CHAPTER 37

MANUFACTURING AUTOMATION
37.1 INTRODUCTION A(2) Level Is Single-Cycle Automatics A(3) is Repeat-Cycle Automatics 37.2 THE A(4) LEVEL OF AUTOMATION A(4) Level Has Feedback A Brief History of Numerical Control Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMSs) A(5) Level of Automation Requires Evaluation A(6) Level of Automation and Beyond 37.3 ROBOTICS Tactile and Visual Sensing in Robots 37.4 COMPUTER-INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING AUTOMATION 37.5 COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN Computer-Aided Process Planning 37.6 COMPUTER-AIDED MANUFACTURING 37.7 SUMMARY Case Study: VENTED CAP SCREWS

37.1 INTRODUCTION
The term automation has many definitions. Apparently, it was first used in the early 1950s to mean automatic handling of materials, particularly equipment used to unload and load stamping equipment. It has now become a general term referring to services performed, products manufactured and inspected, information handling, materials handling, and assemblyall done automatically (i.e., as an automatic operation without human involvement). In 1962, Amber and Amber presented their Yardstick for Automation, which is based on the concept that all work requires energy and information and that certain functions must be provided by workers or machines. Whenever a machine function replaces a human function or attribute, it is considered to have taken a step up in an order of automaticity. The chart that they developed is shown in Table 37-1 with updates (by Black in 1990) in bold type to account for modern terms. Notice that each order of automation is tied to the human attribute that is being replaced (mechanized or automated) by the machine. Therefore, the A(0) level of automation, in which no human attribute was mechanized, covers the Stone Age through the Iron Age. Two of the earliest machine tools were the crude lathes the Etruscans used for making wooden bowls around 700 B.C. and the windlass-powered broach for machining of grooves into rifle barrels used over 300 years ago. If the first industrial revolution is tied to the machines that made cotton, the second industrial revolution can be tied to the development of powered machine tools, dating from 1775, when the energetic, iron-mad John Wilkinson constructed a horizontal boring machine in England for machining internal cylindrical surfaces, such as pistontype pumps. In Wilkinsons machine, a model of which is shown in Figure 37-1, the boring bar extended through the casting to be machined and was supported at its outer ends by bearings. Modern boring machines still employ this basic design. Wilkinson reported that his machine could bore a 57-in.-diameter cylinder to such accuracy that nothing greater than an English shilling (about 1.59 mm) could be inserted between the piston and the cylinder.This machine tool made Watts steam engine a reality.At the time of his death, Wilkinsons industrial complex was the largest in the world. Another early machine tool was developed in 1794 by Henry Maudsley. It was an engine lathe with a practical slide tool rest. This machine tool, shown in Figure 37-1, was the forerunner of the modern engine lathe.The lead screw and change-gear mechanism,

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TABLE 37-1
Order of Automation
A(0) A(1) A(2) A(3) A(4) A(5)

Yardstick for Automation

Human Attribute Replaced
None: lever, screw, pulley, wedge Energy: muscles replaced with power Dexterity: self-feeding Diligence: no feedback but repeats cycle automatically Judgment: positional feedback Evaluation: adaptive control; deductive Learning: from experience Reasoning: exhibits intuition; relates causes and effects Creativeness: performs design work unaided Dominance: supermachine, commands others

Examples
Hand tools, manual machine Powered machines and tools, Whitneys milling machine Single-cycle automatics; self-feeding Repeats cycle; open-loop numerical control or automatic screw; transfer lines Closed loop; numerical control; self-measuring and adjusting; CAD, CAM Computer control; model of process required for analysis; feedback from the process analysis and optimization with data from sensors. Limited self-programming; some artificial intelligence (Al); expert systems Inductive reasoning; advanced Al in control software Originality creates new process programs, neural networks; fuzzy logic Machine is master (Hal in 2001, A Space Odyssey)

A(6) A(7) A(8) A(9)

