andreinforcement

Rocksupport
1 1
11.1 Terminology

The term supportis widcly useclto describeüe procedüresand lnatei s usedto in

provethe stabilily rnd maintainthe load carryingcaprbilily otrcck nearthe bound-
aries of undergroundercavations.As will be shoivn in this chäpßr the primar\
objectiveofsuppor präcriceis to mobiliseand coDseNcthe inhercmslrengthoflhc
rock massso that it becomesselt-snpporiins.
In accordwith modernpracticepaticularly in Arstralia. adistinctionwi11benade
betwecn the Lennssupport and reinlbrcement,using the detinilions introducedb\
Windsof and Thompson (1993). Support i,i tfie applic:rtionol a reäctlvelbrce to
üe surläceofan excav.tLion rnd includestechnique!xnd devicc\ suchrs lin1ber.llll.
drotcfete,nrcshmd sleelorconcretesetsor line.s.Reinlbrcem€nt.on the olherhand.
is a meansofconscr\'ing or improving the overallrock masspropertiesfiom within
the rock massb) lechniquessuchas rock bohs,cablc bolts and ground anchors.
hlvas oDccthc customto describesupportas beingtcnporary or permanent.l€m-
porary support rvasthat supportor reinlbrcementinstrllcd to cDsuresale workins
conditioD,jduriDgmining.Forcenturies.suchsuppoftconsistedof sornelonn of linr
bering.lfth€ cxcä\ationwas requiredlo remain openfof an cxtendedperiod of Iin..
permänent support was installedsubsequendy. Qtrilc often. the LenporaJysupton
was p{rll} or wholly renoved lo erable lhc pcmanent supportto be inslalled.A\
will be denonstfuledin secdonI1.2, this practioenegatcsthe advanLage rhal can b.
obtainedby applying the principles of rock-suppoft inte.rction mechanicsanLI\o
qhouldbe avoided.
Modem pracriceis to describethe supportor relnfbrcementof permanenrexca-
vatioDsasbeingpriinaryorsecondary.Prim.lsuppoforreintbrcementisapplied
during orinn1edilrtelyafterexcavation.to cnsurcsaleworkingconditionsdunng sub-
sequenreicavation. ardlo initiatelhc p.occssoftnobilising and conservingrock 'na!.
sLrenglhby cortrolling bornda.y displacernenls. The primary supportor reinforce'
mcnt will form part. and may forn the lvholc. of Lhetolal supporlor reinfbrcemenr
rcquired.Ant, additionalsupportor rcinforae enl appliedat a later stageis terme,i

Ii was once common p.ictice to regard stopesas temporaryercavationshavins

dilltrent suppof requirementsfrom the morc permanentmine installationssucbrt
nnjor accessways. haülages,crushcrchambers.workshops.punping staiionsand
shafis.lndeed,this distinctionn1 y still be made,parliculaflyin the mining of naft)u
orebodieswherethe supporttcchniquesusedin the vicinity ofthe face may be quire
diflerent from those Ned for pennancntmine irstallations.However.many large.
scalel]1elalliferousminesnow use mechaDiscdstopingnethods in which indn'idurl
stopesmry be rery large and may have operationallivcs mcasurcdnr yexrs rath.r
than weeksormontbs.In thesecases.the supportand .einforcementtechDi.tuc\u\.d
may havemuch nr comnon with lhosexsed for permanertnine irstdllatilD$ and in
cjvil enginceringcoDstrucLion.

312
 PRINCIPLE5
AND REINFORCEMENI
5L]PPORT

Supportor reinforcement may also be classifiedax beingeirheractiveor pas-

sive.Active support imposesa predeterminedload to the rock suditceat the tlme of
installätion.ll cantakethelbm of rensionedrock bolts or cables.hydraulicprops.ex
pandablesegmentedconcrctelinings or poweredsupportsfor longwall faces Active
supportis usuallyrequiredwhenit is necessaryto suppot the gravity loadsimposed
by individual rock blocks or by a loosenedzone ofrock. Passivesupport or rein
forcementis not installedwith an appliedloading,but rathet devetopsits loadsÄt tbe
rock massdeforms.Passivesupponmay be providedby steelarches,timbercdsets
or compositepacks,or by untensionedgroutedrock bolts,reinforcingbarsor cables
Untensioned,gouted rock bolts, reinfbrcing bars and cablesare often descnbedas

The telm strata control is usedto describethe suppot and reinfbrcemeft rech-
niquesusedin coalmin;ng.Thetem is a goodonebecause it evokesa conceptof ihe
control or limitation of stratadisplacemenlsratherthanoneof suppod Nevertheless,
suppot in the strici senseis a najor fünction of someshalacontrol measures,nost
notably of hy&au1icpropsusedinmediately behindthe läce in longwall mining.
Becauserhisbook is concemedwith all typesof modernundergroundrnining, ihe
tems süpportandreinforcementwiil be usedin preferenceto stratacontrol ln the
presentchapter.emphasiswill be Flacedon the principlesandmajot techniquesused
in goodsüpportandreinforcementpraclicefor lnining excavationshavinganextended
life and for large undergroundexcavationsgenerally-Techniquesusedin pariicular
typesof mining,includingtheuseof filI andlongwallstratacontrolme.tsures, will
be discussed in subsequent chapters.

ll.2 prin(iples
Supporldnd reinforcemenl

Considertheexanpleillustrated in Figure1i.1 in whichaheadi'gis beingadvanced

by conveniionaldrill ändblastmethods.The pre mining stateofstressis assumedto
be hydrostaticandof nagnitudep0.Blockedsleelselsäreinstalledaftereachdrill and
blastcycle.Thefollowingdiscussion concems thedevelopment of rndialdisplacement
andradial support'pressure'at a point on the excavationperipheryat sectionX X
as the headingprogressivelyadvancesto änd beyondX X. In this discussion,the
tern süpportwill be üsedthroughoutallhoughthe processinvolvedtnay be one of
supportand reilrforcemenlor reinforcemen!alone.Following customaJyusage,the
equivalentnormal stressapplied!o the excavationperipher] by the suppodsystem,
will be temed thesuppotpressure.
ln step I , the headinghasnot yet reachedX-X andthe rock masson the periphery
of theproposed prolileis in eqüilibriumwith anintemalsüpportplessure. pi. acting
equal änd opposiG ro po.
ln step 2, the fäcehasbeenadvancedbeyondX-X rnd the suppof pressure,A.
previouslyprovidedby the rcck ins;de the excavationperiphery,hasbeenreduced
to zero. However.the äpparendyunsuppoted sectionof the headingbetweenthe
face and the last steel set installed,is constrainedto someextent by the pmtimity
of the face-Figue 1L2 showsthe developmentwith dislancetuomthe fice of radiäl
displacement at the peripheryoi a circulartunnelin an elasiicmaterialsubjectto
a hldrostatic I,r sit l strtss field. In this case,the zoneof influenceof the face may

313
 R O C K5 U P P O RATN D F EN F ( ' F C E M E N T

f'r
il

al
tt

t__J
^
tl
fi lll
u ----!

Fisure l1.r (al HypolheticaleilJn

ple ol r tunnel being advancedbt
rrI taceddll andbldi nethodswith
blockedsteelseßbeinCinndled after
cachnuckingcyclei (b)therad'aLsup
por.pressur€iisplacenEnt cuNesfor
the rcch m* turdthe supponsyscfr

i l0
Figure 11.2 Distnbulioi n€d dre
Ia.e. of the üdial eh$ic displacc-
nent. ,i, of the&cultr bonndaryof I
tunnelof radius,a, in a hydrcslatic
strelsfidld, ,,0. nornalisedwith ß
ste.t to thc pllne struindistlrcement,

314

OFG
Radial dhplaenenr, 6i
tilu.€113 Ilnßralionof dieinn!
-i. .f supp.frltiliress aDdol üc
jrns of rs in*all!tun on lupporr
SLJPPORT
ANI] REINFORCEMENT
PRINCIPLES
be definedas 2.25 radii. al rvhich disrancelioin rhe frcc. lhe radial displacementis
within approxinarely5E ofthe comparableplane sträinvalue.
The graphin Fignre I1.1 showsa plor of the rrdial suppon pressure!/r, required
al a point to linrit the radial bonndary displacenent.öi. io the value given by thc
abscissa.If the restraintprovidedby Lheface ar step 2 wcre not alailab]e, inrcmil
supporlpress'tr.es givenby the ordinatesofpoints B and C would be requiredto hnit
the displaccmeltsto their actuallalucs. Differenrcurvesäre shownfor rhe side walls
and lbr the rool Extra srpporr pressureis requircdto limit rhe displacenlentot' the
roof to a pnrtictrlu value becauseoflhe extra load irnposedb)r the action ofgravily
on loosenedtuck in the rcof.
By step:, Lheheadins has been muck€d out and sreel rers have been insralled
close ro the face. At rhis sLage.the sets carry no load becauseno defonnarionof
the rock has occnrredsiDcetheif installarion.This lssumesüat rhe rock massdoes
not exlxbit time-dependentstrcss-strainbebrviour.On ihe graph in Figure 11.1.the
radial displacenrntr ofpoints in the roof and in the side wall. are slillrhose given by
poinrs B and c.
In step 4. the headingis advancedabout one and a halftunnet diamete.sbeyond
X X by a fwther cyclc ofdrilling andblasting.Thc rcsrraintoffercdby thc proximity
of the face is now negligible. and there is lurther radial displäcenent of rhe rock
surtaceat X Xas indicatedby rhe curvesCEG andBFHinFigure I LI. This induces
load in the sleel sets which are assxned ro show linear radial srrc,ij displacemenL
behaviour Thus rhc lupports typically load along a path such as DEF. known as the
support reaction or ayailable support lire. The curve represenringthe behaviour
of lhe rock massis known a! the gound chäracte.istic or rcquiftd support tine.
Equilibrium betweentherockand the sleelsetsis reachedatpoinr E for ihe side wall
and poinl F for the rcot it is imponanr to norerhar mosr of rhe redisrributedstress
arising from creationof the excavationis canied by the .ock and nor by the steel
If steel sets had not been installedaibr the läst rwo ilages of headnrgrdünce.
the radial displaceneDtsat X X wouid have incrcasedalong the dashedcunes EG
änd FH. In the caseof üe side walls, equilibrium would havebeenreachedat poinr
G. However.the suppofl prcssurcrcquired to limil displacementof the roof may
drop to a minimum and then increaseagain as rcck becomesloosenedand has ro
be held up. ln this illustr"tjvc example.the roof wo! d collapseil no strppor were
provided-
The .ational designof suplon and reinforcemenrsystenrsmust lake inro accouDt
lhe inleractioDbetweenthe supportor reinforcing elemenrsänd the rock mass,de
scribedquilitatively for this simpleeranple.lt is clearfion this analysisihat conhol
of rock displacementsis the major r6le of supporrand reinlorccmenrsystems.As
Figure 11.1 shows.enoughdisplaccmentmusr be allowed ro enablerhe rock rnas!
strcngthto be mobilisedsulficientlyro restrid requißd suppon loadsro practicrbte
levels. However excessivedisplncement,which would lead to a toosennrgof the
rock mass and a reduction in its load-carrynrgcapacity.must nor bc permitied io
The stifinessand the time of installarionof the supportelemenrhavean importanl
inltuence on this displacementcontrol. Figure ll.3 shows a rock suplorr interac
tior dragramfbr ä problen similar to that illusrratedin Figure 11.1. The ground
characleristicor.equired suppon llne is given by ABCDE. The earljestpraciicable
315
 ANII REINFORCEMENT
ROCKSUPPORT

