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INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS
Chapter 1 Animal Communication
All animals can communicate, but only human beings have language, a statement that has been made repeatedly in the tweentieth century. By looking first at the nature of communication and then at how animals communicate, we can clarify what language is and why the ability to use language is very significant in defining human nature. Communication and Animals Communication is a process in which information is transmitted from a source the sender to a goal the receiver. The process involves five steps: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Encoding the information into a symbolic system Selecting a mode of communication Delivering a symbols trough a medium Perceptual processing of the symbols by the receiver Decoding of the symbols to obtain the information

Despite such problem in analyzing the behavior of animals, animal psychologists generally agree on the conditions under which it make sense to talk about animal communication. A specific animals behavior may be considered a communication if another animals behavior apparently changes as a result. Its not obliged to conclude that this behavior is communicativ; in fact, such a conclusion on the basis of one observation would be unwarranted. Establishing such a connection between the behavior of one animal and another, however, is far from easy. Karl von Frischs studies (1950,1967) of communication among bees provide a model how such relationship can be studied. Von Frisch spent decades of his live observing the behavior of bees. Von Frisch on to decipher the nature of this communication among bees, working out the code carried by the bees dance. The more genral signifiicance of Von Frischs studies is that he showed that bees has a spontaneous nonhuman communication system that can be reliably translated. Low-pitched sounds are believed to function as cetacean sonar; that is like bats they use echos to locate objects and to navigate. But even if we subtract these low-pitched sounds, the inventory of sounds that cetaceans might use for communication is staggering. As oceanographer, Jacques Coesteau (1972) put it, My friends and I have perhaps spent too much time with whales; we may be the victims of an illusion.But how we can explain these alternating voices and such diversity of modulation, except by concluding that is actually conversation

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Characteristic of Animal communication The messages of animals Lorenz (1952) noted the case of parrot who surprised everyone by calling appropriately. But lorenz denied that the bird knew what it was saying. Many animals vocalize in response to stress. Some cries and actions, however, have more specific meanings that are conveyed to other members of the species.some animals call or signals indicate a readiness to mate; others ownership of a teritory: others, that danger is near. Often the animal can not vary the message or can vary it only slightly and can convey only a very limited range of signals. Some animals can communicate sophisticated messages, as the behavior of bees indicates, Von frisch (1967) found that the dance performanced by many kind of bees. As far as we know, the bees vocabulary is quite limited and its communications are stereotyped compared with human communication. Learned and Innate Communication Some animals have their communicative behavior handed to them on a genetic platte, and it developes as they mature; other animals must learn their communicative system. Many birds have calls or songs that are completely innate. Such birds, if raised from the chick stage to adulthood totally separated from their species. Other birds demonstrate a mixed pattern; that is there is a innate component and a leraned component to their song. The innateand learned components of the song of the chaffinch have been studied more carefully. William H. Thorpe (1956) has shown by experimentation that certain aspects of the characteristic chaffinch songs are undoubtedly innate; its length of approximately 2.3 seconds, atedency to crescendo and a reduction of mean frequency as the song progresses. Language, Apes and Humans The gap between the calls of birds or the dance of bees and human speech seems obvious, but in the last few decades work with chimpanzees and gorillas has seemed to narrow the distance between the abilities of at least some apes and humans. The animals most closely related to humans, has brought perhaps the most significant advance in the study of animal communication. According to the researches, the apes were not just communicating as other animals communicate; the were using language. Defining Language Language is clearly a form of communication, but it has never been very well defined. Language is most commonly as a form of communication that is nonstereotyped and nonfinite; that is learned and creative. Be creative generally mean that language is unlimited in its scope. Language is a form of cimmunication used by humans; all other definitions seems to be attempts to sortbout what differentiates human communication from that of other species. Language in turn is often said to help make humans human. Beecause we have learned the symbl system of our language.

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The Talking Apes and Language The apes not only respond to the researches but also routinely initiate conversations and they formulate new statements that they have not learned trough training. In these few apes, their communications seems to be creative and they may be using language. But these few apes may be capable of doing with their various of communicatie systems. Humans do represent the first species to posses a highly developed, creative form of language.

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Chapter 2 Human Communication; Three Systems

The power and the scope of our ability to communicate have three systems: speech, writing and gesture. Speech is the basic system of communication. Writing is great importance in human history. The role of gesture is less obvious. 1. Speech Speech requires the manipulation of tongue, lips, vocal cords, lungs, velum and all other parts of what is commonly called the vocal tract. The speech centers of the brain are psychally more extensive than the centers contrlling any other form of activity. The large size of the speech centers reflects the complexity of speech. When we are speaking, the tongue is in constant motion and its position in relation to other elements of vocal tract. Sound and Meaning There is no logical or necessary relationship between the sounds of words and their meanings. Speech is arbitrary and segmentable. Some words seem to contradict the principle that the relationship between sound and meaning is arbitrary. Onomatopoeic is sound like the things they represent. Relationship between sound and meaning is almost completely arbitrary. This arbitrary relation is also indicated by the fact that the worlds languages use somewhat different sounds. This stringing-together is accomplished according to a system of rules called grammar. The conception of grammar contents three components: a phonological, a syntactic, and a semantic component. Syntax and Semantics The relationship between syntax and semantics is close and complex. Language have two means of expressing relationships between such units; word order and word endings. Most language today use both word order and word endings to indicate the relationship between words. 2. Writing The lack of a written language need not reflect simple ignorance. Writting as we know developed rather late hardly more than five or six thousand years ago. Today there are three basic tupes of writing; logographic, syllabic and alphabetic. Logographic Writing A writing system in which each symbol represent a word is called logographic. The symbols which provided a more pictorial representation of the concepts to be communicated are called pictographs. Syllabic Writing

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In syllabic writing, each symbol represents a syllable. Notice that there is no indication in the symbols that the same vowels is involved in each syllable. Alphabetic Writing Syllabic writing served as the source for alphabetic writing. The principle of alphabetic writing is that each letter represents a particular spoken sound of the language. Mixed Writing Systems Japanese writing is a good example of how different writing systems can be mixed togetherto form a more or less sensible and cohesive whole.

3. Gesture Gesture was probably the first form of communication. The term gesture is used here to include all human communication that involves waving of the hands and facial signal, grunts and other vocalizations that dont make up words, what is frequently called body language. A gesture then, is a physical manipulation that is neither verbal nor graphic but is communicative. The most discussed forms of gestural communication fall under the heading of kinesics, whic is the study of the positioning and movement of the body and it parts during cnversation. Modulations of the voice often called paralanguage, also affect communication. Proxemics is the study of the space maintained between two speakers in conversation another factor in gestural communication.