Source: G. Amber & P. Amber, Anatomy of Automation, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1962. Used by permission, modified by Black

which enabled threads to be cut, were added about 1800. The first planer was developed in 1817 by Richard Roberts in Manchester, England. Roberts was a student of Maudsley, who also had a hand in the career of Joseph Whitworth, the designer of screw threads. Roberts also added back gears and other improvements to the lathe. The first horizontal milling machine is credited to Eli Whitney in 1818 in New Haven, Connecticut. The development of machine tools that not only could make specific products but could also produce other machines to make other products was fundamental to the second industrial revolution. While early work in machine tools and precision measurement was done in England, the earliest attempts at interchangeable-parts manufacturing apparently occurred almost simultaneously in Europe and the United States with the development of filing jigs, with which duplicate parts could be hand filed to substantially identical dimensions. In 1798, Eli Whitney, using this technique, was able to obtain and eventually fulfill a contract from the United States government to produce 10,000 army muskets, the parts of each being interchangeable. However, this truly remarkable achievement was accomplished primarily by painstaking handwork, not by specified machines. Joseph Whitworth, starting about 1830, accelerated the use of Wilkinsons and Maudsleys machine tools by developing precision measuring methods. Later he developed a measuring machine using a large micrometer screw. Later, he worked toward establishing thread standards and made plug-and-ring gages. His work was valuable because precise methods of measurement were the prerequisite for developing interchangeable parts, a requirement for later mass production. Perhaps the next significant machine tool developed was the drill press with automatic feed, by John Nasmyth, another student of Maudsley, in 1840 in Manchester, England. Surface grinding machines came along about 1880, and the era was completed with the development of the bandsaw blades that could cut metal. In total, there were eight basic machine tools in the first industrial revolution for machining: lathe, milling machine, drill press, broach, boring mill, planer (shaper), grinder, and saw. The first factories were developed so that power could be added to drive the machines. This is the A(1) level of automation. Early on, water power was used and, later, steam engines and, still later, large electric motors.

SECTION 37.1
A(1) Powered machine tools of the 1st industrial revolution A(2) Single-Cycle Semiautomatic and Self-Feeding Machines of MassProduction Era

Introduction
A(3)

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Automatic Repeat-Cycle Machine Tools with Open-Loop Control

Engine Lathe Built by Pratt & Whitney circa 1865 First powered shaper circa 1851

Engine Lathe Multispindle Automatic Screw Machine Repeat-Cycle Machines

Double-Cut Double-Housing Planer

Transfer Machine A(4) Computer numerical control (CNC) machines with Closed-Loop Control

James Nasmyths drill press (circa 1840) with automatic power feed

Layout Drilling Machine

Vertical CNC Lathe

John Wilkinson Boring Mill (1775). Used to Bore Cylinders for James Watts Steam Engine

Horizontal Boring Machine Horizontal-Spindle Milling Machine

FIGURE 37-1 Machine tools of the first industrial revolution A(1) and the mass production era A(2), with examples of A(3) open-loop level and A(4) closed-loop level.

Eli Whitneys Milling Machine (1818). Used in Production of Muskets

Bridgeport Series 1 Milling Machine

Turning Center

A(2) LEVEL IS SINGLE-CYCLE AUTOMATICS

The A(2) level of automation was clearly delineated when machine tools became singlecycle, self-feeding machines displaying dexterity. Many examples of this level of machine are given in this text. They exist in great numbers in many factories today as milling, drilling, and turning machines. The A(2) level of machine can be loaded with a part and the cycle initiated by the worker. The machine completes the processing cycle and stops automatically. Mechanization refers to the first and second orders of automaticity, which includes semiautomatic machines. Virtually all of the machine tools described in previous chapters are A(2) machines.The machines used in manned manufacturing cells used

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in lean manufacturing are basically A(2) or A(3) machines. Some examples of A(2) machines are shown in Figure 37-1. Most of the machines found in the home (kitchen) are A(1) or A(2) level machines.