time at which supponcan be installedis älter radial displacenentofan ämountOF

support l isinnalled atFandreachesequilibriunwiththerocknrässatpointB. Thls

support is too stiff for the purpose and aitracts an ercessjve share of the redistribured
load. As acons€quence. the süpportelementsmay failcausing catastrophictailure of
the.ock sunoundingthe excavxlion.
Support2, having a lower sliffness,is installedat F .tnd reachesequilibrium with
the.ock massat C. Providedthe correspondjngdisplxcementof the peripheD'ofthe
exclvationis acceptäbleoperalionally.this syslemprovidesa good solution The rock
mNs cäies a major portion of the redisrributedload. md üe supportelementsare
not str€ssedexcessjvely.Nole thai if, asin the temporäry/pernanentsupportconcept,
this suppod wcre to be removed after eqüilibdun had been reached,uncontrolled
displacementand collapseof the rock miss would älmost certainlyoccur
Support 3. having a much lower stiffnessthaD support2, is also installed at F
bul reaches equilibrjum wilh the rock mass at D wherc the rock mass has stated to
loosen.Although this n1ayprovide an acceptabletenporary solution.the situationis
a dangerousone becanseany extra load imposed,for exampleby a redisrributio. of
stess associated withnearby mining. will hrve 1()be carriedby the supponele'nents.
ln general,support3 is loo flexible for this particulärapplication.
Suppoit,l, ofthe sane iype and sriffnessas supporr2, is not installeduniil a radial
displacementoftherockmassofOG hasoccuned.In this case.the supportis insralled
1oolate.excessiveconve4enceofüe excavationwilloccut andthe suppot elements
wil probably becomeoverstressed beforeequilibriunis reached
ln Figures11.1and 11.3.constantsupportdflnesses are assumed.In pracrice,thc
stiffnessesofsupport.tnd reinforcingelements:[e usuallynonlinear. Figure I l.'l ii
lüstratessomeof the cffectsthat Inay arise.Thereis ofteninitial nonlinearbehaviouf
becaüseof poor or incomplele contactbetweer the rock and the support systerr

Figure11,4 N)n linetusupporrE-

aclioncuryes.bswed1orsonesup

Radial diphcemenr. d,

316
ROCKSUPPORT ANALYSIS
NTERACTION

Concrete and shotcrete n1aycreep as ihey cure, as nalr grortcd rock bolis and do\t-
els. The suppartsystemswith the poo€st stiffnesscharacteristicsde those using
intermiuent blocked steel or tinber sels. Even if well installed, tnnb€r blocking pro-
vides a very ltexible element in the syst€m. Steel sets älso suffer frolrl the disadvartage
that thcy often fail by sideways buckling.
Frcm theseconsiderationsof rock srpport inteücdon mechnnics,it is possible
to develop a set of principles to guide süpport and reinforcementpactice. These
principles are not meant to apply to the cäse of providing support fbr the self-weig|t
of än individual block ofrock, but to the more generalcasein which yield ofthe rock
masssunoündingthe excavationis expectedto occur

(r) Inslall the support and reinforcement close to ihe fäce soon after excavatron. (ln
some cases,ir is possible.and advisable.to inslxll some reinlbrcenent befbre
excavation.This caseof ple-placedreinforcementor pre reinforcementwill be
discussedin seclion 1i.4.)
Thcre should be good contact between the rock mass and üe supporl and rein-

(o The defornabitiiy of the supl)on and reinforcemenl syslem should be such that
i t can conform to and acconmodate the dilplacelnenls of the excavation surface.
(d) Ideally. the s pport and reinforcementlystem shouldhelp preventdeterioration
of the mechanicalpropertiesof üe rock mass with time due to wealhering,
.epeäted loading or wear.
(e) Repeated removal and repiacement of süppot änd reinforcing elements should

(t) The süpport and reinforcement system should be readily adaptable to chatrging
rock masscondilionsand excavationcrosssecti(,r.
The suppona.d reinforcingslslem shouldprovideminimum obstructionto the
excavations and the working face.
( h ) The rock nass suffoundingthe excavalionshouldbe disturbedaslitt1easpossible
during the excavation process so as to conserve ils inlereni stength.
(,) For accessesand other infrafucture excavaiionsunder high strcssconditbns,
support and reinforcemenl performance can be improved by "closing the ring"
of shotcrete or a concretc liiing across the ltoor of the excavation.

11.3 Rock-support interaction analysis

ln sectbn 7.6. a solution was given for rhe radiusof tbe yield zone and ihe stesses
within the yield zone tollned around a circular ercavrtion in massive.elasticrock
subjectedto an initial hydroslaticstresslield. Ertensions of anallses of this llPe
to include more rcalistic rock rnassbehaviourand to include the calcul.tlionofdis
placementsal lhe excavationperiphery,can be usedio obnin numericalsolutionst)
rock supportinteractionproblems.
In Lheadsyrnmetdcploblemconsideredinsection 7.6andillüsträtedinFigue7.20,
lcttherockmasshavea Coulombyield criterionin whichpeakstrengthcoincides with
yield and lhe stress strainbehaviouris as shown in Figure 11.5.Nole that dilatancy
äccompanies posl-peat deformation of the rcck mats. As belbre, the limiting states

317
 ROCKSUPPORT
ANDREINFORCEMENT

of stress in the elastic and fracnlred rock are given by

o bo- (o (7.8)
8
and

01 = do\ (7.9)
The principal stesses within the fractured zone are
'
q = 'P' \t n( L) \ "
",,:
lsadienll=/ and

,r.=.s^_dp,l,)"' (7.r1)
and the radius of the fraclured zone is

f 2P Callt\d t)
(7.15)
L(l+ r)p l
Theradialstresstransmittedacrosstheelastic fracturedzoneinteface arradius. = ..
Figurc 11.5 Idedised elßtic-brlrtle
stres strin frodel (after Brcsn 2P co
(7.14)

In the elasticzone,the radial displacementproducedby a redücrionof the rädi.tl

stressfrom p to ]?r is
(p p'),?
2Gr

b p),.
2G
ff no fractured zone is formed, the radial displacementat rhe peripheryof rhe
excavation(r.. : d) is

"_ (11.r)
,c
Note thai ihe rädial displacement,z, is posinve outwärdsfrom rhe cent e of rhe

Wilhin the ftacrued zone, for infinitesimal strain and with conpressivestrains
positive,considerarions
of the compatibiiig,of displacemenisgive

(r1.2)
and

( rr . l )
318
ROCK SUPPORI NTERACTION
ANALYSIS

Assumethat within the fracturedzone

e3: €r" l(€r €r.) (1r.4)

where€r., €:r.arethestains at theelastic-plasiicboundtuyandf is anexperimentally
deiermined constant asdefinedin Figure11.5.Substitution of
(p pt)
a"= t.-= ._ (|| s)
into equation I 1 ,l and rearranging gives

4:-Jt\ (1- J)\! !! (11.6)

FIom eqnationsi 1.2, 1i.3 and 11.6

du -J ,u -.(p - ,r')
+ O - l)ä:
dt:
The solution;o this differentialequationis

ttt, p,lt
u c, tltl
| 2 C i. l) )
where C is ä constänl of integratio. which may be evalüäted by substituting the value
ofel at r =.. given by equrtion I1.5. This leadsto the solution
u \t-p)\ fr/-lr . /r.\r+rl
;= G(r+rlL , -\;/ (11.7)
l
EquätionI 1-7cänbeusedto plota relationbetween radialdispläcenrnt,genemlly
represented by ör : -,i, andsupportpressüre,Ä. at the excavationperipherywhere
/ = d. Theditrerences between thedisplacements experiencedby therockin theroof,
sidewallsandfloor canbeestimatedby assumingthat,in thefloor theresultantsupport
pressure is theäppliedpressure, pj , tessa pressüre
thatis equivalent
to theweightof
the rock in the f-racturedzone,.y(r" a). In the sidewall,the suppot prcssureis p.
Dd in the roof, gravity acts on the fractued zo.e to increasethe rcsultantsupport
pressure Io pi '|'ylre - aJ.
Consideras an exanple, a circular runnel of radius.r : 3 m excavatedin a rock
masssubjectedio a hydrostaticstresslield of : 10MPa.Thepropertiesof therock
massare1 : 25 kN m 3, c = eooup4 f" =2o,ö=45", OJ = 30' andC=
2.414MPa,whichgivelheparameier valuesb = 5.828,C0= 11-657andd = 3.0-
An internalradial suppot pressureof pj : 0.2 MPa is applied.
Fron equation7.16,the radiusof ihe fracturedzoneis calculatedas
f )^ .^1'd-'
+ _ . . 1 t 5m
" L#tr l+ r r ? , I
ard theradialpressureatthe interfacebetweenthe elasticandfractwedzonesis given
by equation7. 1,1asI r : 1.222MPa.Theradial displacementat ihe tunnelperiphery
is thengivenby equationI1.7 as

