Algae

Algae
Algae

Laurencia, a genus of red algae from Hawaii Scientific classification Domain: Eukaryota Included groups

Archaeplastida Chlorophyta (Green algae) Rhodophyta (Red algae) Glaucophyta Rhizaria, Excavata Chlorarachniophytes Euglenids Chromista, Alveolata Heterokonts Bacillariophyceae (Diatoms) Axodine Bolidomonas Eustigmatophyceae Phaeophyceae (Brown algae) Chrysophyceae (Golden algae) Raphidophyceae Synurophyceae Xanthophyceae (Yellow-green algae) Cryptophyta Dinoflagellates Haptophyta Excluded groups

Cyanobacteria Plantae

Algae

Algae (/ldi/ or /li/; singular alga /l/, Latin for "seaweed") are a very large and diverse group of simple, typically autotrophic organisms, ranging from unicellular to multicellular forms, such as the giant kelps that grow to 65 meters in length. They are photosynthetic like plants, and "simple" because their tissues are not organized into the many distinct organs found in land plants. The largest and most complex marine forms are called seaweeds. Though the prokaryotic cyanobacteria (commonly referred to as blue-green algae) were traditionally included as "algae" in older textbooks, many modern sources regard this as outdated[3] as they are now considered to be bacteria.[4] The term algae is now restricted to eukaryotic organisms.[5] All true algae therefore have a nucleus enclosed within a membrane and plastids bound in one or more membranes.[3][6] Algae constitute a paraphyletic and polyphyletic group,[3] as they do not include all the descendants of the last universal ancestor nor do they all descend from a common algal ancestor, although their plastids seem to have a single origin.[1] Diatoms are also examples of algae. Blue-green algae are found in the fossil record dating back to approximately 3 billion years in the Precambrian.

The lineage of algae according to Thomas Cavalier-Smith. The exact number and placement of endosymbiotic events is currently unknown, [1][2] so this diagram can be taken only as a general guide It represents the most parsimonious way of explaining the three types of endosymbiotic origins of plastids. These types include the endosymbiotic events of cyanobacteria, red algae and green algae, leading to the hypothesis of the supergroups Archaeplastida, Chromalveolata and Cabozoa respectively. However, the monophyly of Cabozoa has been refuted and the monophylies of Archaeplastida and Chromalveolata are currently strongly challenged. Endosymbiotic events are noted by dotted lines.

Algae exhibit a wide range of reproductive strategies, from simple, asexual cell division to complex forms of sexual reproduction.[7] Algae lack the various structures that characterize land plants, such as phyllids (leaves) and rhizoids in nonvascular plants, or leaves, roots, and other organs that are found in tracheophytes (vascular plants). Many are photoautotrophic, although some groups contain members that are mixotrophic, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by osmotrophy, myzotrophy, or phagotrophy. Some unicellular species rely entirely on external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic apparatus. Nearly all algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from cyanobacteria, and so produce oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis, unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as purple and green sulfur bacteria. Fossilized filamentous algae from the Vindhya basin have been dated back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago.[8]

Algae

Etymology and study

The singular alga is the Latin word for a particular seaweed and retains that meaning in English.[9] The etymology is obscure. Although some speculate that it is related to Latin algre, "be cold",[10] there is no known reason to associate seaweed with temperature. A more likely source is alliga, "binding, entwining."[11] Since Algae has become a biological classification, alga can also mean one classification under Algae, parallel to a fungus being a species of fungi, a plant being a species of plant, and so on. The ancient Greek word for seaweed was (fkos or phykos), which could mean either the seaweed, probably Red Algae, or a red dye derived from it. The Latinization, fcus, meant primarily the cosmetic rouge. The etymology is uncertain, but a strong candidate has long been some word related to the Biblical ( pk), "paint" (if not that word itself), a cosmetic eye-shadow used by the ancient Egyptians and other inhabitants of the eastern Mediterranean. It could be any color: black, red, green, blue.[12]
Title page of Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin, Historia Fucorum, dated 1768.

Accordingly the modern study of marine and freshwater algae is called either phycology or algology. The name Fucus appears in a number of taxa.

Classification
While Cyanobacteria have been traditionally included among the Algae, recent works usually exclude them due to large differences such as the lack of membrane-bound organelles, the presence of a single circular chromosome, the presence of peptidoglycan in the cell walls, and ribosomes different in size and content from those of the Eukaryotes.[13][14] Rather than in chloroplasts, they conduct photosynthesis on specialized infolded cytoplasmic membranes called thylakoid membranes. Therefore, they differ significantly from the Algae despite occupying similar ecological niches. By modern definitions Algae are Eukaryotes and conduct photosynthesis within membrane-bound organelles called chloroplasts. Chloroplasts contain circular DNA and are similar in structure to

False-color Scanning electron micrograph of the unicellular coccolithophore, Gephyrocapsa oceanica.

Algae Cyanobacteria, presumably representing reduced cyanobacterial endosymbionts. The exact nature of the chloroplasts is different among the different lines of Algae, reflecting different endosymbiotic events. The table below describes the composition of the three major groups of Algae. Their lineage relationships are shown in the figure in the upper right. Many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic. Some retain plastids, but not chloroplasts, while others have lost plastids entirely. Phylogeny based on plastid[15] not nucleocytoplasmic genealogy:
Cyanobacteria

Cyanelles

Rhodophytes Heterokonts Rhodoplasts Cryptophytes Haptophytes

Euglenophytes

Chlorophytes Chloroplasts

Charophytes Higher plants (Embryophyta)

Chlorarachniophytes

Supergroup affiliation Primoplantae/ Archaeplastida

Members

Endosymbiont

Summary

Chlorophyta Rhodophyta Glaucophyta

Cyanobacteria

These Algae have primary chloroplasts, i.e. the chloroplasts are surrounded by two membranes and probably developed through a single endosymbiotic event. The chloroplasts of Red Algae have chlorophylls a and c (often), and phycobilins, while those of Green Algae have chloroplasts with chlorophyll a and b. Higher plants are pigmented similarly to Green Algae and probably developed from them, and thus Chlorophyta is a sister taxon to the plants; sometimes they are grouped as Viridiplantae.