A(3) IS REPEAT-CYCLE AUTOMATICS

The A(3) level of automation requires that the machine be diligent, or repeat cycles automatically. These machines are open loop, meaning that they do not have feedback and are controlled by either an internal fixed program, such as a cam, or are externally programmed with a tape, programmable logic controller (PLC), or computer. Figure 37-1 provides some examples of A(3) machines that include transfer lines. Figures 37-2 and 37-3 show typical linear, or in-line, and rotary transfer lines. When people talk about mass production, they are often referring to a transfer line, which is really an automated flow line. Workpieces are automatically transferred from station to station, from one machine to another. Operations are performed sequentially. Ideally, workstations perform the operation(s) simultaneously on separate workpieces, with the number of parts equal to the number of stations. Each time the machine cycles, a part is completed. Transferring is usually accomplished by one or more of four methods. Frequently, the work is pulled along supporting rails by means of an endless chain that moves intermittently as required. Alternately, the work is pushed along on continuous rails by air or hydraulic pistons. A third method, restricted to lighter workpieces, is to

In-line Power head

Workpiece

FIGURE 37-2 A classic example of an in-line transfer machine, with inset showing two workpieces mounted on pallets for transfer from machine to machine.

Bases

Pallet

SECTION 37.1

Introduction
Rotary table Power head

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4 3

Workpiece

Rotary indexing table

FIGURE 37-3 Rotary transfer lines, also called dial-index machines, typically come in 610 stations. The power heads can be vertical or horizontal and can hold multiple tools. The workpiece on the right is mounted in a specially designed fixture (1 of 10, which must be identical).

move them by an overhead chain conveyor that may lift and deposit the work at the machining stations. A fourth method is often employed when a relatively small number of operations, usually 3 to 10, are to be performed. The machining heads are arranged radially around a rotary indexing table, which contains fixtures in which the workpieces are mounted (Figure 37-3). The table movement may be continuous or intermittent. Face-milling operations are sometimes performed by moving the workpieces past one or more vertical axis heads at the required feed rate. Such circular configurations have the advantage of being compact and of permitting the two pieces to be loaded and unloaded at a single station without having to interrupt the machining. Means must be provided for positioning (locating) the workpieces correctly as they are transferred to the various stations. One method is to attach the work to carrier pallets or fixtures that contain locating holes or points that mate with retracting pins or fingers at each workstation. Excellent station-to-station precision is obtained as the fixtures thus are located and then clamped in the proper positions. However, a set of carrier fixtures is costly and each one must be identical. When it is possible, they are eliminated, and the workpiece is transported between the machines on rails, which locate the parts by self-contained holes or surfaces. This procedure eliminates the pallets and saves the labor required for fastening the workpieces to the carrier pallets. In the design of large transfer machines, the matter of the geometric arrangement of the various production units must be considered. Whether transfer fixtures or pallets must be used is an important factor. These fixtures and pallets are usually quite heavy. Consequently, when they are used, a closed rectangular arrangement is often employed so that the fixtures are returned to the loading point automatically. If no fixtures or pallets are required, straight-line configurations can be employed. Whether pallets or fixtures must be used depends primarily on the degree of precision needed as well as on the size, rigidity, and design of the workpieces. If no transfer pallet or fixture is to be used, locating bosses or points must be designed or machined into the workpiece. The matter of cutting tool wear and replacement (of worn tools) is of great importance when a large number of operations are incorporated in a single production unit. Tools must be replaced before they become worn and produce defective parts. Transfer machines often have more than 100 cutting tools. If the entire complex machine had to be shut down each time a single tool became dull and had to be replaced, overall productivity would be very low. This is avoided by designing the tooling so that certain groups have similar tool lives, monitoring tool thrust and torque, and shutting down the machine before the tooling has deteriorated.All the tools in the affected group