b, : ,, :0 228in

319

0 005 010 0 15020 025
Radial düplacemenr.6, (m)
Iigürc 11.6 Calculatcdßqutred resulisso obrainedare iabulatedinTablc i Ll and plottedin Figure 11.6.The critical
supponlinetnrthcsidcsallsin a sar supportprelsnrebelow which a fracluredzonelvill developis found by puttingr" = a
AND REINFORCEMENT
ROCKSUPPORT
for sanlle problom
Table11,1 RequiEdsuplonlinc calculations
l0 .1 2 1.222 05 0.2 0.t
i , l o 4 690 r..1li 10.,187
0 0 015 0020 0 . 0 2 2 0421 0.063 0228 0.612
0000 0 008 0 0 4 2 0ll0 lj.t37
poor = Pi+.r(,i d)(MPa) t0 4 2 \ 222 1.008 0 5 4 2 0.3t0 0.287
pdoor= rL t(.c dXMP.) t0 ,1 2 1222 0.4s3 0.090 ( 0.087)
To determinethe grcund characterisricor reqniredsupportcurve. substilutcsuc
cessivevaluesof pi in equation7.15 to obtain a seriesof valuesof r" which n.e then
substituledinto eqnation t 1.7 to oblain the correspondingvalüesof 6r =
"i.The
inequationT.15whichgivespi-=1.222MP!.Inorderrorestrictradialdisplace
mentsto valuesof Ei, calcularedfor sidewä]]sxpportpressuresof l,j, roof md floor
pressurcsof Z +"y(re a) and ?i - 'y(/" - d) win be requi.ed.
The complele solution of a rock support interacrion problem reqüires determi-
natjon of the support reaction or av^ilable support line in addition to the ground
characteristicor requiredsuppot line consideredso far Using methodsintroduced
by Daemen (1975), Hoek and Brown (1980) have presentedmethodsof calculat
ing supportreactionlines for concreteor shotcretelinings, blocked steel sels änd
ungroutedrock bolts orcables.Detailsofthese calculationsare givenin AppendixC.
Figure I1.7 shows the result$of a set of calculationscanjed out lbr a sanple
problem using the naterial model of Figur€ 11.5.A 5.33 m radius accesstunnel is
driven in a fäir quality gneissat a depth of 120 m where lhe ir rr& stateof streis
is hydrostaticwith p = 3.3 MPa. The propediesof the rock nass are o. : 69 MPa.
n = 0 . s , r = 0 . 0 0 0 1r. = 1 . 3 8 G P 4r = 0 . 2 . J : 4 2 . , ? , = 0 1 s , : 0 a n d 1 . :
20 kNm 3. In this problem,the self weighr of the fracturedrock aroxnd lhe tunnel
has rn imporiantinfluenceon radial displacements. as shownin Figure 11.7.
The supportreactionor ävailablesupportline for 8I23 s|eelsetsspacedat l 5 nr
centreswith good blocking was caiculatedusing thc following input data: lv:
j
0.1059 n. x : 0.2023 m, .1. = 0 0043 m'?,.I, : 2.67 r l0 ma, I], = 207 GPa.
o y . = 2 4 5 M P a . S : 1 . 5 m . 0 = 1 1 . 2 5 ' ,l B : 0 =
2 5 m , E n 1 0 0 G P aa n d ö r o :
0.075 m. The availablesuppo( provided by thesesteel sets is shown by line I in
Figlre ll.7 which indicateslhat the naximum availäblesxppot pressureof about
0.16 MPa is quite adequateto stabilisethe tu.nel. Howevet becauserhe set spacing
of 1.5 m is quite lärge comparedwith the likely block size in the fracturedrock. it
will be necessaryto provide a meansof preventingunravellingofthe rock bet$een
The importanceof conect blocking of sreelsetscan be demonstratedbychanging
the block spacing and block siiftness.Line 2 in Figure 11.7 shows the available
supponline calculatedwith e = 20' and ÄB = 500 MPa. The suppo capacityhas
now droppedbelow acritjcal level,rnd is not adequateto stabilisethe tuDnelroot:
Sinceit has alreadybeen recognisedthat some other suppot in {ddition to sleel
sets will be required.the use of shotcretesuggestsitself. Line 3 in Figurc 11.7 is
the availablesupportcurle for a 50 mm thick sholcretelaycr calculaßd using the
following data:-g = 20.7 GPa,r,. :0.25. t" = 0 050 m. o.. : 3,1.5MPa. Because
320
 INTEFACION ANALYsS
RUC|\ 5I-]PPORT

I 3I 23 nal sß { t.5 n c.r6 *irh lood bhriit

2 8 I I !r..1 sß .i 1.5 n ent6 enh p@r blo.ti.!

a 25 rr di@r.r. 3 m l,on3d..t.nidly rchoEtl rck botß

ar 1.5 fl €rE6 idrlLd *hhi' 3 h .t le
5 ?5 'm diftr.r.3 6lo!3 tud.iiollt rncho'.il
Et boh. d 1.5 ß erk6 in$rl.d .bour ro fr

Iipr€ llj Rock strplort intcrac-

donanaltsisfora5.33nradirstunnel 50 75 lü)
in iair qu.liq gneissara dcpih ot 120
Radial dilplrc.mcnt, q (mh)
n (arid Hoe! andBtutn. 1980).

shotcretemay be placed close to the face soon after excavation. ü0 was taken as 25 mm.
It is clear that this shotcretelayer has adequatestrengrhand stiffnessro srabilise
tunnel displacements- Indeed, it may well be too sliff and develop unacceptably high
compressive slresses within th6 shotcrete ring- Briltle tiacture of a shotcrele lining
such as this shoüld be avoided. Wire mesh or fibre reinfbrcement could increase the
tensile and shed strengtis and üe ductiljty of the shotcrete.
Patem rock bolting is anotherpossiblemeansofprovidingpdnary supponfor this
tunnel. Line 4 in Figure i1.? ;s the availäblesupportcurve calcularedfor a rockbolt
system using the following parameters:1 = 3.0 m, d : 0.025 n, E6 = 2O1 GPa.
d O : 0 . 1 4 3m M N ' , 4 r : 0 . 2 8 5M N , r " = 1 . 5m , r r : 1 . 5m a n dü o = 0 0 2 s m .
It rppears that this patteflr of rock boldng provides a satisfactory solution. The strengttr
of the rock massis highly mobilised. änd the rock bolts are not excessivelyloaded
except in the roof where an adequatehad factor nay not exist. It would be preferable,
iherefore. to increäse the density of bolting in the roof and to decreaselhal in the side
walls and the floor. It will also be necessaryto use mesh or a thin layer of shotcrele.
to Fevent uffavelling of blocks of rock from between the rock bolts.
Line 5 i1lusüatesthe disastronseffect of delayingthe installationof the rock bolts
until excessive defomation of the rock mass has occured. In this case, equilibrium
of lhe rock in the roof änd the support system cannot be reached and roof collapse

321
R O C KS U P P O RATN D R E I N F O R C E M E N T

The analysispresentedsofar is a very simpleone.Il usesä simplifiedconstilutive

model for the rock mass and appliesto an axisynnetric problen modified only
by an empirical corection for the influenceof gravity. A range of analytical and
semi-analytical solutionshavebeendeveloped for otherboundarycondilionsand
constiruiivemodels.inclüding theHoek-Brown empirical rockmassstrenFhcdterion
andnon-associated flow rules (e.g.,Anagnostou and Kovari, 1993,Brown4d1.. 1983,
Carranza-Toffes ,t dl., 2002. Cananza-Tores and Fairhurst, 1997, 1999.Detoumey
and Fairhürst, 1987, Pänel, 1995, Wang. 1996). A useful means of reducingthe
mathematical complexity ol lhe solutionsis to adoptthe transfomations andscaling
methodsusedby Detoumey and Fairhwst (1987). Anaenostou a.d Kovdi (1993)
andCaffanzaTonens and Fai]hu6t (1999). The results ofthese analyses äre usuälly
preseDted in dimensionless form as in the exanpleshownin Fignre11.8.ln this
example,lhe ground reactioncurvesandthescaledplastic zonemdius,€ =.e/r, are
shownfor a sectionfive diametersremovedfrom the face of an advancingtunnelin
a rock massthat satisfiesa Hoek-Brownstength criterion andis subjectto an initial
hydrostaticstresslield of magnitudecro.Solutionsare giveDfor a ser of selected
pitrmeiers andlbr düeepossiblelalues of the GeologicalStrenglhIndex, GSL
Although analylicalsolutionssuchasthoseoutlinedabovernaybe of väluein pre
lininary studiesof arangeoI problems,mostpracticalündergroundmining problems
requiretheuseof numerical methods of thetypesdjscussed in Chapter 6 for theircom
pletesolution.Finiteelemeni,linite difference anddistinctelemenrmethods haveall
beenusedfor this purpose. The resultsof calculationscardedort using the finite dif
fercncecodeFLAC'" areshownsuperimposed onFigure I1.8. Figure 1l.9 shows the
s..,und J(dLrioncurre\cJl.uhledb) Leacf. a/. r { 2000, ü.ing n ACrD for rl e rore
geometncallycomplexcaseof extractionor productionlevel drifts i' the Premier
blockcav;ngmine,SoüthAfrica.Thegound reacrioncunesshownin Figure11.9
arefor severallocationsalonga producliondrift with respecrb üe undercurface(see
Chaprer15 for an explanationof theseternls).Thesecurveswere xsed to estimate
thelevelsofsuppot prcssure requi.edto limit drift closüres to acceptable levels.

11.4 Pre-reinlorcement

In sone cncumslances,it is dillicult to provide adequatesuppoft or rcinforcement

io rhe rock masssufficiently quickly after the excavalionhasbeennade. If suitable
accessls available.it is often practicableto pre reinforcetherock massin advanceof
excavation.ln othercases,extrarcinforcemenrmay beprovidedäsparl of thenornal ss
cycle,in anricipationof higher stressesbeing irnposedon the rock ät a later stägein
rhe lifb of the mine.
ln mining applicarions,pre reinforcementis often provided by grouied rods or
cablesthat arenot pre-tensionedandsomay bedescribedasbeingpassiverätherrhän
active.Snchpre-reinforcementis effectivebecauseit allowsthe rock nass to defom
in a controllednanner ändmobiliseits stength, but limits the amountof dilation and
subsequent looseningthat csnoccur The efiectivenessof this lorm of reinforcemenl
is critically dependenton the bondingobtainedbetweenthe reinforcing elementand
the grout, andbetweenthe grout andlhe rock.
The initial najor useof pre-reinforcementin undergroundmining wasin cuFand-
fiI miring (Fuller.I 981).Theuseof cablesto pre-reinforce thecrownsof cut-and-fill

322
 v : 0'(nd'.sociatennownls)

GSI n s G lcPal

3.910. 2.2
40 12 t.310. t2
30 0.8

t'
vV"

(b)

- GrcundRdcrion Cwe
---- lxtenl ofplEtic zone

:
{
GSI=30

tlgüre rl.8 Analysn of conve!