Algae
[13] These groups have green chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and b. Their chloroplasts are surrounded by four and three membranes, respectively, and were probably retained from ingested Green Algae. Chlorarachniophytes, which belong to the phylum Cercozoa, contain a small nucleomorph, which is a relict of the algae's nucleus. Euglenids, which belong to the phylum Euglenozoa, live primarily in freshwater and have chloroplasts with only three membranes. It has been suggested that the endosymbiotic Green Algae were acquired through myzocytosis rather than phagocytosis. Chromista and Alveolata Heterokonts Haptophyta Cryptomonads Dinoflagellates Red Algae These groups have chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and c, and phycobilins.The shape varies from plant to plant. they may be of discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral or ribbon shaped. They have one or more pyrenoids to preserve protein and starch. The latter chlorophyll type is not known from any prokaryotes or primary chloroplasts, but genetic similarities with the Red Algae suggest a relationship there. In the first three of these groups (Chromista), the chloroplast has four membranes, retaining a nucleomorph in Cryptomonads, and they likely share a common pigmented ancestor, although other evidence casts doubt on whether the Heterokonts, Haptophyta, and Cryptomonads are in fact more closely related to each other than to [2][16] other groups. The typical dinoflagellate chloroplast has three membranes, but there is considerable diversity in chloroplasts within the group, and it appears there were a number of [1] endosymbiotic events. The Apicomplexa, a group of closely related parasites, also have plastids called apicoplasts. Apicoplasts are not photosynthetic but appear to have [1] a common origin with Dinoflagellate chloroplasts.

5
Chlorarachniophytes Green Algae Euglenids

Excavata and Rhizaria

W.H.Harvey (18111866) was the first to divide the Algae into four divisions based on their pigmentation. This is the first use of a biochemical criterion in plant systematics. Harvey's four divisions are: Red Algae (Rhodophyta), Brown Algae (Heteromontophyta), Green Algae (Chlorophyta) and Diatomaceae.[17]

Algae

Relationship to higher plants

The first plants on earth probably evolved from shallow freshwater algae much like Chara some 400 million years ago. These probably had an isomorphic alternation of generations and were probably filamentous. Fossils of isolated land plant spores suggest land plants may have been around as long as 475 million years ago.[18][19]

Morphology
A range of algal morphologies are exhibited, and convergence of features in unrelated groups is common. The only groups to exhibit three dimensional multicellular thalli are the reds and browns, and some chlorophytes.[20] Apical growth is constrained to subsets of these groups: the florideophyte reds, various browns, and the charophytes.[20] The form of charophytes is quite different to those of reds and browns, because have distinct nodes, separated by internode 'stems'; whorls of branches reminiscent of the horsetails occur at the nodes.[20] Conceptacles are another polyphyletic trait; they appear in the coralline algae and the Hildenbrandiales, as well as the browns.[20] Most of the simpler algae are unicellular flagellates or amoeboids, but colonial and non-motile forms have developed independently among several of the groups. Some of the more common organizational levels, more than one of which may occur in the life cycle of a species, are Colonial: small, regular groups of motile cells Capsoid: individual non-motile cells embedded in mucilage Coccoid: individual non-motile cells with cell walls Palmelloid: non-motile cells embedded in mucilage Filamentous: a string of non-motile cells connected together, sometimes branching
The kelp forest exhibit at the Monterey Bay Aquarium. A three-dimensional, multicellular thallus.

Parenchymatous: cells forming a thallus with partial differentiation of tissues In three lines even higher levels of organization have been reached, with full tissue differentiation. These are the brown algae,[21]some of which may reach 50 m in length (kelps)[22]the red algae,[23] and the green algae.[24] The most complex forms are found among the green algae (see Charales and Charophyta), in a lineage that eventually led to the higher land plants. The point where these non-algal plants begin and algae stop is usually taken to be the presence of reproductive organs with protective cell layers, a characteristic not found in the other alga groups.

Algae

Symbiotic algae
Some species of algae form symbiotic relationships with other organisms. In these symbioses, the algae supply photosynthates (organic substances) to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells. The host organism derives some or all of its energy requirements from the algae. Examples are as follows.

Lichens
Lichens are defined by the International Association for Lichenology to be "an association of a fungus and a photosynthetic symbiont resulting in a stable vegetative body having a specific structure."[25] The fungi, or mycobionts, are from the Ascomycota with a few from the Basidiomycota. They are not found alone in nature but when they began to associate is not known.[26] One mycobiont associates with the same phycobiont species, rarely two, from the Green Algae, except that alternatively the mycobiont may associate with the same species of Cyanobacteria (hence "photobiont" is the more accurate term). A Rock lichens in Ireland. photobiont may be associated with many specific mycobionts or live independently; accordingly, lichens are named and classified as fungal species.[27] The association is termed a morphogenesis because the lichen has a form and capabilities not possessed by the symbiont species alone (they can be experimentally isolated). It is possible that the photobiont triggers otherwise latent genes in the mycobiont.[28]

Coral reefs
Coral reefs are accumulated from the calcareous exoskeletons of marine invertebrates of the Scleractinia order; i.e., the Stony Corals. As animals they metabolize sugar and oxygen to obtain energy for their cell-building processes, including secretion of the exoskeleton, with water and carbon dioxide as byproducts. As the reef is the result of a favorable equilibrium between construction by the corals and destruction by marine erosion, the rate at which metabolism can proceed determines the growth or deterioration of the reef. Algae of the Dinoflagellate phylum are often endosymbionts in the cells of marine invertebrates, where they accelerate host-cell metabolism by generating immediately available sugar and oxygen through photosynthesis using incident light and the carbon dioxide produced in the host. Endosymbiont algae in the Stony Corals are described by the term zooxanthellae, with the host Stony Corals called on that account hermatypic corals, which although not a taxon are not in healthy condition without their endosymbionts. Zooxanthellae belong almost entirely to the genus Symbiodinium.[29] The loss of Symbiodinium from the host is known as coral bleaching, a condition which unless corrected leads to the deterioration and loss of the reef.
Floridian coral reef