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can be changed so that repeated shutdowns are not necessary. If the transfer machine is equipped with AC drives, providing diagnostic feedback information to individual processes is easily accomplished. Programmable drives replace feedboxes, limit switches, and hydraulic cylinders and eliminate changing belts, pulleys, or gears to change feed rates and depths of cut, thus making the system much more flexible. Methods have been developed for accurately presetting tools and for changing them rapidly. Tools can be changed in a few minutes, thereby reducing machine downtime. Increasingly, tools are preset in standard quick-change holders with excellent accuracy, often to within 0.0002 in. (0.005 mm). In large transfer lines, to prevent entire machines from being shut down when one or two stations become inoperative, the individual machines are grouped in sections with 10 to 12 stations per section. A small amount of buffer storage (banking of workpieces) is provided between the sections. This permits production to continue on all remaining sections for a short time while one section is shut down for tool changing or repair. The most significant problem involves designing the line itself so that it operates efficiently as a whole. Transfer machines or, for that matter, any system wherein a number of processes are connected sequentially will require that the line be balanced. Line balancing means that the processing time at each station must be the same, with the total nonproductive time for all other stations minimized. Practically speaking, there will be one station that will have the longest time, and this station will control the cycle time for all the stations. Computer algorithms have been developed to deal with line balancing, which, when the line is very large, becomes a rather complex problem. Ford Motor has a single transfer line comprising 15 transfer machines, 2 assembly machines, part washers, gages, and inspection equipment. One of the transfer machines has 30 stations just for performing rough milling on cylinder heads. The machines perform a variety of drilling, milling, rough and finish boring, reaming, and end-milling operations. This line produces over 200,000 engine blocks and cylinder heads per year (100 cylinder heads per hour). Transfer machines are usually A(3)-level machines but can be A(4)- or even A(5)-level machines, depending on whether they have the built-in capacity for sensing when corrective action is required and how such corrections are made. Sensing and feedback control systems are essential requirements for the fourth level and all higher levels of automation. A(3), A(4), and A(5) levels are basically superimposed on A(2)-level machines, which must be A(1) by definition.The A(3) level also includes robots, numerical control (NC) machines that have no feedback, and many special-purpose machine tools. Automation as we know it today begins with the A(3) level. In recent years, this level has taken on two forms: hard (or fixed-position) automation and soft (or flexible or programmable) automation (see Table 37-2). Instructions to the machine, telling it what to do, how to do it, and when to do it, are called the program. In hard-automation transfer lines, the programming consists of cams, stops, slides, and hard-wired electronic circuits using relay logic. A widely used example of the A(3) level of automation is the automatic screw

TABLE 37-2

Fixed Automation vs. Flexible Automation

Programmable Automation Software-driven manufacturing systems are typically multipurpose systems designed to produce a family of parts (125). Soft-wired machines are standard machine tools selected for their ability to fabricate a required product. The basis for soft-wired machining is the numerically controlled (NC) machine. NC can be defined as a system in which movements are controlled by a program containing numerical data and may employ feedback to compare the desired action to the actual movement.

Hard-wired Automation Machine control using mechanical and electrical components hardwired to perform a single function, or multiple functions on a part. Advantages Each machine is specifically designed to perform a specific task. Therefore, the task can be optimized in the design. Location and allocation of process needs can be optimized. Disadvantages High setup cost Low flexibility

SECTION 37.2

The A(4) Level of Automation

W7

machine. If the machine is programmed with a tape, a programmable controller (PC), a handheld control box, a microprocessor, or a computer, control instructions are easily changed, with the software making the system or device much more adaptable. In order to improve their reliability, transfer machines are equipped with automated inspection stations or probing heads that determine whether the operation was performed correctly and detect whether any tool breakage has occurred that might cause damage in subsequent operations. For example, after drilling, a hole is checked to make certain that it is clear prior to tapping. Automation and transfer principles are also used very successfully for assembly operations. In addition to saving labor, automatic testing and inspection can be incorporated into such machines at as many points as desired. Such in-process inspection should be used to prevent defects from being made rather than finding defects after they are made. This ensures superior quality.When defective assemblies are simply discovered and removed for rework or scrapped, the cause of the problem is not necessarily corrected. In many cases, some manual operations are combined with some automatic operations. For example, one transfer machine for assembling steering knuckle, front-wheel hub, and disk-brake assemblies has 16 automatic and 5 manual workstations. As with manufacturing operations, automatic assembly can often be greatly improved through proper part design. This is called design for assembly.