E
z
Fn.. and the exient .l the ph*i.
^{. in atunnel1i r ro.L nas haling
. Hck Brown nreigth ..ienon and 5 025
ßatecr h an idtlal hydro$alc $es
i.id (x) problcrndclinition turddatai
l, -sround rea.tion .ufles aid nor
GrlNd eie.t ofthe pla*1c z.ie ai
dron SS' lof rhicc valrcs of GSL
1.0 1.5 ]0
lü. co*es tu! valucs calculatcd us
.! üe code FI-ACrD (arrer CaraDza'
lveni and rairhürst, I 999)
wallßdialdisrlscnen! D/2! I-"/"1
Nomaliserl

slopesis illustraled in Figure 11-10-Ar a given slage of mining (Figure 11.10a).

cablesare lnstalledto relnfbrcethe rock massover thrce or four lift! oflniDing. The
citblexare inslalledon apprcximatcly2 m lquare gridst this spacingmay bereduced
or inc.caseddcpcndingon the rock nass quality. Cablesare inlralled normal to the
rock suface when they are usedfor general pre-reinfofcemenr. If shear on a padicular
discontinuityis to be rcsisted,thecrbles shouldbe insialledat an angleof20'-,10'to
lhe disconlinuni As illustraledin Figure 11.l1a. cäblesnrstalledin cur and fill srope
backsm.y also be usedro providesomepre reinforcementto the hangingwäll.

323
 AND RFNF')R'INlENT
ROCli 5L]PPORT

7.
i
a
a

Iieü.c11.9 (n.urdre&1r.ncurlcs 'a-.-

-
.alculxtedlnr s.v.ral Poirnsrong I
produ.rnJndrilr ir thePrtrnierIUinc.
SourhalrfatalicrLerh.r{l 21)00i

(d)

ligure ll.l0 ljs. .l cxble 'lore!

lle relnaoren.nt iI cu! r.d Jill

The pre'reinfo.ccmenlofhangmgwrlls i5 also imNrtant iD rhe now nlore widc\

uscclsublelel and longhole open stopiDgmethodsof miniDg If practicable.morc
xnlfbrm colcrlge of the lrangjDgNallthan that illusträLedin Figures I I llt .rnd b
.ry be obtainedb) installing fans oi cabler liom a ncx.by hangingwalld ft r\ nr
thc caseshoün in Figure 1l.1lc. Furhcr eramplesof the p.c reinlbrcementof opcf
sbpes 'vill be gi\'en jn Ch.tpterl,l.
ln m{nr ol rhe early applicrlions of fully grotrrcdc.rbledoq'el renrfofcemenlard
pre-reinfofccncnl.the flLllpotenLiälof the reinfo.cing s)stem \\'asnol rerlised Thi\
$as generallybccäuseof failtlle of thc grout-cablebond ard the consequentiDcftcc
tive load tmnsfer bexveerrthe dcfonning rock mxssand lhe cable. Since thtt titnc
cor,jidcrablealtention hxs bccn paid to tendon dcsign.rnd to installation.gmutin:
rnrl restifg proccdures(e.g.Matthc{s er d1.,1986.Thompsoner.l.. 1987.Windsor

324
 P R ER E I N F O R C E M E N T

l0

1
..!)\" /

l5

I
It.ll Pre{einforencnt at
Mine .JnJJ. (r) cut-sd
bicl €iiforcenen! O) loryhole
{oping hmglngw.ll reinfore-
(c) lon8holcopenstopinghang
Einfo@dent ftom a hang
I ddlt (after Bourchid .r al,,

andThompson. 1993,Hoek€rdl., 1995,Hutchinson andDiederichs, 1996.Windsor,

1997.2001).As a result,theseproblems havenowbeenlargelyovercome
P.e-reinforcemenr rnayalsobeusedro goodelTecrin permanentandinfrastructure
excavations.Severalexämplesar€givenby Hoekeral ( 1995).Figüre I l . t 2 illusrrates
ihe use of groutedreinJorcingbars to Fe-reinforce a &awpoint. For drawpoints
that lrlay be heavily loadedand subjectto wear. their continucdstabiliiy js vjtaly

325
 RI NFORCEMENT
ROCKSLJPPORTAND

Iistrrc 11,12 Lse or grout.d ßin-

lorciDg bas rli pre renrlor.c a dmw-
|oirn ii , ldg. ncchanised mrne.
The bm* dea, sho$n shaded, is
bla{cd lasr, aier Einforcemenr hN xl 3mx3mbrowdea
beeninialled lrom the drxsp.lntand
llon the trough dnr€ (rfter Hock and
' d c a l d r a s p o i nl rc . g l h l 5 m

inporrant in mary uDdergmtrnd mining operations. In panicular. failui: of the bro$

ofthe ercavationcan resuhiü conpiele loss ofcontrol oflhe stopedraw operation.
Figure 1l 12 snowsa suitablemerhodot' pre-reinforcingthe brow sJeawith grouEd
reintbrcing b.trsinsralledftom the drawpoint and from the trough drive befbre the
brow areais blasted.

11.5 Support and reinforcement design

Frequently,supportand reinfo.ceüenl design is basedon precedentpr&tjce or on

observationsmide, and experiencegained,in trial excavationsor in the early st.tges
of mining in ä particulararea.Howevef.it is prcferablethät a morc rigorousdesign
processbe uscdrDd thai expedenlialor presumptivedesignsbe suppodedby sone
tbrn of analysß. Depcrding on the application.design cxlcuhtions may be of .r
siinple limiring equilibnum type or may use more comprehensiveconrpütätioDal
approaches involving rock supportinleractioncalculationsand taking accountofthe
delbrmationand strengthprcpeniesoflhe supportand rcinforcementsystemand the
completest.essst.rin responseof the rock mass.Different deüignapproachesma)
be requied for threemain appli.alionsofsupport and reinfbrcement:

326
 SUPPOR
ATN DR E I N F O R C E MDEENSTI C N

. local supportand reinforccmeDt1()suppon indiridual biocks or loosenedzones

on an excavationboundary;
. geneül or systematicreinfo.cementln which the objccLiveis to inobilise and
conservethe inhereDtstrengihof the rock mass;and
' supporiand reinforcenent systemdesignedto rcsisl lhe dynamicloading asNcj
rted with rock buNt conditions.

Staticdesigninalyseslbr the firsttwo applicalionswill be discussedhere.The nore

complex caseof dynamic or rockburstlording wil be consideredin section15.2.3.

11.5.2 Local suppoft and reinforcement

Two typcs of designanalysiswill be preseded here.The lirst type involves simple
static liniting equilibriüm analyseswhich essenliallytreat the systemcomponents
as rigidbodies and nse sinplified nodels of systemmechar cs. Thc secondtype äre
more rigorousand comprehensiveanalyleswhich rakeinto accountthe deformation
and slip or yield ofrhe suppot and reinfo.cingsysiemelementsand the mckmass.

Design to suspenda roof beam in laminated rock As illustEted in Figure 11.i3

rockboltsmay be üsedto suspendapotentially unstableroofbeam in lan atedrock
The anchoragenustbelocaiedoulsidethe potentillly unslablezone ffit is assuned
that the weight of the .ock in the unstablezone is supporledentirely by the force
developedin tbe rockboltsthen

I:lDll (11.8)

/r\.

where 7 = working load per rock bolt, 'y : unit wcighl of the rock. , : height of
Lhexnstablezonc. rnd r : rockbolt spacingin both the longitudinal and tknsrerse

'-Eü.e 11,13 Roctbox designto

sppo.. the reieht of a rool berm in
reinforced potenliallyu.stable

1L
1
D
t

327
ROCK
SLJPPORT
ANDREINFORCEMENT

ff, for exanpie, ? = l0tonne:100kN,'y =25kNm 3 änd, = 4 m, eqMtioD

11-8givesr = 1.0m.
In this application,caremustbe täkento ensurethät the bolr anchorshavean
adequatefactor of safety againstfailurc under lhe working 1oad.?. This design
neüod is conservativein that it doesnot allow for the shearor flexußl strengthoI
the strataabovethe abutments.
Lang and Bischotr (1982) extendedüis elementaryanalysisio incorporatethe
shearstrcngthdevelopedby the rock masson the vetical boundariesof the rock udt
reinforcedby a singlerockbolt.The rock is assunedto be destressed to a depth,D,
asin Figurc11.13.butvariablevefticalsiresses. o". andhorizontalstresses,lo,, are
assnmed to be inducedwithinthede-stressedzone.T}?ically.l maybe takenas0.5.
The sherr strengthdevelopedat any point on the perineter of the reinforcedrock
unitis givenby c + ptrcr,,wherec is thecohesion andp = tan0 is üe coeflicieni of
friction for the rock mass.l,ang andBischotr's analysisleadsto the result
r . \ [r-e\pr-plD/R)l
= "/. ( rr . 9 )
* tk \' 1 R / L I e \ p ,u r r l n r l
where I : rockbolt tensiori,,4 = äreaof roof canyi.g one bolt (: r' for a s x r
bolt spacing), R = sheärradius ofthe reinforced rcck unit.: A/P, whereP is the
sheärperin1eter(= 4r for a r x s bolt spacing).a : a facror dependingon the time
of installationof the rockbolts (o : 0.5 for activesuppot, and o = l 0 tbr passive
reinforcement), md a - bolt lengthwhichwill oftenbe lessthan,. theheightof
the de-stessedzoneof rock.
Lang and Bhchoff suggestthat, for preliminary analyses,the cohesion,., shonld
be täkenas zcro.Designchartsbasedon equation11.9showthat.particularlyfor
low vdluesofO. üe requnedbolttension,?, increases significantly
asL/r decreases
belowabouttwo, but thai no significantreductionin 7 is producedwhen,/r is
increasedabovetwo. This result providessomeconoborationof Lang's empirical
rule that the bolt length shouldbe ar ieasttwice the spacing.For a given serof data.
equationI1.9 will give a lowerrequnedbolt iensionthanthatgivenby equation
I1.8. Clefly, Lang dndBischofft theoryappliesmoredirecdyto the caseof the
development of a zoneof reinforced, self-supporting rock,thanto the simplercase
of thesupponof thebral gaviry loadproduced by a loosened volumeof rockor by
a roof beamin laminatedrock.