Algae

Sea sponges
Green Algae live close to the surface of some sponges, for example, breadcrumb sponge (Halichondria panicea). The alga is thus protected from predators; the sponge is provided with oxygen and sugars which can account for 50 to 80% of sponge growth in some species.[30]

Life-cycle
Rhodophyta, Chlorophyta and Heterokontophyta, the three main algal Phyla, have life-cycles which show tremendous variation with considerable complexity. In general there is an asexual phase where the seaweed's cells are diploid, a sexual phase where the cells are haploid followed by fusion of the male and female gametes. Asexual reproduction is advantageous in that it permits efficient population increases, but less variation is possible. Sexual reproduction allows more variation, but is more costly. Often there is no strict alternation between the sporophyte and also because there is often an asexual phase, which could include the fragmentation of the thallus.[22][31][32]

Numbers
The Algal Collection of the US National Herbarium (located in the National Museum of Natural History) consists of approximately 320,500 dried specimens, which, although not exhaustive (no exhaustive collection exists), gives an idea of the order of magnitude of the number of algal species (that number remains unknown).[33] Estimates vary widely. For example, according to one standard textbook,[34] in the British Isles the UK Biodiversity Steering Group Report estimated there to be 20000 algal species in the UK. Another checklist reports only about 5000 species. Regarding the difference of Algae on coastal rocks at Shihtiping in Taiwan about 15000 species, the text concludes: "It will require many detailed field surveys before it is possible to provide a reliable estimate of the total number of species ...." Regional and group estimates have been made as well: 50005500 species of Red Algae worldwide "some 1300 in Australian Seas"[35] 400 seaweed species for the western coastline of South Africa,[36] and 212 species from the coast of KwaZulu-Natal.[37] Some of these are duplicates as the range extends across both coasts, and the total recorded is probably about 500 species. Most of these are listed in List of seaweeds of South Africa. These exclude phytoplankton and crustose corallines. 669 marine species from California (US)[38] 642 in the check-list of Britain and Ireland[39] and so on, but lacking any scientific basis or reliable sources, these numbers have no more credibility than the British ones mentioned above. Most estimates also omit the microscopic Algae, such as the phytoplankta, entirely.

Distribution
The topic of distribution of algal species has been fairly well studied since the founding of phytogeography in the mid-19th century AD.[40] Algae spread mainly by the dispersal of spores analogously to the dispersal of Plantae by seeds and spores. Spores are everywhere in all parts of the Earth: the waters fresh and marine, the atmosphere, free-floating and in precipitation or mixed with dust, the humus and in other organisms, such as humans. Whether a spore is to grow into an organism depends on the combination of the species and the environmental conditions of where the spore lands.

Algae The spores of fresh-water Algae are dispersed mainly by running water and wind, as well as by living carriers.[41] The bodies of water into which they are transported are chemically selective. Marine spores are spread by currents. Ocean water is temperature selective, resulting in phytogeographic zones, regions and provinces.[42] To some degree the distribution of Algae is subject to floristic discontinuities caused by geographical features, such as Antarctica, long distances of ocean or general land masses. It is therefore possible to identify species occurring by locality, such as "Pacific Algae" or "North Sea Algae". When they occur out of their localities, it is usually possible to hypothesize a transport mechanism, such as the hulls of ships. For example, Ulva reticulata and Ulva fasciata travelled from the mainland to Hawaii in this manner. Mapping is possible for select species only: "there are many valid examples of confined distribution patterns."[43] For example, Clathromorphum is an arctic genus and is not mapped far south of there.[44] On the other hand, scientists regard the overall data as insufficient due to the "difficulties of undertaking such studies."[45]

Locations
Algae are prominent in bodies of water, common in terrestrial environments and are found in unusual environments, such as on snow and on ice. Seaweeds grow mostly in shallow marine waters, under 100 metres (unknown operator: u'strong'ft); however some have been recorded to a depth of 360 metres (unknown operator: u'strong'ft).[46] The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column (phytoplankton) provide the food base for most marine food chains. In very high densities (algal blooms) these algae may discolor the water and outcompete, poison, or asphyxiate other life forms.

Phytoplankton, Lake Chuzenji

Algae are variously sensitive to different factors, which has made them useful as biological indicators in the Ballantine Scale and its modification.

Uses
Agar
Agar, a gelatinous substance derived from red algae, has a number of commercial uses.[47] It is a good medium for bacteria.

Alginates
Between 100,000 and 170,000 wet tons of Macrocystis are harvested annually in California for alginate extraction and abalone feed.[48][49]

Harvesting Algae

Algae

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Energy source
To be competitive and independent from fluctuating support from (local) policy on the long run, biofuels should equal or beat the cost level of fossil fuels. Here, algae based fuels hold great promise, directly related to the potential to produce more biomass per unit area in a year than any other form of biomass. The break-even point for algae-based biofuels is estimated to occur in about ten to fifteen years.[50]

Fertilizer
For centuries seaweed has been used as a fertilizer; George Owen of Henllys writing in the 16th century referring to drift weed in South Wales:[51] This kind of ore they often gather and lay on great heapes, where it heteth and rotteth, and will have a strong and loathsome smell; when being so rotten they cast on the land, as they do their muck, and thereof springeth good corn, especially barley ... After spring-tydes or great rigs of the sea, they fetch it in sacks on horse backes, and carie the same three, four, or five miles, and cast it on the lande, which doth very much better the ground for corn and grass.

Seaweed is used as a fertilizer.

Today Algae are used by humans in many ways; for example, as fertilizers, soil conditioners and livestock feed.[52] Aquatic and microscopic species are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and are either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds. Algaculture on a large scale is an important type of aquaculture in some places. Maerl is commonly used as a soil conditioner.