37.2 THE A(4) LEVEL OF AUTOMATION

A(4) LEVEL HAS FEEDBACK
The A(4) level of automation required that human judgment be replaced by a capability in the machine to measure and compare results with desired position or size and adjustments to minimize errors. This is feedback, or closed-loop, control. The first numerically controlled machine tool with positional feedback control was developed in 1952 and is generally recognized as the first A(4) machine tool. By 1958, the first NC machining center was being marketed by Kearney and Trecker. A machining center was a compilation of many machine tools capable of performing many processes: in this case, milling, drilling, tapping, and boring (see Figure 37-4). The machining center can automatically change tools to give it greater flexibility. Almost from the start, computers were needed to help program these machines.Within 10 years, NC machine tools became computer numerical control (CNC) machine tools with an onboard microprocessor and could be programmed directly. In the concept of feedback control, a simple A(4) level is one in which some aspect (usually position) of the process is measured using a detection device (sensor). This information is fed back to an electronic comparator, housed in the machine control unit (MCU), which makes comparisons with the desired level of operation. If the output and input are not equal, an error signal is generated and the table is adjusted to reduce the error. Figure 37-5 shows the difference between an open-loop A(3) machine and a closed-loop A(4) machine, with feedback provided on the location of the table with respect to the axis of the spindle of the cutting tool. Three position control methods are commonly used: 1. Transducer on table itself 2. Transducer (encoder) on the motor, as shown in Figure 37-5 3. Transducer (encoder) on the drive motor In CNC turning machines, the feedback is on the tool tip with respect to the rotating part creating tool paths. Figure 37-6 shows how a part can be turned (machined) from a round bar in a CNC lathe. A program is written that directs the machine to execute the necessary roughing and finishing passes. number of rough passes = stock diameter - minimum diameter + finish depth of cut * 2

In this case, eight roughing passes and one finishing cut were specified to get the part to size.

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Vertical milling machine

Upright drill press

Vertical boring machine

Vertical-spindle NC milling machine with manual tool change

Machining center with tool changer (20 tools), chip conveyor, and anti-splash booth

Machining center with pallet changer

FIGURE 37-4 The NC machine combined the capability of a milling machine, a drilling machine, and a boring machine into one machine with programmable control of the movement of the work with respect to the tool. It became a machining center when a tool changer was added. Later a pallet changer was added.

A
B

SECTION 37.2
Conventional machine tool controlA(3)

The A(4) Level of Automation

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Spindle Cutting tool

Pointer Table

Handwheel dial

Leadscrew

Numerical control machine toolA(4) Drive motor

Spindle Slide movement

Table

FIGURE 37-5 (Top) A conventional machines slide is moved by an operator turning the handwheel. Accurate positioning is accomplished by the operator counting the number of revolutions made on the handwheel plus the graduations on the dial. (Bottom) An NC machine takes the commanded position from a part programany difference between the commanded position and the feedback signal reading will generate a signal from the MCU to run the drive motor in the proper direction to cancel any errors. (Modern Machine Shop 1991 NC/CIM Guidebook).

Drive motor signal MCU

Ball screw

Feedback transducer (encoder)

Feedback signal

FIGURE 37-6 The tool paths necessary to rough and finish turn a part in a CNC lathe are computer generated.

Tool-change position

0.01 H Pass 1 Return 1

Start point

2 0.15 depth of cut per pass 4

Point 2 A B C D E F G H

x (in.) z (in.) diameter

4.5 1.8 1.8 2.6 2.6 3.1 3.7 3.7 4.5 0.1 0 0.9 2.6 2.9 2.9 3.2 3.8 3.8

F E 0.3 R D

Return 2 Pass 2 Return 3 Pass 3 Return 4 Pass 4 Return 5 Pass 5 Return 6 Pass 6 C Return 9 Pass 9 A x B