Designtosuppofta triangulatottettahedralblack. In Chxpter 9, theidentification

of potential failure modesof triangular and reaahedrälblocks wxs discüssed.and
analyseswere proposedfor the cises of symmetricand asyrnmetrictriangularroof
pdsms.Theseänalysestäkeaccountof inducedelasticsiresses rnd discontinüity
defomability, 15 well as allowing for the self-weiglt of the block and for suppon
fo.ces. The completeanalysisof a non-regulartetrahedrdwedgeis morc complex.
An otherwisecompletesoluiion fbr the tetranedraiwedgewhich doesnor allow for
inducedelasticstresses is sivenby HoekändBrown(1980).
The analysespresentedin Chapler9 may be incor?oratedinto the designproce-
dure.Consider thelwo-dimensional problemilhst.atedin Figure11.14to whichthe
analysisfor an asymmetrictriangularprism may be applied.ff it is assunedrhat rhe
nomal stitrnessesof bodrdiscontinuitiesaremuch srcaterthanthe shearstifinesses.

328

Figür€11,14 Elampleolr da.gD
Figure 11.15 Design .l r rockboh
.: üble s){em to prelenl slldiig ol
r rLangulf prisn (aicr Hoek and
5 L ] P P O RATN D R FN F O R C E M E N
TTJE5ICN
H0 :0 MN
eqxation9.39 Inay be used.Subsliluting,ilo : 20 MN (corfespondnrgto aboundarv
s f 5 M P ä ) .o r : 1 0 ' , o r = 2 0 ' , d r r: ü = ' 1 0 ' i n e q u a l i o n 9 3 9 g i l e s t h e v e F
s t r e so
ticalforce requiredlo producelimitirg cquilibnum ofthe pnsm as ,rr : 3.6'1MN per
merrethickness.Sincethe weight oftlre pnsrn is W = 0.26 MN per neire th'ckness,
it is concludedrhat thc prism \rill remrin stableunder thc inflnenceof the induced
tf the wedge is permittcd to displacelerdcalll' so that joinl relaxation occurs'
rhe liniting vertical force is gilen by eqüation9.'10,wirh valucsof i1 being deter
mined fiom equation9.11. In the presentcäse.the post rclüation limitjng verticd
force is & = 0.l8 MN per netre thickncss This is less than the value of W and
so. without reinfofcemcnl.the block will be unstable Thc rcintbrcementforcc, R,
required 1o n1aintaina given valne of facto of safety agailst prism failure, r'. is
given by ll =tv nlF.It F = 1.5. then R = 0.14 illN per nretreihickness.This
force could bc provided by groured dowels nadc lioln steel rope or Ieinibrcing
Ifthe stabilisinginltuenceofthc inducedhorizoDtalstresses wereto bc completelv
rcnoved. it would be necessxfyto provide suppor for lhe total weight of the prism
For a factor of sattiy of 1.5, the requjredequi!.rtentunifonn u)f suppon presnrc
would be 0.08 MPa. a valuercadily aitainableusingpatternrock bolting
Figure I 1.15shows a casein $,hich a rwo Llinrcnsionalwedge is liee to slide on
a discontnruityAB. lf stfesscsinducedarouDdthe excavati{rnperipheryare ignorcd'
teDsionedrock bolt or cable srppo mal be designedby considcing lin ting equr
librium for sljding on AB. IfCoulonb's shearsheDgthla\r applieslbr AB. the tactor
of safetyagain!t sliding is
.A + (Wcos ' + I cos€)lanir
wsinü Isin0
wherc W = weight ofthe bk)ck, Ä = areaoflhe sliding suface, 7 = total forcc in
thc bolts or cables,ü = dip of Lheslidirg sutface,0 = anglebetweenthe plunge of
thc bolt or cablc and the normal to Llresliding suface, ., .l : cohesionand angleof
füclion on the sliding surlace.
Thus rhe totalforce requiredto nraintaina given faclor ofsafety is
lY(Äsinü cosü tänO) .Ä
coslJtanO+ Fsh0
329
 ROCKSUPPORT
AND RENFORCEMENT

Figun 11.16 Local rinlb'.cnEnt

&ft,n throughanoctiveleDgthofbolt
{ati.r BrMy x.d Lo.ig.1988)

A fäclor of säfet! of 1.5ro 2.0 is generallyusednr suchcasesThe valtreof I.equired

io mainlain a gileD valueof F will be minimised if 0 = I cot.l.

Conprehensive analysis of local reinforcement. A comprehensiveanalysisof

rcck reinforcenentmü( be basedon loadsmobilisedm rcinforcemenrelemenrsby
thcif defonnarionand by relativcdisplacemenrbetween hosrrock and componenrsof
the reinforcement.For local reinforcernen!.representedby a rcinforcing bar or boll
fülly encaplulatedin a srong, stiffresin or groxt, a relatively lafge axiat resishnce
to exlensloncan be deyehped over a relativelyshort lengthof the shankof rhe bolr.
and a high resistanceto shenrcanbe developedby ar elemenrpenetraLing a slipping
joinr.
Analysis of local reinforcementis conducredjn terms of the blds mobiiised in
the reinfbrcementelementby slip and scpüxtion at ajoini and rhedeformarionof an
'actire
length' of thc element,as shown in Figure I l.16. This reflectsexpefinental
observationsbyPells (1974),Bjurstrom(1974),andHaas(1981)rhar,in disconrinuous
rock. reinfbrcementdcformationisconce.rratcdneaf an acrivejoinr.The conceprual
nodel of lhe locai operationof the aclile length is shown in Figure ll.17a. where
locat load and defonnationresponsei! siDrulatedby two spnng!. one para el to thc
local axis ofthe elemeniand one peperdicular ro it. When sheafoccursar thejonrt.
as shownin Figure I t.17b. the axial sp.ing renuins pmallel ro the new oriemadonof
the acliveiengdr.and the shearspringir rakento remalnpcrpendicularro the originrl
axial orienlation.Displacementsnormal ro thejoint Äre accompxDiedby analogous
changesin ihe \pring orieftations.
The loads nDbilised h ihe elcnrentby local delbrmationare.elared to thc dis
placemcntsthroughtheaxial and sheüstiffnessesolrhebolt. Kr and,(. respectively.
Thesecan be estimatedliom the expressions(Cerdcenet al., t911)

(11.10)

( 1 r . 11 )

330
 S U P P O R T A NR
DE J N F O R C E M E
DNET
5C N

drrccrion
or ,Lu,.

Frgüre 11.17 Modeh lor dial dd

$ed lction of einforcenent ar a
3lippinsjoint (after Büdy dd Lods,
t938). i/

. 'l:
fr
L |,GpLD.td).lt t t l
L"l
G! = Shearmodulusof grour,tb = Young'smodulusof bolt, dz, dr = holeandbolt
diametet rcspectively

F: K/(4Ebr)z
K:2Es/(d2/d.1 1)

and1 : secondmomentof arcaof the rcinforcing element,and .]s = Young'smod-

ulus of gout.
Themobilisedaxial andshearforcesareboth assumedto approachhniting values
asymptotically.A conrinuous-yieldingmodel fbr axial pedormance(with an änalo
gouse\pre$ioolor sbed)i' de,cribed by rhee\p'e..ion

^4: rr ^ralf(ra) ( rr .r 2 )
where AF" is an increnental changein axial force dueto an inffemental axial dis
placenentA a", and/(r") is atunctiondefiningtheloadpathby which F" approäches
its ultinätevalue.Pfi.
Theexpression for /(4) is conveninentlydefnedby

= p,1, F^ (P3, F^)/(Plt)z (11.13)

"f(i.")
The valüestbr the ultimate axial and shearloads that can be suslainedideally
shoüld be determinedfrom appropriateiaboralory tests on the rock grout shank
system.sinceit dependson factorssucbasgrcut propenies,roughnessof the grout-
rcck interface.adhesionbetweenthe grout and the shank.and the thicknessof the
groutannulus.Ifmeaswedvaluesfor üe ultimateloadsarenot available.approximaie
\atue.canbeesümared irom rheerpression.

P;l! = 0.67di(obo")l (ll.r4)

(11.15)

331

u s . t P h e r c n \l , \ h . r ( ) r n g l c
Iieür€ 11.18 Tlpical eorkin:
skcth ured durins pr.liminarl
latour ol ! rockbllling pitrem lnr
rn excrvrtionin j.iiled nck rrticr
R O C ( S L ] P P O RATN I ) R FN F O R ( : E ' 1 E N T
u s . l ! l ! ) i l ( [ ] r ( rJ i 1 m * e l d B c \ h
n L ln L l r X ) n r m l . h , , ( i L L ,n
/
rnr uflrrr \ !! { üß nc.JL\c nr
/blocl<y nr!lre,'f rt).k nr .nnt|s\. tre\\ thul,d tnf
tf-11r-*tJj
i.j n "..
n9
. "..n"{
_ i\ü.hrrrk
zxlm
:botr\ rrdiaL
1 9 t u 0 or )
lromIhis
where ob : yicld strcngthof bolr. o. = uniaxial cornpressivestrengihof the rock.
rpe|r: shearslren-sthof grout or grout rock interlace. and I = bond lenglh. In
equarionI L 15.i! i! assumcdthat shcaroccursal the hole boundary.If shearoccursat
the bolrgrouti erflce. thc apprcprialediameterin equation11.15 is lr.
Consideing equrLions11.10 11.15.iI is oblened that any incrementof relati\e
displacementrt { j{rint can bc uscd 1(rdelennine incrementaland then lotal lbrces
parallel and translcrsc to the aris of lhe reinfbrcementelenent. Fron the knowr
orientation of rhe element relatile to the joinL, these lin"cs can bc lranslbnncd
inro componentsacting rormaL and traniverse !o the joint. In this form. they can
be inroduced into a suitable finile dillbrence code. such as the distinct elemenl
schemedescnbedin section 6.7. which sinrulalesthe hehaviourof a jointed rock
11.5.3 Ceneral ar systematic t€jntorcemenl
whereas in the caseoflocal suppot and rcinforcemen!.the objectivewa! io \up!or1
a gilen block or zone ot' rock on the excalation periphelt, here dre objectiveis to
mobilisc and consene the inherent strengthof the rock mass itself. This ls otten
achiclcd by crealirg a self:supportingarch of rock as shown in Figure 11.1E.Ir)
thc gcncnl case.it is erpectedthat the rcck mass surroundingthe excavalion$ill
liaclure or yleld. The designapproacheslhai 'nay be applied in this caseare rock-
supportinteractio| calculations,the applicationof enpirical design rules, the Lrse
332
 A IN DR E I N F O R C F MI -F)N
S!]PPOR FT5]CN

of rock nass clalsificattuDbasecldesignrules :rnd rnore cornpreherrsive

nuDefical
nr
anal)ses.Quite ofren ffacrice. these aplroachei rre used in combination.