Nutrition
Naturally growing seaweeds are an important source of food, especially in Asia. They provide many vitamins including: A, B1, B2, B6, niacin and C, and are rich in iodine, potassium, iron, magnesium and calcium.[53] In addition commercially cultivated microalgae, including both Algae and Cyanobacteria, are marketed as nutritional supplements, such as Spirulina,[54] Chlorella and the Vitamin-C supplement, Dunaliella, high in beta-carotene. Algae are national foods of many nations: China consumes more than 70 species, including fat choy, a Seaweed gardens on Inisheer. cyanobacterium considered a vegetable; Japan, over 20 [55] [56] species; Ireland, dulse; Chile, cochayuyo. Laver is used to make "laver bread" in Wales where it is known as bara lawr; in Korea, gim; in Japan, nori and aonori. It is also used along the west coast of North America from California to British Columbia, in Hawaii and by the Mori of New Zealand. Sea lettuce and badderlocks are a salad ingredient in Scotland, Ireland, Greenland and Iceland.

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The oils from some Algae have high levels of unsaturated fatty acids. For example, Parietochloris incisa is very high in arachidonic acid, where it reaches up to 47% of the triglyceride pool.[57] Some varieties of Algae favored by vegetarianism and veganism contain the long-chain, essential omega-3 fatty acids, Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), in addition to vitamin B12. The vitamin B12 in algae is not biologically active. Fish oil contains the omega-3 fatty acids, but the original source is algae (microalgae in particular), which are eaten by marine life such as copepods and are passed up the food chain.[58] Algae has emerged in recent years as a popular source of omega-3 fatty acids for vegetarians who cannot get long-chain EPA and DHA from other vegetarian sources such as flaxseed oil, which only contains the short-chain Alpha-Linolenic acid (ALA).

Dulse, a food.

Pollution control
Sewage can be treated with algae, reducing the need for greater amounts of toxic chemicals than are already used. Algae can be used to capture fertilizers in runoff from farms. When subsequently harvested, the enriched algae itself can be used as fertilizer. Aquariums and ponds can be filtered using algae, which absorb nutrients from the water in a device called an Algae scrubber, also known as an "ATS".[59][60][61][62] Agricultural Research Service scientists found that 60-90% of nitrogen runoff and 70-100% of phosphorus runoff can be captured from manure effluents using an algal turf scrubber (ATS). Scientists developed the ATS, which are shallow, 100-foot raceways of nylon netting where algae colonies can form, and studied its efficacy for three years. They found that algae can readily be used to reduce the nutrient runoff from agricultural fields and increase the quality of water flowing into rivers, streams, and oceans. The enriched algae itself also can be used as a fertilizer. Researchers collected and dried the nutrient-rich algae from the ATS and studied its potential as an organic fertilizer. They found that cucumber and corn seedlings grew just as well using ATS organic fertilizer as they did with commercial fertilizers.[63]

Pigments
The natural pigments produced by algae can be used as an alternative to chemical dyes and coloring agents.[64]

Stabilizing substances
Carrageenan, from the red alga Chondrus crispus, is used as a stabilizer in milk products.

Plastics
Algae has been implemented in the production of biodegradable plastics by Cereplast, Inc. An agreement has also been reached with the US Military to introduce more biodegradable plastics as it attempts to move away from petroleum based plastics and utilize more environmentally friendly alternatives.[65]

