Process in which pathogenic organisms are destroyed or inactivated

Good disinfectant
Kill pathogens Effective in a wide range of pH and mineral composition No toxic byproduct formation Residual effect Readily available; reasonable cost Safe to handle; method of application simple

Mechanism of disinfection
Act on cell protein to inactivate the critical enzyme systems essential for microbial life
Damage to cell wall Alteration of cell permeability Changing the colloidal nature of the protoplasm Inactivation of critical enzymes

Steps involved
Penetration of the disinfectant through the cell wall Reaction with enzyme within the cell wall Mostly neutral ions are more active compared to anions (bacterial cells vely charged) Cl2, O3, ClO2 oxidize the cell matter

Different methods
Physical methods
Heat Light

Chemical methods
Oxidizing chemicals
Halogens, ozone, potassium permanganate,

hydrogen peroxide

Metal ions Alkalis and acids Surface active chemicals

Chemical disinfectants
Halogens - chlorine, bromine, iodine O3 very good, expensive. Destroys colour and odour effectively KMnO4, H2O2 Metal ions silver ions (bactericidal), copper ions (algicidal) Alkali and acids pH < 3 or pH > 11
Excess lime treatment

Minor methods of disinfection

Boiling Excess lime treatment Silver treatment Ultra-violet treatment
For disinfection to be effective, water should flow in a thin clear film close to the sterilizing ray Depth of water < 10 cm Colourless Turbidity < 15 20 ppm.

Potassium permanganate treatment

Normal dose 1 to 2 mg/l with a contact period of 46 hrs Well water not to be used during the first 48 hours of addition of KMnO4

Chlorination
Enzymatic hypothesis
Chlorine compounds formed when chlorine is added to water, interfere with certain enzymes in the bacterial cells which are vital for the support of life Action of disinfection proceeds in two stages:
Penetration of the cell wall by the disinfectant Reaction with the enzymes

When chlorine is dissolved in water at temperatures between 49 F and 212 F,

Cl 2 +H 2 HOCl+HCl (Hydrolysis) HOCl H + + OCl (Ionization)

Chlorination
Hypochlorous and hypochlorite ions accomplish disinfection Elemental chlorine, hypochlorous acid, hypochlorite ions remain in equilibrium at different concentrations depending upon the pH
pH < 5, chlorine exists as elemental or molecular chorine pH 5 10, HOCl and OCl- coexists, the former being reduced and latter increased as pH increases pH > 10, only OCl- exists

Hypochlorous acid is times as effective hypochlotite ions

80 as

pH < 7 for water to be treated

The hypochlorite salts also ionize in water and yield hypochlorite ions, which establishes equilibrium with hydrogen ions:
Ca(OCl) 2 + 2H 2 O 2HOCl +Ca(OH) 2 NaOCl + H 2 O HOCl + NaOH

However, a recent study reported that poliovirus was more rapidly inactivated at pH 10.

Chlorine demand
The amount of chlorine consumed in the oxidation of impurities before any disinfection is achieved is known as Chlorine Demand
Chlorine and chlorine compounds
Oxidising power First reacts with organic as well as inorganic impurities in water

After the chlorine demand is fulfilled, chlorine will appear as free available residual chlorine Chlorine demand = amount of Cl2 added to water quantity of free available Cl2 remaining at the end of a specified contact period Most waters satisfactorily disinfected if the free available residual chlorine is about 0.2 mg/l at the end of 10 mins contact period

Forms of application of chlorine

Bleaching powder
Chlorinated lime containing about 33.33% of available chlorine when freshly made Not stable; loses strength with storage or exposure to air

Chloramines (compounds of ammonia and chlorine)

More stable disinfecting residual than chlorine alone
Bactericidal effect persists for a longer duration Prevents bad taste & odour Lesser consumption of chlorine Less irritation to nose & eyes (more effective in swimming pools) No danger of overdose

NH3 added (20 min 1 h) prior to Cl2 (1 part of ammonia to 4.5 parts of chlorine) Contact period of 2 hours before water is used

Forms of application of chlorine

Reactions involved
H 2O + Cl2 = HCl + HOCl NH 3 + HOCl = H 2O + NH 2Cl (monochloramine) NH 2Cl + HOCl = H 2O + NHCl2 (dichloramine) NHCl2 + HOCl = H 2O + NCl3 (trichloramine)

Types of chloramine depends on pH

pH < 4.4 (NCl3) pH 4.4 to 5 (NHCl2) pH 5 to 8 (NH2Cl + NHCl2) pH > 8.5 (NH2Cl)

Forms of application of chlorine

Free Chlorine
Direct application in form of Cl2 gas or in liquid form Respiratory irritant; irritates skin, mucous membranes Cl2 dose depends on:
Organic matter present in water pH value of water Amount of CO2 present in water Temperature Time of contact

After 10 mins detention, free available chlorine

0.2 mg/l at pH 7 0.4 mg/l at pH 8

Forms of application of chlorine

Chlorine dioxide (ClO2)
Produced at point of application by passing Cl2 gas though sodium chlorite 2NaClO2 + Cl2 = 2NaCl + 2ClO2 2.5 times the oxidizing power of Cl2 Does not react with organic matter to produce chloroform, a potential carcinogen Dosage: 0.5 to 1.5 ppm Unaffected by pH between 6 to 10 Highly effective for control of certain taste and odour problems

Forms of chlorination
Plain chlorination
To plain or raw water supply Removes color & odor Water relatively clear (turbidity < 20 30 ppm) Dosage: 0.5 to 1 ppm

Post chlorination
Most standard method Residual chlorine 0.1.to 0.2 ppm

Prechlorination
Reduces the quantity of coagulants required Reduces the bacterial load on filters Helps in maintaining longer filter runs Controls algae and planktons in basins and filters Prevents putrefaction of sludge in settling basins Eliminates taste and odour Residual chlorine 0.3 0.4 mg/l

Forms of chlorination
Double or multiple chlorination
Application at two or more points in the purification process Raw water is highly contaminated and contains large amounts of bacterial life and other organic matter

Break point chlorination

Two actions
Kills bacteria Oxidises the organic matter

Stage I
Disinfection, various chemicals such ions of ferrous iron,

sulphides or nitrites present in water will be oxidised

Stage II
Combined residual Cl2 (ammonia & other amines react with

HOCl) will increase as the demand for disinfection is satisfied

Stage III
Oxidation of organic matter

Advantages of breakpoint chlorination

Removes taste and odour Have adequate chlorine residual Leave a desired chlorine residual Complete oxidation of ammonia and other compounds Remove colour due to organic matter by about 30% Removes manganese

Forms of chlorination
Super chlorination
Application of Cl2 beyond the stage of break point Residual Cl2 content 1 3 ppm Contact period 30 60 mins Adopted in case of epidemics, or when water contains cysts of E. histolytica, or when water is liable to sudden fluctuations in Cl2 demand due to high concentration of organic impurities

Dechlorination
Process of removing excess Cl2 from water before distribution to avoid chlorine tastes Sodium thiosulphate, sodium bio-sulphates, sodium sulphites, activated carbon, KMnO4, SO2

Factors affecting bacterial efficiency of chlorine

Turbidity Presence of metallic compounds Ammonia compounds pH of water Temperature of water Time of contact Nature and concentration of bacteria and viruses