Rock suppan inturactian calculations. Ilese nla) bc carricd otrLu\ing the meth
ods dilcussednr secrnrn1l.l and lhe calculationprocedufes\er ou! jn AppcD.LixC.
Alrhough idealisätioüsof the problen have to be made.and ldne frcto s aDd rcch
niques cannot bc spccincallyallowed for in the calcülation!.lse of this appr).tch
pemritsthc designerto developa clear understaDding of lhc rchLi\e nedls of can-
didale rcinfbrcementsystems a jn pafticular rptlicdtion. ln nloll cases.it \rill be
ne.essaryto car) oul a senesofcalculations for a nümbcr oftrial desig s belbr an
J p p . o t f . - r\ec . i c r c , r ro i . e . c e J o r - l - e l d i - .

EnpiricaldesiEn rLtles. A wide rangeofempi.icrl supportrnd renforcenert design

rules have beendevelopedover the last 50 years.Thc\c rules. ühicl a.e basedon
precedentpractice.generällyapplyto permanentundergr)undcrcavrLionsralherüan
io rernporarymining excavarionsnL.h as stopes.They are geometricallybasedand
do not äccountexplicitly foflhe stfessfitld inducedaroundthe excavationor fbr the
quality of the rock mass.For these.exsons,they mxst be usedwith extfemecaution
aDdonly tbf making preliminaryestimrtcswhich nusl be checkedby makjng more
conrplctcassessments.
Thc ünge ofempidcal designrulesavaihblc hasbeenre!iewedby Stillborg(199,1)
aDdb) Rachnad !1,/. (2002) in the contcxt of thei applicationto lhe suppod xnd
rcinlorcenent of productiondrifts in a block caling mine. One ol lhe most useful
änd long-lived set of enrpirical dcsig rules is that developedby Lang (1961) for
pa(em rockbolting ofpermanen! ercxvarionsduring the constructlonof the Snowy
MouDtaiDsHvdro-electricSchemein Ausrahä. AlLhoughLang s rulesare described
here as empi.ic.rl.thel' \rere establishedon the baljs oi r range of laboratory.tield
and theoreticalst ies rvhich ha\'e been reviewedby Brorvn {1999.1).Lang (1961)
givesthe mininnnn boh length,Z. as üe greales!ot
(a) lilice lhe bolt spacing,ir
(b) threetjmes the width ofcritical and potentiallyurslable rock blocks dcfincd bt
the averagediscontinurtyspacmg,r; or
( c ) U . 5 Bl b r s p a n os f B < 6 n r , 0 . 2 5 ß f o r s p i n s o l S : 1 8 3 0 m .

For excavationshigher lhan I 8 m, tbe lengthsof sidewallbolts lhould bc at lcast

onc llfth of the wall height. The maxinnnn bolt spxcing,r. is given by ihe leastof
0.5L rnd 1.51'.When weld or chain mcsh is used,a bolt spacingof more thtn 2 .r
mäkesrttachmentolthe meshdim.ult if not imposlible.
Figure 11.l8 shos.sa !rclimilrr) layoul ofa rockboltingpxtlem for a horse shoe
shapedercavationinjointcdrock. prcparedusingLanS \ rule!. This llgure alro illus-
l lcs the basison whjch l-ang'sNle, r!crc dc\,cloped,narnelythe edablishmeDtoft
sell strpporlingcompressedring or a.ch .tmtrndLlrce|lcavation.lf a highly conrtfess
ible featurcsuch.ts.r läuh or a chy seanrcrolsesthe conprcssionnng. it is possible
that lhe requ;rcdcomprcssion$ill not be developedand that thc reinlbrcernentqill

Rock .'ars .lassificatian scirerl]es. Schemessuch as tlrcse due to Barton cr ,/.

(1974)ard Bienia'vski(l971. I976) weredevelopedasnelhods ofc\limaling support

333
 R()(:K SUPPORT
AND RENFORCETVIENT

(RMR 4-{)
RMRe I lnQ+44 (Bieniawski,
1989) Q=e e tr
( R MR - s o)
RMR^e15 logQ+so (Barton,1995) Q -'l 0T t4

f i n u n- - r az 65 61.7 7 7 . 2€ 5 . 4 97.9 1062

Paun.

100 20

50
E d
.E
.9t e2Q
3
10

2 2.1

I 1.5
0.001 0.0040.01 0.04 0.1 04 1 4 10 40 100 400 1000

R o c km a s so u a lv o - F Q D x J r x J w
Jn J3 SRF

lisure 11.19 Pernrnenr supFor reqnirenents to. undelgrounde\cavations.using prcccdcDtprxctice.Baton .i .r1.

andr.nrfor.m.nl cconncndxdons proposcd38 cälegorie\()1sufport basedon their tunnelling quality index, ? and thc
basedon the ! s!\len ot rock mass exc{vation suppot rrtio. l,tR, whjch varies q,ith rhe use of rhe excavadonand th.
cl6rincxdon(aft{ Banon,2002)
cxtent to which sonredegrceof instabiljty is acceptable.Thesetrroposalsha\e becn
discussedin detail by Hoek and Brown (1980) who point out the dangersinvolled jn
blindly rdopting thci.provisions.paficnlarly wherelhe natufeofthe elcavadonand
the propertiesol Lhe.ock mässdiffer frcm thosein lhe casehistofiesthat were useLt
nr dcvclopingthe recomnrendations.
Figure ll.l9 shows the reconxnendalionstor the sulport and reinforcemeDt.f
pefmanenrercavationsoffered by Grimslad and Bat1on(1991) and Bafton (2002r
uhich updatethe orlginal recommendalionsof Barton dl. 11974)and {llow lbr. in
ptulicular.subsequentadvrncesin sholcrclclcchnology."r

Cotnprehens)veanalysisalgeneralar systenatic reinlorcenent. In arock mass

subjectto fiacture and yield. the lpadallt, ei.tensivc.lodcl of reinforcemenrjs more

334
 S U P P O RATN D R E I N F O R C E M EDNET5 I C N

FEure11.20 ModeLof spatidlly d-

brirc Einforcenent in Dck subj{t
b diftse defomation (after ltasca,
:@r).

appropriatethan the local defomation rnodel.Becauselocal resistanceto shenrin

the reinforcementis noi significantin this case,a one dinensionalconstituiivemodel
is adequatefor describingiis axial pefornance. The 6nite differencerepresentation
of reinforcement shownin FigureI 1.20involvesdivisionof rhecompletecableor
tendonintoseparate segments andassignment ofequivalent masses to thenodes. Axiäl
extensionof a segmentis rcpresentedby a spnngof stifhressequivalentto the axial
stiffness.limiled by a plasticyield condition. Interactionbetwe€nthe tendonandthe
rock is modeled by a spring-sliderunit, with the stitrnessof the springrepresenting
the elastic deformability of the grout, and witb the limiting shearresistanceof rhe
slider representingthe ultn äte she,I loadcapaciryof eitherthe groul annulusitself,
the tendon grout contact.or the grout rock contact.
The elasticplasticperformance of a tendonsegment in axialextension is shown
in Figurel1.2la. For üe elasticresponse, thebarstiffness is reiatedto theproperties
anddimensionsof the tendon

K.: EhAlL (l r . l 6 )

where Ä and a are the ffoss-sectionäl area änd length of the tendon segment.
Ihe leld load is relaled direcdy to the yield strength of the tendon and the cross-
sectional äieä. Il after yield, the segment is subjected to a phase of unloading, the
unloading stiffness ;s taken to be equal to the loading siiffness.

ngür€ ll.2l (a) Axial pe.fomance

.a a reinronenenr sogne.ri (b) shed
F ommcc ofercut urulus bctwccn
Edon dd boEhole süfaces (aner

E€

E*
'i3

o splaehetll ol c.bl€ ßlalls

335
 ROCK AT
5UPPOR N DR E I N F O R C E M E N T

The elastic perfectly plastic pedomance of thc lendon segnrenlrepresentsthe

simplestpossibleconstitudvemodei. With minimal increaseir complexitv' a kmc
matic hardeningmodel or acontinuousweakedngmodel analogous1()that describcd
by eqnätions11.l2 and I l.l3 could be introduced
The elastic-pefeclly plastic perfornance of the gout annulusis represcntedin
Figufe 11.21b.As a resuh of relative sheardisplacement,, betweenthe lendon
sudaccand the boreholesurface,the shearforce Ä mobilisedper unit length of cable
is rclatedto the stiffness(bod, i.e.
( 1 1l 7 l

Usually.rboid wouldbc rneasureddirectly in laboütory pull-out lests Alternativel).

it may be calcülaledäom thc expressjon

K h r , \=d 2 n G { l l t l ( ] + 2 t/ d ] l (l].lE)

wherc r is the thicknessofthe grout annulus.

The ultimate loxd capacityofthe grout is de{inedby equation II 15. with lcnglh
.1-of unily. and rlsk given by
(11.19r

whererr is approximatelyone-halfof lhe snaller of the uniaxialstrenglhsof the grout

and thc rock. and 0b is a factor defining the quality of the bond belweenthe grout
and the rock. (Forperfecibond quality, Ob : l )
Calculationof the loadsgencraledin reinforcementrequjresdelerminationof the
relativc disolacementbeNeen the rock and Ä nodeofa reinforcenrcnlsegment.Con
siderthe constantstraintriangulaEone shownir Figure 11 22a.wilh componenlsof
displacement!,i, r"i. fo.example,at the comersi(i : l, 3) The naturalco ordinate\
ti, of a reinforcementnodep lying within the triangleare givenbv the relatile area\
of the trianguld areasdefinedin Figure 1l.22b Thus

1;=AilA i:l'3 (l1.20)

whereA is theäreaof thetnrnglewith comcrs1,2, 3

The displacements al and,l atnode p are inlerpolatedlinearlv fiom the displacc
meDtsat the comers,using the nalural co-ordinatcsas weigh! facrors,i e

,l : rl, &., üf = r, tl., i = 1.3 (11.211

subscnpß.
is impliedonrepeated
wheresummätion

Figure 11,22 BNis ol nalural.o

orditratcslor interpolating rucl dn
placc!rcnts (afterllasca.2003).