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Notes
[1] Patrick J. Keeling (2004). "Diversity and evolutionary history of plastids and their hosts" (http:/ / www. amjbot. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 91/ 10/ 1481). American Journal of Botany 91 (10): 14811493. doi:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1481. PMID21652304. . [2] Laura Wegener Parfrey, Erika Barbero, Elyse Lasser, Micah Dunthorn, Debashish Bhattacharya, David J Patterson, and Laura A Katz (December 2006). "Evaluating Support for the Current Classification of Eukaryotic Diversity". PLoS Genet. 2 (12): e220. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0020220. PMC1713255. PMID17194223. [3] Nabors, Murray W. (2004). Introduction to Botany. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Education, Inc. ISBN0-8053-4416-0. [4] Ed. Guiry, M.D., John, D.M., Rindi, F and McCarthy, T.K. 2007. New Survey of Clare Island Volume 6: The Freshwater and Terrestrial Algae. Royal Irish Academy. ISBN 978-1-904890-31-7 [5] Allaby, M ed. (1992). "Algae". The Concise Dictionary of Botany. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [6] Round (1981) [7] Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History; Department of Botany. http:/ / botany. si. edu/ projects/ algae/ introduction. htm [8] Bengtson, S.; Belivanova, V.; Rasmussen, B.; Whitehouse, M. (May 2009). "The controversial "Cambrian" fossils of the Vindhyan are real but more than a billion years older". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106 (19): 77297734. Bibcode2009PNAS..106.7729B. doi:10.1073/pnas.0812460106. ISSN0027-8424. PMC2683128. PMID19416859. [9] "alga, algae". Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged with Seven Language Dictionary. 1. Encyclopdia Britannica, Inc. 1986. [10] Partridge, Eric (1983). "algae". Origins. [11] Lewis, Charlton T.; Charles Short (1879). "alga" (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?layout. reflang=la;layout. refdoc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0059;layout. reflookup=Alga;layout. refcit=;doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0059:entry=#1812). alga. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN0-19-864201-6. . [12] Cheyne, Thomas Kelly; John Sutherland Black (18991903). "Paint". Encyclopdia BiblicaA Dictionary of the Bible. 3. New York: Macmillan Co.. pp.35243525. Downloadable Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=GccVAAAAYAAJ& pg=RA1-PA3525& dq=puk+ paint& lr=& ei=Ye9RSYPEAYjcygSSyrW3BA#PPA2689,M1). [13] Losos, Jonathan B.; Mason, Kenneth A.; Singer, Susan R. (2007). Biology (8 ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN0-07-304110-6. [14] Jochem, Frank J. "Botany 4404 Lecture Notes" (http:/ / www. jochemnet. de/ fiu/ bot4404/ BOT4404_12. html). Florida International University (FIU). Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20081225083828/ http:/ / www. jochemnet. de/ fiu/ bot4404/ BOT4404_12. html) from the original on 25 December 2008. . Retrieved 2008-12-20. [15] Bhattacharya, D.; Medlin, L. (1998). "Algal Phylogeny and the Origin of Land Plants" (http:/ / www. plantphysiol. org/ cgi/ reprint/ 116/ 1/ 9. pdf). Plant Physiology 116 (1): 915. doi:10.1104/pp.116.1.9. . [16] Burki F, Shalchian-Tabrizi K, Minge M, Skjveland , Nikolaev SI, et al. (2007). Butler, Geraldine. ed. "Phylogenomics Reshuffles the Eukaryotic Supergroups". PLoS ONE 2 (8: e790): e790. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000790. PMC1949142. PMID17726520. [17] Dixon, P S (1973). Biology of the Rhodophyta. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd. p.232. ISBN0-05-002485-X. [18] Ivan Noble (18 September 2003). "When plants conquered land" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ sci/ tech/ 3117034. stm). BBC. . [19] Wellman, C.H.; Osterloff, P.L.; Mohiuddin, U. (2003). "Fragments of the earliest land plants". Nature 425 (6955): 282285. doi:10.1038/nature01884. PMID13679913. [20] Xiao, S.; Knoll, A.H.; Yuan, X.; Pueschel, C.M. (2004). "Phosphatized multicellular algae in the Neoproterozoic Doushantuo Formation, China, and the early evolution of florideophyte red algae" (http:/ / www. amjbot. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 91/ 2/ 214). American Journal of Botany 91 (2): 214227. doi:10.3732/ajb.91.2.214. PMID21653378. . [21] Waggoner, Ben (19942008). "Introduction to the Phaeophyta: Kelps and brown "Algae"" (http:/ / www. ucmp. berkeley. edu/ chromista/ phaeophyta. html). University of California Museum of Palaeontology (UCMP). Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20081221171218/ http:/ / www. ucmp. berkeley. edu/ chromista/ phaeophyta. html) from the original on 21 December 2008. . Retrieved 2008-12-19. [22] Thomas, D N (2002). Seaweeds. London: The Natural History Museum. ISBN0-565-09175-1. [23] Waggoner, Ben (19942008). "Introduction to the Rhodophyta, The red "algae"" (http:/ / www. ucmp. berkeley. edu/ protista/ rhodophyta. html). University of California Museum of Palaeontology (UCMP). Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20081218211021/ http:/ / www. ucmp. berkeley. edu/ protista/ rhodophyta. html) from the original on 18 December 2008. . Retrieved 2008-12-19. [24] Introduction to the Green Algae (http:/ / www. ucmp. berkeley. edu/ greenalgae/ greenalgae. html) [25] Brodo, Irwin M; Sharnoff, Sylvia Duran; Sharnoff, Stephen; Laurie-Bourque, Susan (2001). Lichens of North America. New Haven: Yale University Press. p.8. ISBN978-0-300-08249-4. [26] Pearson, Lorentz C (1995). The Diversity and Evolution of Plants. CRC Press. p.221. ISBN978-0-8493-2483-3. [27] Brodo et al. (2001), page 6: "A species of lichen collected anywhere in its range has the same lichen-forming fungus and, generally, the same photobiont. (A particular photobiont, on the other hand, may associate with scores of different lichen fungi)." [28] Brodo et al. (2001), page 8. [29] Taylor, Dennis L (1983). "The coral-algal symbiosis". In Goff, Lynda J. Algal Symbiosis: A Continuum of Interaction Strategies. CUP Archive. pp.1920. ISBN978-0-521-25541-7. [30] http:/ / uwsp. edu/ cnr/ UWEXlakes/ laketides/ vol26-4/ vol26-4. pdf [31] Lobban, C S and Harrison, P J (1997) Seaweed Ecology and Physiology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 05214089700 [32] Algae II (http:/ / scitec. uwichill. edu. bb/ bcs/ bl14apl/ algae2. htm)

