C
that > and OP = t. M
M 5 2
3
Q. 20 A loop of mass M with two identical rings of mass M each at
2
its top hangs from a ceiling by an inextensible string. If the rings m m
gently pushed horizontally in opposite directions, find the angular
distance covered by each ring when the tension in the string M
vanishes for once during their motion.
TRY YOURSELF - I
TRY
ANSWER
1. (a),(c),(d) 2. 1650 J
1
3. − as 2 + bs 4. 3.33 × 10 −3 J
2
5. (d) 6. (a) –10J, (b) +10J
7. zero 8. zero
3 mv 2
9.
4 x2
TRY YOURSELF - II
TRY
ANSWER
1. (d) 2. (a)
3. (b) 4. 16 J
5. 3.7 m/s 6. mgl (1– cosθ )
7. (b)
1
9. (a) –260 J 10. ma 2 d
2
(b) 300 J
(c) –40 J
(d) zero
(e) zero
1/2
2 µ mg + 4 µ 2 m2 g 2 − 4k ( µ 2 − 2 µ mgl0
11. 56 J 12.
2k
13. (a) –mgr (1– cos θ )
(b) mgr (1 – cos θ )
(c) 2g (1 – cosθ ) ; g sin θ
(d) cos–1 (2/3)
(e) at a greater angle
14. yes; yes 15. 2 R [a sin θ + g (1 − cos θ ]
(b) 2 gl cos θ
mgR 2 l
6. sin
l R
7. 2 R {a sin θ + g (1 − cos θ )}
mg (sin θ + µ s cos θ )2
8.
2k
9. (a) 5gR
mgR 2 l
10. (a) sin
l R
mgR 2 l
(b) sin θ0 − sin (θ + θ0 ) + sin θ where θ 0 =
l R
gR l
(c) (1 − cos θ 0 ) where θ0 =
l R
11. (a) N = mg (3cos θ − 2)
2
(b) For θ ≤ cos −1 : N B = 0,
3
N A = mg (3cos θ − 2 ) and
for θ ≥ cos −1 : N A = 0,
2
3
N B = mg ( 2 − 3cos θ ) .
WORK, POWER & ENERGY www.locuseducation.org
PHYSICS LOCUS 84
TRY YOURSELF - IV
TRY
ANSWER
2. A/ r 2
b
3. x= (stable)
2a
Unstable
4. Vertical
Stable Horizontal
5. True
6. (a) A –ve
B –ve
C +ve
D +ve
E zero
(b) stable equilibrium : x = 6
unstable equilibrium : x = 2
7. (d)
8. (c), (d)
9. (a) 31.0 J (b) 5.33 m/s (c) Conservative
m1m2 km1m2 d
10. (a) U ( x ) = − k if U (∞ ) = 0 (b) x ( d + x ) .
x 1 1
ke2 1 1
11. (a) −
2 R2 R1
2 1 1
(b) −ke −
R2 R1
1 2 1 1
(c) − ke −
2 R2 R1
12. (a) x ≥ a;
(b) x ∈ φ ;
(c) x ≤ a and x ≥ b;
b a a b
(d) − < x ≤ − and ≤ x <
2 2 2 2
OBJECTIVE
ANSWER
[ LEVEL - I ]
1. (b),(c),(d) 2. (a),(b),(c),(d)
3. (a),(c),(d) 4. (d)
5. (d) 6. (d)
7. (a) 8. (c)
9. (d) 10. (a)
11. (a) 12. (a)
13. (d) 14. (a),(b),(c)
15. (b) 16. (c)
17. (b) 18. (a)
19. (d) 20. (b),(d)
OBJECTIVE
ANSWER
[ LEVEL - II ]
1. (d) 2. (d)
3. (c) 4. (b),(d)
5. (c) 6. (a)
7. (a) 8. (b)
9. (d) 10. (a),(b)
11. (a) 12. (a),(b),(c),(d)
13. (a) 14. (b)
15. (a) 16. (b)
17. (d) 18. (a)
19. (a) 20. (c)
SUBJECTIVE
ANSWER
[ LEVEL - I ]
1 22
1. NO 2. ma t
2
mgR
3. 4. 65 m /s
2
5. 4000 N 6. 83 J
7. Stable equilibrium at x = 2 and unstable equilibrium at x = –2.
2mg
8.
k
80 3 80
9. speed of B = m /s , speed of A = m /s
85 2 85
mg sin θ
10.
k
11. a1 = a2 = a3 = 0;
m + m2 − m3 − m4
a4 = 1 g;
m4
(m2 g )2
Energy =
2k
13. 100 cm
40
14. (a) v = u cos θ (b) m /s
41
15. 2d
16. 16 ft/sec.
4mg m g
18. (a) (b) 2 g (c)
k 3k 2
m
19.
2
2
20. (1 + π ) gr
3
SUBJECTIVE
ANSWER
[ LEVEL - II ]
2. 10.03 Joules U
3. 7.50 Joules
13. – 10 + 10
4
V 4
x
25
4. 4
mv 2 3mg
2 14. (a)
2
5. −1 1 π
v2 µ (b) cos − ⋅ R ' 0.43R
2gL 3 6
3 3 mv 2
6. gL 2 + 15. (a) mg −
2 R
(b) gR
7 (c) cos−1 (7 / 12) ' 54.3°
7. θ = sin −1 4 −
2 2
16. Zero
8. 2 gR .sin α 17. (a), (b), (c), (d).
9. 1.2 m/s
3m
18. µ=
m2 3m + 2 M
10. m1 + µg
2
11. (a)
!
Fx = −kx, Fy = −ky; F always points
20. cos −1 1 ( 3)
radially inward.