..';'-_

336
 DESI(;N
RENFORCEMENT
5UPPORTAND

ln the finite differencc änaiysis,incrementalforms of equation 11.21 arc used

in successive computationcyclesto calculaieincrementalnodal displacemcnts, from
which rhe new configuration of an element can be determhed. The axial component of
relarive displäcement at a node can then be calculated fiom the absolule displacement
of a node and the absolutedisplacemenrof rhe adjacenLrock. The axial fbrce is
ottained fron equalion I 1. 17 and rhe active length adjacentto the node, taldng account
oftie limiting condition delinedby equation I1.19. The force Fl, Fj mobilised at
the grout rock interface at a node is distnbuted to the zone comers using the natural
co ordinatesof the node as the weight faclor; i.e.

rl, = rrr.j (11.22)

whereIjr areforcesassi-sned !o the zonecomer

This lbrmulationofreinforcementmechanicsmay be readily incorporatedin a dy
namicrcläxalion,linite differencemethodof analysis of ä defbrmablemedium,such
asthecodecalledFLAC described by Cu'dall ändBoard(1988).The solutionofa
sinpleprobleminvolvinglong,grouted,untensioned cableboltsillusaatesapplica
tion of the methodof analysis.The problen involvesa circular hole of I m radius,
excavated in a mediumsubiectto a hydrostatic stressfield.of magnitude10 MPa.
For the elasto-plasticrock mass,th€ sheärand bulk elasticmoduli were4 GPaand
6.7 cPa respectively, andMohr Coulornbplaslicitywasdelinedby a cohesionof
0.5MPa,ängleoffrictionof30", anddihtionangleof 15'.Reinforcement consisted
of a seriesof radiallyorientedsteelcables,of 15mm diameter. groutedinto 50 mn
diameterholes.The steelhada Young'snodulusof 200 GPa,andä yield loadof
I GN. Väluesassignedto tr'b..dand Sh""dwere 45 GN In ' and 94 kN m '. These
propenies conespond to agroutwith a Young\modulusof2l.5 GPaanda peakbond
strength(rps0 of 2 MPa.
Theproblenwß analysed asa quanerplane. Thener {ieldproblemgeometry is
illusrraEdin Figüre11.23,wherethe extentof the failurezonethätdevetops both
in theabsence andpresence of thereinforcement is alsoindicated.Thedistribuiions
of stressand displacement aroundthe excavation de shownin Figure 11.24for
the caseswherethe excavationnearfield rock is both unreinforcedand reinforced.

Fqüre 11,23 Problen eeometl (.)

ri J_icldzones abo[ a cncdar ex
€ution (a) Nithourdd (b) with rc-
.tnr.enent (dfter Brady dd Lorig,

_l
__1
l
I
-L

337

IL
Iigüre 11,24 DiGbutiotrs of (x)
{r.* arl fb) displac.Deol arctrnd r
ciculr extavaiion lor unre,nlnn.d
üd rcinbrccd DerF6eld rock (lher
ANI] FE NI-ORCEMFNT
ROCI 5UPPORT
Examinatbn of the diirribütions of radial disphcement&r and raditl and tangential
stressc\q and q indicäteslhe lunctioD of the radial reinforcernenlli substanliall\
reducesthe radial displacemenÜr. and generatesa hjghcr magnitndeof o. in th.
l'ractu€d zone, resulting in a higher gradient in ihe or distribütion The effect i!
to shill lhe plastic-lastic tr:nsiiion closer to the excavltion boundar]' Thu!. both
closüe ofthe excavationand the depthofrhe zoneofyjelded rock are reduced
The Llcnsityofreinforcemenl used in this dcmonsrationprublem is greaterlhan
wonld be appliedjn mining practice.Howevcr,it confirmsthe modeof actionofrern'
fofcencrr andthepfospcctlbr applicalionof conputalionalnethod s in reinforcernenr
11.6 Materials and techniqu€s
11.6.1 OveNiew
The emphasisnr this chapterba! bccn on the principlcsoflhe süpportand reinforcc
ment ofrcck tnassesand on designanalyses.Howerer,if supportand reinforcenenr
is to be fully efTective.il is necessa4'thatsuitablematerialsbe usedfor r pirrlicular
appticationand that thesemdterirls be instÄlledor äpplied using sarisfactorytech
niques.Thc Llctailsofthese techniquesand materialstue largely beyondthe scopeof
this book. Only thc central principlesllDd so e illustrative exampleswill be given
here.For full practicaldetails.the readershoüldconsulttextssuchas thoseby Hoel
erdl. (1995).Hustur.rlid andBullock(2001).HütchinsonandDjedeichs (199'l),Karser
.r d1. (1996). Melbye ind Garshol (1999), Procto. and white (1977) and Stillbor!
{1994). and the prcceedingsof specialtyconferencessuchas thoseeditedb-! Kaiser
aüd Mccrearh (1992) and villaescusaer da (1999). ln this section,brief accounlt
$,ill bc given of rhe essentialfeaturesofrockbolts and do$els. cablc bolrs.shotcrele
wire merh and steelsets.Deldls ot' the suppottlcchniquesusedin longwallcoal and
r e n l : i p . u . n r i l i l gu . l ' e ! i \ - ' i l C h t oe r . 5
1 1.6.) Rockboltsand clowels
A single tensioncdrockbolt usually coDsistsof an anchorrge.a steelshank,a lace
plate.atighteningnut and somctimesa deformableplatc.For shorttemr applications
the bolt n1aybc leil ungroured.but fb. permanentor long tcmr lpplications and use
338
 MATER]ALS
AND TECtsN IQUE5

in colrosive environments, rockboks are usuaily tully grorted with cement or resin
grort fbr improving both pull-oxt stenglh and colrosionresistaice.
Rockbolis are oiten classifiedaccordingto the natureof their anchorages.Early
rockboltanchorswereoflhe mechanicalsloland-wedgeandexpdnsionshelltypes.ll
is often diflicuh to fo|m ard maintain mechanical anchorsin very hard or in soft rocks.
Mechanical anchors are also susceptible to blast-induced damage. Anchors lbrmed
from Portlandcementor resin are generally nrore rcliable and permanent.A third
categoryof rockbolt anchorrgeis that utilised by friction (Split Set and Swellex)
bolts which rely on the generationof f.iction at the rock bolt contact along their
lengthsfor their äncho.ageand strcngth.As with mechanicalanchors,friction bolts
depend for rheir efficacy on the sizes dnd accuracy of the drilling of the holes in
which rhey are installed-They are also susceptibleto conosion. Althorgh they may
be given a pre-tensionto ensurethat an anchorageis formed,ftcdon boltsa.c usually
not inslalledwith the levelsof pre tension(5 20 tonnes)usedfor otherrockbolts.ln
this case, the), xct a dowels rathe. than rcckbolts. Other types of dowel arc usually
grouted along theA lengths on installation and develop their tension with deformation
of the rock massin which they are installed.Groudng of Splil Sel bolts rnd dowels
may innease their load cärrying capacity fbr longer lerm applicadons (Thonpson
and Finn, 1999).
Figure 11.25showsa nunber of types of rockbolt and dowcl classifiedilr]cording
1othe anchorägemethodusedbut wiLhseverullypesofshank illusträted.Figure I 1.26
shows turther details of the installation and grouting of ä rcsin anchored and grouted
bolt made from threadedbar. Resin encapsulatedrockbolts are widely uscd for
flre reinfbrcementof longer term openingsin meralliferousmines.(e-g.Slade al..
"r
2OO2).

11.6.3 Cable bolts

Cable bolts äre long, grouted,high tensilestrengthsteelelementsusedto reinforce
rock masses.They may be usedas pre or post rcirforcement and may be left un
tensionedor be ple- or post-tensioned.Windsor (2001) defnes the following ienns
associaredwiih cable bolring:
. lvire - a singie,solid sectionelement.
. Strand a set ofhelically spunwires.

11,25 Types of tuckbolt MsrrscrborßE-: -- ---.ffi |

Jowel (aiter Hadjigeorgiouand
.200r). arrcBBzffi
@

339
 R O C I 5 U P P O RATN D R I N F O R C E M E N T

Figure 11.26 Resin Ctuuted rcck' resi. mixed wirh harde.et

bolr nade lrom threadcdbr (aiter by roralionof bar during

. Cable än anangementofwlres or stnnds.

. Tendon- pre-tensionedwires or strand
. Dowel - un-rensioncdwires or strand.

Cable bolring as delinedhere was first uled nr ündergroundmetalliferousmines in

South Africä and Canadabul it was probablyin A'Ntralia that cablc boll and dowel
reinforcementwas first developedas a major fonn of syslematicreirrforce ent ln
cufand-fil1 mining (Clffiord. 1974, Brown, 1999b) Figure 1127 summanscsthe
developmentof cablebolt configurations.
windsor(200i) nolesthat the developmentof hardwde for cablebolting hasbccD
matchedby improvementsin designphilosophyand meüods.Inrhis context,design
includes choosing a suitabletype of cable bolr, the boll orientations.lenglhs and
densities,an appropriateinstallationprocedure,and detemining whethefto usepre
or post-reinforcement in conjunctionwill pre- orpost tensioning ln mining p.acLice.
rhesedecisionsare inflüencedbylogistics.eqnipmentavailabjlity, precedentpractice
in snnilar ctcumstancesand, in the case of installationprocedures.the levels of
training of lhe work force.
Instdlation practjce häs the potential to diclale the mechanicalperformanceof
cäblebolring.The length and transversefiexibility ofcable bolls createa numberot
difllculties in ensuing a high quality insiallalion.lnstallatidr can be influencedby
a number of factors relating to the dilling of the hole. the configurationand state
oftbe cxble,and the grouting and lensioningofthc cäble.A tull discussionofthese
factors is outside the scope of this lext. For turther dctäils. the reader is refencd
to the books by Hoek cr dt (1995) and HutchinsonaDdDiedenchs(1996), and thc
papersby Windsor (1997.2001),fo. example.Figure I1.28 illusträtestwo alternatjle
methodsof grouting cable bolts into upholes.Theie mcthodsmay be describedas
gravity retmdedand gravity assisted,respectively.In the groxi lube n1ethod,the Lube
nay be withdnwn progressivelyfrom thehole as it fi]ls with grout. This methodhas

340
 MAIERIALS
AND TECF]NIQUES

TYPI' LONGITUDINAL SECTION CROSSSECTION

Multiwire <rö\ ^o o
XOq
\o,t''
iOo
" oo

Birdcaged
@
Single
:-----l drG)&
wrörw

Singl€Slrand
@ @@
(@1) (@l
\*/ \..-_/
I Compoicnr 2 conponcd

@ ,G)
High Calaoity

Bulbed

,Antinode Node

#&

tigure 11.27 sumary of theds a numberof operationaland cost advantagesand is usedroutinely in a numberof
nlopmenrofcableboltconnsunlions
Australianmines(Villaescüsa,
1999).