G71 rough cycle 0.01

z
G70 finish cycle 0.1

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A BRIEF HISTORY OF NUMERICAL CONTROL

The advent and wide-scale adoption of numerically (tape- and computer-) controlled machine tools has been the most significant development in machine tools in the past 50 years.These machines raised automation to a new level,A(4), by providing positional feedback as well as programmable flexibility. Numerical control of machine tools created entirely new concepts in manufacturing. Certain operations are now routine that previously were very difficult if not impossible to accomplish. In earlier years, highly trained NC programmers were required. The development of low-cost, solid-state microprocessing chips has resulted in machines that can be quickly programmed by skilled machinists after only a few hours of training, using only simple machine shop language. As a consequence, there are few manufacturing facilities today, from the largest to the smallest job shops, that do not have one or more numerically controlled machine tools in routine use. NC came into being to fill a need. The U.S. Air Force (USAF) and the airframe industry were seeking a means to manufacture complex contoured aircraft components to close tolerances on a highly repeatable basis. John Parsons of the Parsons Corporation of Traverse, Michigan, had been working on a project for developing equipment that would machine templates to be used for inspecting helicopter blades. He conceived of a machine controlled by numerical data to make these templates and took his proposal to the USAF. Parsons convinced the USAF to fund the development of a machine. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) was subcontracted to build a prototype machine. The prototype was a conventional two-axis tracer mill retrofitted with servomechanisms. As luck would have it, the servomechanism lab was located next to a lab where one of the very first digital computers (Whirlwind) was being developed. This computer generated the digital numerical data for the servomechanisms. By 1962, NC machines accounted for about 10% of total dollar shipments in machine tools. Today, about three-fourths of the $35 billion spent for machine tools (drill presses, milling machines, lathes, and machining centers) goes for NC equipment. Early on, NC machines were continuous-path or contouring machines where the entire path of the tool was controlled with close accuracy in regard to position and velocity. Today, milling machines, machining centers, and lathes are the most popular applications of continuous-path control requiring feedback control. Next, point-to-point machines were produced in which the path taken between operations is relatively unimportant and therefore not monitored continuously. Point-to-point machines are used primarily for drilling, milling straight cuts, cutoff, and punching.Automatic tool changers, which require that the tools be precisely set to a given length prior to installation in the machines, permitted the merging of many processes into one machine. Machines are often equipped with two pallets so that one can be set up while the other is working. Two- or four-sided tombstone fixtures with multiple mounting and locating holes for attaching partdedicated fixture plates were developed for horizontal-spindle machining centers, greatly extending their utility. See Figure 37-7 for a schematic of a CNC machining center. Today CNC machines are very common throughout the manufacturing world as the technology has been applied to machines for sheet metal cutting and forming and using lasers, wire electrical discharge machines (EDM), and plasma arc (flame) cutting in addition to metal and wood machining. It is hard to imagine a manufacturing world without numerical control.

FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS (FMSs)

In the 1960s companies began combining the repeatability and productivity of the transfer line with the programmable flexibility of the NC machine so that a variety of parts could be produced on the same set of machines. Figure 37-8 shows a dial-indexing transfer machine that has CNC machines replacing slide units. The CNC units have tool changers, multiaxis fixture positioning, palletized automation, in-process gaging, size control, fault diagnostics, and excellent process capability, so this machine has A(4) capability.

SECTION 37.2

The A(4) Level of Automation

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CNC control panel

Keyboard Hard-copy print out of program sheet

Pallet

Output Tool changer

Spindle with milling cutter

Output Diskette (floppy copy) Control interface Axis control Tombstone or post-type modular workholder Power supply Sensors transducers Magnetic tape Paper tape I N P U T S

Fixture plate Workpiece

Computer Pallet DNC network

Face mill Workpiece

Rotary index table

FIGURE 37-7 Horizontal-spindle CNC machining center with four axes of control (x, y, z, r table), tool changer, and multiple pallets. It receives inputs to the control panel from many sources.