Algae
[33] "Algae Herbarium" (http:/ / botany. si. edu/ projects/ algae/ herbarium. htm). National Museum of Natural History, Department of Botany. 2008. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20081201112552/ http:/ / botany. si. edu/ projects/ algae/ herbarium. htm) from the original on 1 December 2008. . Retrieved 2008-12-19. [34] John (2002), page 1. [35] Huisman (2000), page 25. [36] Stegenga (1997). [37] De Clerck, O., Bolton, J.J., Anderson, R. J. & Coppejans, E. 2005. Guide to the Seaweeds of KwazZulu-Natal. Scripta Botanica Belgica Volume 33. Joint publication of: National Botanical gardens of Belgium, VLIZ Flanders Marine Institute and Flemish Community. ISBN 90-72619-64-1 [38] Abbott and Hollenberg (1976), page 2. [39] Hardy and Guiry (2006). [40] Round (1981), Chapter 8, Dispersal, continuity and phytogeography. [41] Round (1981), page 360. [42] Round (1981), page 362. [43] Round (1981), Page 357. [44] Round (1981), page 371. [45] Round (1981), page 366. [46] Round (1981), page 176. [47] Lewis, J G; Stanley, N F; Guist, G G (1988). "9 Commercial production of algal hydrocolloides". In Lembi, C.A.; Waaland, J.R.. Algae and Human Affairs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-32115-0. [48] "Macrocystis C. Agardh 1820: 46" (http:/ / www. algaebase. org/ generadetail. lasso?genus_id=35715& -session=abv3:51909EC307dcf25DFApmi3530315). AlgaeBase. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20090104145632/ http:/ / www. algaebase. org/ generadetail. lasso?genus_id=35715& -session=abv3:51909EC307dcf25DFApmi3530315) from the original on 4 January 2009. . Retrieved 2008-12-28. [49] "Secondary Products of Brown Algae" (http:/ / botany. si. edu/ projects/ algae/ economicuses/ brownalgae. htm). Algae Research. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. . Retrieved 2008-12-29. [50] Barbosa & Wijffels [51] Read, Clare Sewell (1849). "On the Farming of South Wales: Prize Report". Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England (London: John Murray) 10: 142143. Downloadable Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=UJYEAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA142& dq="this+ kind+ of+ ore+ they+ often+ gather"& lr=& as_brr=0& as_pt=ALLTYPES#PPR4,M1). [52] McHugh, Dennis J. (2003). "9, Other Uses of Seaweeds" (http:/ / www. fao. org/ DOCREP/ 006/ Y4765E/ y4765e0c. htm#TopOfPage). A Guide to the Seaweed Industry: FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 441. Rome: Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. ISBN92-5-104958-0. . [53] Simoons, Frederick J (1991). "6, Seaweeds and Other Algae". Food in China: A Cultural and Historical Inquiry. CRC Press. pp.179190. ISBN0-936923-29-6. [54] Morton, Steve L. "Modern Uses of Cultivated Algae" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20081223081614/ http:/ / www. siu. edu/ ~ebl/ leaflets/ algae. htm). Ethnobotanical Leaflets. Southern Illinois University Carbondale. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. siu. edu/ ~ebl/ leaflets/ algae. htm) on 2008-12-23. . Retrieved 2008-12-26. [55] Mondragon, J; Mondragon, J (2003). Seaweeds of the Pacific Coast. Monterey, California: Sea Challengers Publications. ISBN0-930118-29-4. [56] "Durvillaea antarctica (Chamisso) Hariot" (http:/ / www. algaebase. org/ speciesdetail. lasso?species_id=11752& sk=0& from=results& -session=abv3:51909EC30802716127sVj3EDC9C7). AlgaeBase. . [57] Bigogno, C; I Khozin-Goldberg; S Boussiba; A Vonshak; Z Cohen (2002). "Lipid and fatty acid composition of the green oleaginous alga Parietochloris incisa, the richest plant source of arachidonic acid". Phytochemistry 60 (5): 497503. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(02)00100-0. PMID12052516. [58] Allison Aubrey (Morning Edition, November 1, 2007). "Getting Brain Food Straight from the Source" (http:/ / www. npr. org/ templates/ story/ story. php?storyId=15823852). National Public Radio. . [59] Nutrient Cycling In The Great Barrier Reef Aquarium. Proceedings of the 6th International Coral Reef Symposium, Australia, 1988, Vol. 2 (http:/ / www. reefbase. org/ resource_center/ publication/ main. aspx?refid=10859) [60] U.S. Patent 4333263, Issue Date June 8, 1982 (http:/ / www. google. com/ patents/ about?id=NogyAAAAEBAJ& dq=U. S. + Patent+ 4333263) [61] Hydromentia Water Treatment Technologies (http:/ / www. hydromentia. com/ Products-Services/ Algal-Turf-Scrubber/ Product-Documentation/ Assets/ ATS-Technical-Brochure. pdf) [62] Algal Response To Nutrient Enrichment In Forested Oligotrophic Stream. Journal of Phycology, June 2008 (http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley. com/ journal/ 120083425/ abstract) [63] "Algae: A Mean, Green Cleaning Machine" (http:/ / www. ars. usda. gov/ is/ AR/ archive/ may10/ algae0510. htm). USDA Agricultural Research Service. May 7, 2010. . [64] Arad, Shoshana; Spharim, Ishai (1998). "Production of Valuable Products from Microalgae: An Emerging Agroindustry". In Altman, Arie. Agricultural Biotechnology. Books in Soils, Plants, and the Environment. 61. CRC Press. p.638. ISBN978-0-8247-9439-2.

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Chapman, V.J. (1950). Seaweeds and their Uses. London: Methuen & Co. Ltd. ISBN0-412-15740-3. Lembi, C.A.; Waaland, J.R. (1988). Algae and Human Affairs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-32115-8. Round, F E (1981). The Ecology of Algae. London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-22583-3. Mumford, T F; Miura, A (1988). "Porphyra as food: cultivation and economic". In Lembi, C A; Waaland, J R. Algae and Human Affairs. Cambridge University Press. pp.87117. ISBN0-521-32115-8..

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Britain and Ireland Brodie, Juliet; Burrows, Elsie M; Chamberlain, Yvonne M.; Christensen, Tyge; Dixon, Peter Stanley; Fletcher, R.L.; Hommersand, Max H; Irvine, Linda M et al. (19772003). Seaweeds of the British Isles: A Collaborative Project of the British Phycological Society and the British Museum (Natural History). London, Andover: British Museum (Natural History), HMSO, Intercept. ISBN978-0-565-00781-2. Cullinane, John P (1973). Phycology of the South Coast of Ireland. Cork: Cork University Press. Hardy, F G; Aspinall, R J (1988). An Atlas of the Seaweeds of Northumberland and Durham. The Hancock Museum, University Newcastle upon Tyne: Northumberland Biological Records Centre. ISBN978-0-9509680-5-6. Hardy, F G; Guiry, Michael D; Arnold, Henry R (2006). A Check-list and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland (Revised ed.). London: British Phycological Society. ISBN9783906166353. John, D M; Whitton, B A; Brook, J A (2002). The Freshwater Algal Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-77051-3. Knight, Margery; Parke, Mary W (1931). Manx Algae: An Algal Survey of the South End of the Isle of Man. Liverpool Marine Biology Committee (LMBC) Memoirs on Typical British Marine Plants & Animals. XXX. Liverpool: University Press. Morton, Osborne (1994). Marine Algae of Northern Ireland. Belfast: Ulster Museum. ISBN9780900761287. Morton, Osborne (1 December 2003). "The Marine Macroalgae of County Donegal, Ireland". Bulletin of the Irish Biogeographical Society 27: 3164. Australia Huisman, J M (2000). Marine Plants of Australia. University of Western Australian (UWA) Press. ISBN1-876268-33-6. New Zealand Chapman, Valentine Jackson; Lindauer, VW; Aiken, M; Dromgoole, FI (1900, 1956, 1961, 1969, 1970). The Marine algae of New Zealand. London; Lehre, Germany: Linnaean Society of London; Cramer. Europe Cabioc'h, Jacqueline; Floc'h, Jean-Yves; Le Toquin, Alain; Boudouresque, Charles-Franois; Meinesz, Alexandre; Verlaque, Marc (1992) (in French). Guide des algues des mers d'Europe: Manche/Atlantique-Mditerrane. Lausanne, Suisse: Delachaux et Niestl. ISBN9782603008485. Gayral, Paulette (1966) (in French). Les Algues de ctes franaises (manche et atlantique), notions fondamentales sur l'cologie, la biologie et la systmatique des algues marines. Paris: Doin, Deren et Cie.