11.6.4 Shotcrete
Shotcreteis pneumaticallyappliedconcreteüsedto providcpassivcsupporlto therock
surface.lt consistsof a mixture of Pordsndcement,aggregates,
wateranda rangeof

341
 AND RE]NFORCEMENT
ROCK5L]PPORT

ff

Fisüft 11.?8 Altcnative bethods

ol snuting cablesnrto upboles(ailer

admixturessuchasacceleratorsor ret.rders,plasticisers,microsilicaandreinforcing
libres. Gunite. which Fe-dates shotcretein its usein undergroundconstruction.is
pnenmaticallyapplied moltar. Becauseit lacks the larger äggregatesizesof up to
25 mm typically usedin shotcrcte.guniteis nol ableto developthesameresistanceto
defornaiion andload canying capaciryassholcrete.For at least50 years,shotüete
hasbeenüsedwith outstandingsuccessin civil engineeringundergroundconstruction
in a wide varieiy of ground types.It is so successfulbecauseii salisfiesmost of
the reqüirementsfor üe provision of satisfactoryprimary supportor reinforcemenl
discussed in section11.2.Over the last 20 years,shotcrete hasfoundincreasing
usein underground minilrg practice.initiallyfor the suppon ofthe morepermanenl
excavätionsbut now increasingly for the suppon of slopes and stope accesses (Brown
1999b.BrummerandSwan, 2001). lt may also be used as pan of tbe support and
rcinforcernenl systemin mild rock burst conditions (Hoek et dl., 1995, Kaiser and
Tannant.2001).Shotcrete is being used increasingly in conjuncrion with, or as ä
replacementfor, meshto provideprimäry support of headings. Brulnmer and Swan
(2001)describea caseof üe useof wet mix sreel6brc reinforcedshotcreteio provide
the total drifi suppon in a sublevelcaving operationat ihe Stobie Mine. Ontario,
Canada.Bolts areusedin dnfts only at intersections.

(c)
fküre 11.29 Sone sDpponnech
-isß developedby shotcEtc: (a) a
-gle blocL (b) ! bem anchoredby
bl6: (c) a r@f arh; (d) a closednns
MATERIALSAN D TECHN IQL]ES
(b)
Someof the supporrmech-"-, o*roo"O on the peripheriesof
excavations ":, "n*.rete
areillustratedin Figwe I 1.29.Thesuppoftfunctiors, modesoffailure and
methodsof designof shotcreteasa componentof hardrock supportandreinforcemeni
systems arediscussedby Holmgren(200i) andby Kaise.andTannant (2001).Hoek
€t dl. (1995)provide a sei of detailedrecornrnendations for the useof shotcretein a
Iangeof rockmasscondi.ions Iikelyto beencounteredin hardrock mining.
Shotcreteis preparedusingeither the dry-mix or the wet-mix process.In the dry-
mix process,dry or slightly darnpene.d cemeDt.sandand aggregatearenixed at the
batchingplant,andüen enträinedin conpressedair andtanspo{ed to thedischarge
nozzle.Wateris addedtkough a dng of holesat the nozzle.Accwate watercontrol
is essentialto avoidexcessivedust whentoo little wateris usedor an over wet mix
whentoo muchwateris added.In the wet nix process.the requiredamountof water
is addedai the batchingplänt, rnd the wet mix is pumpedto the nozzle wherethe
compressedair is introduced.A comparisonof the dry and wet mix processesis
givenin Table11.2.Until the lastdecadedry-mixmethodwasmorewidelyused,
mainly becaüsethe equipnentrequiredis lighter andlessexpensive.andbecanserhe
dry materialcänbe conyeyedoverlongerdistances,anirnporrantadvanrage in mining
applications.However,wet-mix methodshaveimporiantadväntages for underground
mining applicationsin termsof reduceddustlevels,lower skili requirementsandrhe
needfor iessequipmentat the applicationsiie. They havenow becomeüe indusrry
ständffd(Brown,1999b,Spearing, 200i).
Shotcretemix designis a dilticult andcornplexprocessinvolving a cefain amou.t
of tlial anderror.Themix designmustsatisfythefollowing criteria(HoekandBrown,
ro80l
(a) Shootabiliry- the rnix nust be ableto be placedoverheadwith minimum re,
343
ROCKSUPPORTANDRENFORCEMENT

Table 11.2 Conpuison or wet md drt-nn shotcrelingpNesses (alier Spedins. 2001).

Los €bound.typicallyaboul5%lo l0% HiBi rebound.usD.llt morethd 259.

Moderateto hish pl&enentac, belw@r
Low to modemreplacementFte, up b 6 nrrr
Low rdsport distdc. up to 200 d
Moderateto high placedquality

(b) Early strength the mix mustbe saongenoughto providesupportto theground

at agesof a few hours.
(c) Long term saength- the mix must achievea specified28 day sFengthwith
the dosageof acceleratorneededto achieveihe requiredshootabilityandea y
stlength.
(d) Düabiliry - adequatelong tem resistanceto theenvironmentmustbe achieved-
(e) Economy- low-costmarerialsmustbe used.andtherenusr be minimumlosses
dueio rebound.
A typical ba-sicmix containsthe following percentages
ofdry componentsby weight:
11,3
cemenf 15J09o
coarseaggregate 3O4O9o
Iine aggregateor sand 4V5O9o
accelerator 2 51a
Thewater: cementratio for &y-mix shotüerelies in th€range0.3-0.5 andis adjusted
by the operatorto suit local conditions.For wet-mix shotcret€,the water : cemenl
ratiois generallybetween 0.4 and0.5.
The eflicacyof the shotcretingFocessdependsto a largeextenton the skill of ihe
operator.The nozzle shouldbe kept as rcarly peryendicularto the rock surfaceas
possibleandai a constantdisranceof about I m lion it- A permanentshotcreteLhing
is usually between50 mm and 500 rDmrhick. the larger thicknessesbeing placed
in a nu4ber of layers.The addition of 2G-50Inm long and 0.25 {.8 lnm diameter
deformedsteel fibres, or plastic fihes, has beenfound to improve the toughness,
shock resistance,dwabiLity,and shearand flexural strengthsof shotcrete,nnd to
reducethefomation of sbrinlagecracks.Fibre-reinforcedshotcretewill acceptldger
d€formationsbelorecrackingoccursthanwill uffeinforced shotüete;aftercracking
hasoccüred. the rcinforcedshotc€temainiainsits integrity andsomeload'carying
capabiliry However.fibrc reinforcedshotcreteis moreexpensiveandmoredifücnh
to apply thanunreiDforcedshotcrete.

11.6.5 Wire mesh

Chain link or welded ste€l meshis usedto restrainsmatl piecesof rock between
boltsor dowels,andto reinforceshotcrete.For the iatter application.weldedmeshis
prefenedto chain'link meshbecauseof the difficully of applyingshotcretesatisfac-
tonly throughthe smalleropeningsin chain ünk mesh.For undergrounduse,weld
nesh typicaly has4.2 Inm diameterwiresspacedat 100nm centres.In somemining

344
 MATER
A L 5A N D T E C H NQ U E S

FquE l1.3lr Reinfored haülageal

.d€plh ol 1540n folowing a sismic
6$t ofnasnitude 4.0.Severly dan
ttd rocL is well containedby mesh
d rcpe lacing (aier Onlep!, 1983).

districtssuchäs thosein WesternAustraliaandOntario,Canadä,mining regulations

and codesof Factice now rcquire somefolm of surfacesupport,usually mesh,to
be üsedin all personnelentry excavations.In WestemAustralia,the codeof practice
appliesio atl headingsüat arebigherthan3-5 m andrequtueslhat sudacesupportbe
instaled downto at least3.5 m fron the floor (MinesOccupalionalSafetyandHealth
Ad|sor) Bodro.laoq,.
In under$oundmetalliferousmining, rock blocks or fragmentsof ftactued rock
are often held in placeby a pattemof hoist rope lacing install€dbelweenrockbolts
or anchorpoints. Rope lacing mäy be usedro sdffen meshin thosecÄresin which
the meshis unableto provideadequate restaint to loosenedrcck. Otlepp (1983.
1997)givesa nümberof examples of theuseof meshandlacingin conjünction with
rockbolis ändgrouiedcäblesandsteelrodsto stabilisetünnelsin the deep-levelgold
minesof SouthAirica. FigureI L30 showstheappüranceof anintensivelyreinfbrced
haulageat a depthof 1540m following a seismicevenlof mngnihrde4.0 which had
its sourceon a fault intersectingthe haulagenearthe locationof the photogmph.The
haulagewasreinfo.cedwith 2.5 m longgrouiedsteelropetendonsand7.5 m long
prestressed rock anchorswhich providedan overall supportcapacityof 320 kNmi.
The 3.2 mm diameterby 6s mrn squaregalvanisedmeshwas backedby 16 mm
diamererscraperrope. Acrossthe intersectionwiih the fault. the severelydamaged
rock waswell containedby themeshandlacingeventhoughseveralofthe pres! essed
anchorshad failed.

345
 ROCK5UPPORTAND RENFORCEMENT

{b}

gronnd characredsricor

E
$
a

Figlre
vffi 11.31ToussairtHeintz
Radisl displ4oenl

nam yieldingadh: (a)cio$ section;

lb) chml joinri (.) allemadlejoinri 11.6.6 Steel sets
(d) dh .onngurationbelbredd atier Steel archesor steel sets are used where high loäd carrying capacityelementsare
yicldinst (c) idealised load radial required to support tunnels or roadways. A wide range of rolled sleel sections are
availablefor this applicarion.Where the rock is welljointed, or becomesfractured
after the excavationii made, the spacesbetweenthe sets may be Iilled with stcel
mesh.steelor limber lagging. or sleelplales.Proclor dnd White (1977) provide the
most detailedaccounl availableof the materialsand techniquesusedin providing

Sleel sets provide srppon rä1herthnn reinforcement.They cannot be preloaded

againstthe rock face and, äs pointed out in section I1.3. their emcacy largely de
pends on the quality of the blocking provided to transmit loads from lhe rock to
the steelset. Steelarchesare widely used to suppo roadwäysin coal mines where
they are oflen required lo sustain quite large defomations. These defomations may
be acconmodatedby using yielding archescontai.ing elementsdesignedto slip at
predeiermnedloads (Figirre 11.31).or by pemitting the splayedlegs of the arche\
1()punch into the floor Where more rigid supportsare requiredas, fbr exanple. in
circüh tränspodationtunnels,circular steelor concreteseisare used.

346