In the United States the first systems were called variable mission or flexible manufacturing systems (FMSs). In the late 1960s Sundstrand installed a system for machining aircraft speed drive housings that was used for more than 30 years. Overall, however, very few of these systems were sold until the late 1970s and early 1980s, when a worldwide FMS movement began. But even today international trade in FMS is not significant, and there are fewer than 2000 systems in the world (less than 0.1% of the machine tool population).There is also some evidence that the market for these large, expensive systems became saturated around the mid-1980s. The FMS permits (schedules) the products to take random paths through the machines. This system is fundamentally an automated, conveyorized, computerized job shop. The system is complex to schedule. Because the machining time for different parts varies greatly, the FMS is difficult to link to an integrated system and often remains an island of very expensive automation. About 60 to 70% of FMS implementations are for components consisting of nonrotational (prismatic) parts such as crankcases and transmission housings. Figure 37-9 shows an FMS with two machine tools serviced by a pallet system and an automated guided vehicle (AGV). The balance of FMS installations are for rotational parts or a mixture of both types of parts.

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5 4 3 2

7 8 9
CNC unit with tool changer capability at 8 station

10

Rough bore and face

Drill

Station 9
Automation with palletized fixturing Single- or multiplefixture rotation capability at any station including a new tilt axis

FIGURE 37-8 Horizontal, rotary transfer machine with CNC units in place of conventional units. This precision automotive oil pump housing required more than 22 separate multiside machining operations and was completed on 9 stations with a 25-second cycle time.

The number of machine tools in an FMS varies from 2 to 10, with 3 or 4 being typical. Annual production volumes for the systems are usually in the range of 3000 to 10,000 parts, the number of different parts ranging from 2 to 20, with 8 being typical.The lot sizes are typically 20 to 100 parts, and the typical part has a machining time of about 30 minutes, with a range of 6 to 90 minutes per part. Each part typically needs two or three chucking or locating positions and 30 or 40 machining operations. NC machining centers were used on older FMSs. In recent years, CNC machine tools have been favored, leading to a considerable number of systems being operated under direct numerical control (DNC). The machining centers always have tool changers. To overcome the limitation of a single spindle, some systems are being built with head changers.These are sometimes referred to as modular machining centers. Common features of FMSs (see Table 37-3) are pallet changers, underfloor conveyor systems for the collection of chips (not shown), and a conveyor system that delivers parts to the machine. This is also an expensive part of the system, as the conveyor systems are either powered rollers, mechanical pallet transfer conveyors, or AGVs operating on underground towlines or buried guidance cables. Carts are more flexible than the conveyors. The AGVs also serve to connect the islands of automation, operating between FMSs, replacing human guided vehicles (forklift trucks). Pallets are a significant cost item for the FMS because the part must be accurately located on the pallet and the pallet accurately located in the machine. Since many pallets are required for each different component, a lot of pallets are needed; they typically represent anywhere from 15 to 20% of the total system cost. FMSs cost about $1 million per machine tool. Thus the seven-machine FMS costs $6 million for hardware and software, with the transporter costing over $1 million. The computer control system for an FMS system usually has three levels. The master control monitors the entire system for tool failures or machine breakdowns, schedules the work, and routes the parts to the appropriate machine. The DNC computer distributes programs to the CNC machines and supervises their operations, selecting the required programs and transmitting them at the appropriate time.

SECTION 37.2
Remote wire-guided cart (2 reqd.)

The A(4) Level of Automation

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Measuring/inspection station Two Powerhawk HTC300 Horizontal Tool Changers with 60-tool storage magazines Wash station Pallet acquisition system Chip removal Pallet station

Application: An aircraft parts manufacturer needed parts transfer mobility, in/out parts queue, cutting tool library, and quality control management for production of hightechnology parts. Wire-guided vehicles offer interdepartment transfer capability as well as in-cell transport. The Q.C. center manages the machining accuracy for continuous flow of acceptable parts. Parts are scheduled in batch and/or random, controlled by a management computer. The machines are equipped with telemetry probes, adaptive control, bulk tool storage, and complete tool management.