Algae Guiry, M.D.; Blunden, G. (1991). Seaweed Resources in Europe: Uses and Potential. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN0-471-92947-6. Mguez Rodrguez, Lus (1998) (in Galician). Algas marias de Galicia: bioloxa, gastronoma, industria. Vigo: Edicins Xerais de Galicia. ISBN84-8302-263-X. Otero, J. (2002) (in Galician). Gua das macroalgas de Galicia. A Corua: Baa Edicins. ISBN84-89803-22-6. Brbara, I.; Cremades, J. (1993) (in Spanish). Gua de las algas del litoral gallego. A Corua: Concello da Corua - Casa das Ciencias. Arctic Kjellman, Frans Reinhold (1883). The algae of the Arctic Sea: a survey of the species, together with an exposition of the general characters and the development of the flora. 20. Stockholm: Kungl. Svenska vetenskapsakademiens handlingar. pp.1350. Greenland Lund, Sren Jensen (1959). The Marine Algae of East Greenland. Kvenhavn: C.A. Reitzel. ISBN9584734. Faroe Islands Brgesen, Frederik (1903, 1970 reprint). "Marine Algae". In Warming, Eugene. Botany of the Fares Based Upon Danish Investigations. Part II. Kbenhavn: Det nordiske Forlag. pp.339532.. Canary Islands Brgesen, Frederik (1925, 1926, 1927, 1929, 1930, 1936). Marine Algae from the Canary Islands. Kbenhavn: Bianco Lunos. Morocco Gayral, Paulette (1958) (in French). Algues de la cte atlantique marocaine. Casablanca: Rabat [Socit des sciences naturelles et physiques du Maroc]. South Africa Stegenga, H.; Bolton, J.J.; Anderson, R.J. (1997). Seaweeds of the South African West Coast. Bolus Herbarium, University of Cape Town. ISBN0-7992-1793-X. North America Abbott, I.A.; Hollenberg, G.J. (1976). Marine Algae of California. California: Stanford University Press. ISBN0-8047-0867-3. Greeson, Phillip E. (1982). An annotated key to the identification of commonly occurring and dominant genera of Algae observed in the Phytoplankton of the United States (http://www.archive.org/details/ annotatedkeytoid00gree). Washington, D.C.: US Department of the Interior, Geological Survey. Retrieved 2008-12-19. Taylor, William Randolph (1937, 1957, 1962, 1969). Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN0-472-04904-6. Wehr, J D; Sheath, R G (2003). Freshwater Algae of North America: Ecology and Classification. US: Academic Press. ISBN0-12-741550-5.

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16

External links
Guiry, Michael and Wendy. "AlgaeBase" (http://www.algaebase.org). - a database of all algal names including images, nomenclature, taxonomy, distribution, bibliography, uses, extracts Algae - Cell Centered Database (http://ccdb.ucsd.edu/sand/main?stype=lite&keyword=algae& event=display&Submit=Go&start=1) "Algae Research" (http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/). National Museum of Natural History, Department of Botany. 2008. Archived (http://web.archive.org/web/20081201013721/http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/ ) from the original on 1 December 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-19. Anderson, Don; Bruce Keafer; Judy Kleindinst; Katie Shaughnessy; Katherine Joyce; Danielle Fino; Adam Shepherd (2007). "Harmful Algae" (http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/page.do?pid=14779). US National Office for Harmful Algal Blooms. Archived (http://web.archive.org/web/20081205151336/http://www.whoi.edu/ redtide/page.do?pid=14779) from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-19. "Australian Freshwater Algae (AFA)" (http://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/science/hot_science_topics/ australian_freshwater_algae2). Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW Botanic Gardens Trust. Archived (http://web.archive.org/web/20081230140015/http://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/science/ hot_science_topics/australian_freshwater_algae2) from the original on 30 December 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-19. "Freshwater Algae Research" (http://diatom.ansp.org/). Phycology Section, Patrick Center for Environmental Research. 2011. Retrieved 2011-12-17. "Monterey Bay Flora" (http://www.mbari.org/staff/conn/botany/flora/mflora.htm). Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI). 19962008. Retrieved 2008-12-20. Silva, Paul (19972004). "Index Nominum Algarum (INA)" (http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/INA.html). Berkeley: University Herbarium, University of California. Archived (http://web.archive.org/web/20081223172950/ http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/INA.html) from the original on 23 December 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-19. Algae: Protists with Chloroplasts (http://tolweb.org/notes/?note_id=52) "Research on microalgae" (http://www.algae.wur.nl/uk/). Wageningen UR. 2009. Archived (http://web. archive.org/web/20090424044729/http://www.algae.wur.nl/UK/) from the original on 24 April 2009. Retrieved 2009-05-18.

Article Sources and Contributors

17

Article Sources and Contributors

Algae Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=499424440 Contributors: -Midorihana-, 10metreh, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, A Softer Answer, A.Ou, ABF, AGPExperts, ANOMALY-117, Abhinav kumar.t666, AbigailAbernathy, Ablonus, Accuruss, Adashiel, Addshore, Ahoerstemeier, Aidarzver, Aitias, Alacante45, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Ale jrb, AlexGu100, Alexius08, AlexiusHoratius, Alfvaen, Algae, Aliengirl, Amarkley, Anaxial, Andonic, Andre Engels, Andres, Andrewrp, Andris, Anlace, Anna Frodesiak, Anonymous Dissident, Antoni Barau, Antonio Lopez, Apostrophe, AshLin, Ashcraft, Ashishbhatnagar72, AstroHurricane001, Auntof6, Badagnani, Baran07, Bart133, Basilwhite, Beeshoney, Beetstra, Ben Ben, BenC7, Bendzh, Betacommand, Biruitorul, Bkell, Black Falcon, Blanchardb, Blehfu, Blizzard youkai, BlueNovember, Bluemoose, Bmendonc, Bobo192, Bobozz, Bomac, BostonMA, Bram66, Bryan Derksen, CanisRufus, Caseyc, Cate, Cephal-odd, Champio30, Cheeser1, Cholmes75, Chowbok, ChrisHodgesUK, Chrisl99, Chrisrhobbs, Ciphergoth, Clicketyclack, Cliff12345, Closedmouth, Cmdrjameson, Cobi, Cohesion, Conversion script, Cool3, Corsulian, Craigsjones, Crbradds13, Crohnie, Cxz111, D, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Dacoutts, Daemion, Dan653, DanRollins, Dancter, Daniel Vaulot, DanielCD, Dave6, Dayewalker, DePiep, DeadlyAssassin, Deflective, Delfigolo, Delldot, DerHexer, Dhenner, Diana Ragland, Dlohcierekim, Dmmaus, Docblake, Docu, Doogleface, Dr.Bastedo, Drop the soap!, Ds13, DuncanHill, Dureo, E rulez, ENeville, EarthPerson, Eastlaw, Edward, Edwinstearns, El C, Eliezg, EncycloPetey, Eog1916, Epbr123, Epipelagic, Etacar11, Ettrig, Etxrge, Euku, Everyguy, EvilPickles, Exert, Extremophile, F, Falcon8765, Felizdenovo, Ferengi, Fingerz, FireBrandon, Flyguy649, FrancoGG, Fred Hsu, FreplySpang, Furkaocean, Gacelo, Gail, Gaius Cornelius, Gangster99145, Gary King, Gbaor, Gfglegal, Gilliam, Glenn, Gobonobo, Gogo Dodo, GraemeL, Graham87, Green caterpillar, Greenwish, Griffinofwales, Gruzd, Gsapient, Gscshoyru, Gurch, Guyd, Hackwrth, Hadal, Haham hanuka, Halfsnail, Happyfeet go, Harborsparrow, Hardboi9001009, Hdsaxplayer, Heron, Hibernian, Hipy101, Horsepony678, Hu12, HunterGeant, Husky, IP69.226.103.13, Iadrian yu, Icairns, Imc, Inbreeder, Indon, Inferno, Lord of Penguins, Info0409, Inks002, Invertzoo, Ioverka, Iridescent, IrishJew, Irishvixen, Ixfd64, J Di, J.delanoy, Jamesr66a, Jasper Deng, Jauhienij, Jaxl, Jay0013, Jebus989, Jennavecia, Jklumker, Jmpulsf101, Jmundo, JoJan, Johnleemk, Jon186, Jonadin93, Jonnywoof, Josh Grosse, Joshinda26, Joshua BishopRoby, Jusdafax, KJS77, Katalaveno, KaurJmeb, KayDee, Kelly Martin, Kellyprice, Kevmin, Khatru2, Khukri, Kingdon, Kingpin13, Kintetsubuffalo, Kjh257, Kleopatra, Knass097, Koantin, Korg, Koyaanis Qatsi, Kralizec!, Krika99, Kubigula, Kupirijo, Kvdveer, Kwamikagami, LOL, Lacrymalis, Lakshya (razor), LastLived, Latics, Lesfreck, Lexor, LibLord, Librsh, Lights, LilHelpa, LittleHow, Littlealien182, Logan, Lollerskates, Lord twiggy, Lozleader, Lucas the scot, Luis Fernndez Garca, Lukee1234, Luna Santin, MBC2011, MER-C, Mac, Maghnus, Magioladitis, Magnus Manske, Malerin, Manic mechanic, Marinecreatures, Marshman, Materialscientist, MathFacts, Matthew Brandon Yeager, Mausy5043, Mboverload, McSly, Meekywiki, Menchi, Mentifisto, Metal.lunchbox, Mfigroid, Mgiganteus1, Michael C Price, Michael Devore, Miguel Andrade, Mike Rosoft, Mikeguiry, Mion, Miss Madeline, Misterbughead, Mizerbl, Mksoley, Mlpearc, Moh7080, Momhoff, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Mschlindwein, Muiranec, Myopic Bookworm, N5iln, N96, Narayanese, NawlinWiki, Nazaret91, NewEnglandYankee, NewbieDoo, Niceguyedc, Nick, Nikai, NinetyNineFennelSeeds, No1lakersfan, NorwegianBlue, Ntennis, NutrisaurusRex, Nwbeeson, O29, Ocatecir, Oiws, Onco p53, Oni Lukos, Open2universe, Orfintain, Osborne, Otivaeey, Oxfordwang, PL290, Pany El Skat-e-board-r, Paul Mykolajtchuk, Pauli133, Pbsouthwood, Pcu123456789, Pdcook, Pedro, Pennbradly, Perdita, Peter coxhead, Philip Trueman, Piano non troppo, Pinethicket, Pinkadelica, Pinkypink541, Pissant, Planders, Plantsurfer, Pointillist, Pokdhjdj, Polsvoice, Pomie, PrestonH, Prodego, Puffin, Quadell, Quiddity, Quinsareth, Qwerty30253, Qwyrxian, R'n'B, R. 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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

image:Laurencia.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Laurencia.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Eric Guinther Image:AlgaeTree.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AlgaeTree.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Kupirijo at en.wikipedia File:Gmelin - Historia Fucorum (Titelblatt).png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_(Titelblatt).png License: Public Domain Contributors: Achird, Akinom, Frank Schulenburg, Pieter Kuiper, Warburg File:Gephyrocapsa oceanica color.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Photo by NEON ja, colored by Richard Bartz File:Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Stef Maruch File:Lichens near Clogher Head (stevefe).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_(stevefe).jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Steve Ford Elliott File:Coral Reef.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coral_Reef.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jerry Reid Image:Taiwan 2009 East Coast ShihTiPing Giant Stone Steps Algae FRD 6581.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Fred Hsu ( on en.wikipedia) File:Phytoplankton Lake Chuzenji.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: ja:User:NEON / commons:User:NEON_ja File:Algae harvester-1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Algae_harvester-1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: Eugene Zelenko Image:Seaweed.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seaweed.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 1.0 Generic Contributors: Channer, EncycloPetey, Henna, LimoWreck, Lin1, Luis Fernndez Garca, Marimara, Mats Halldin, Thiotrix File:Inishmaan Gardens.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Inishmaan_Gardens.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: User:Arcimboldo File:Dulse.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dulse.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Tiny.ian at en.wikipedia

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