FIGURE 37-9

An example of an FMS for prismatic aircraft parts using a wire-guided AGV for part transfer.

TABLE 37-3

Common Features of Flexible Manufacturing Systems

Pallet changers Multiple machine tools: NC or CNC Automated material handling system (to deliver parts to machines) Computer control for system: DNC Multiple parts: Medium-sized lots (20010,000) with families of parts Random sequencing of parts to machines (optional) Automatic tool changing In-process inspection Parts washing (optional) Automated storage and retrieval (optional, to deliver parts to system)

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It also keeps track of the completion of the cutting programs and sends this information to the master computer. The bottom level of computer control is at the machines themselves. It is difficult to design an FMS because it is, in fact, a very complex assembly of elements that must work together. Designing the FMS to be flexible is difficult. Many companies have found that between the time they ordered their system and had it installed and operational, design changes had eliminated a number of parts from the FMS. That is, the system was not as flexible as they thought. Figure 37-10 shows some typical FMS designs. If the system has only one or two machines, it is often called a flexible manufacturing cell (FMC).

1 Changeable head-type matching center

2 Matching center with pallet pool

3 Combination of multiple machining centers with pallet pool CPU

4 Combination of multiple machining centers and manually operated conveyor CPU

* M/C M/C

* * *

* 5 Combination of multiple machining centers and automatic conveyor line CPU 6 Combination of multiple machining centers and robocart carrier 7 Simultaneous control of multiple independent NC machines DNC CPU * * * * * * * * * * *

Conveyor 8 Transfer line comprised of multiple machining centers

CPU

Tool assem -bly area

* * * *

CPU Used as needed 12 Simultaneous control of machining centers, auto-warehouse, and tools Tool room CPU * * CPU Tool room * * Auto-warehouse

9 Production line comprised of machining centers and NC specialpurpose machines NC measuring st. NC * NC

11 Simultaneous control 10 Production line comof machining centers bined with special-purand auto-warehouse pose machines and general-purpose machines Assembly NC * * * *

NC assembling Washing machines

* NC NC

CPU Used as needed

CPU Used as needed * Computer

Auto-warehouse Sequence controller including electrical control box CPU Computer control of FMS AGV automated guided vehicle NC NC special-purpose machine

Operator General purpose Machine tool M/C

CNC machine tool

Pallet changer

FIGURE 37-10

Examples of FMC and FMS designs, using machining centers and AGVs.

SECTION 37.2

The A(4) Level of Automation

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FMSs are, in fact, classic examples of supermachines. Such large, expensive systems must be examined with careful and complete planning. It is important to remember that even though they are often marketed and sold as a turnkey installation (the buyer pays a lump sum and receives a system that can be turned on and run), this is only rarely possible with a system that has so many elements that must work together reliably. Taken in the context of integrated manufacturing systems, large FMSs may be difficult to synchronize to the rest of the system.The flexibility of the FMS requires variable speeds and cycles, numerical control, and a supervisory computer to coordinate cell operation. In the long run, smaller manned or unmanned cells may well be the better solution, in terms of system flexibility. Perhaps a better name for these systems is variable mission or random-path manufacturing systems. The use of computer coding and classification systems, a group technology technique, to identify the initial family of parts around which the FMS is designed greatly improves the FMS design. One might say that FMSs were developed before their time, since they are being more readily accepted since group technology has been used (at least conceptually) to identify families of parts for the system to produce. As an FMS generally needs about three or four workers per shift to load and unload parts, change tools, and perform general maintenance, it cannot really be said to be self-operating. FMS systems are rarely left untended, as in third-shift operations. Other than the personnel doing the loading and unloading, the workers in the FMS are usually highly skilled and trained in NC and CNC. Most installations run fairly reliably (once they are debugged) over three shifts, with uptime ranging from 70 to 80%, and many are able to run one shift untended.

A(5) LEVEL OF AUTOMATION REQUIRES EVALUATION

In the yardstick for automation, the NC or CNC machine represents the A(4) level. The next level of automation, A(5), requires that the control system perform an evaluation function of the process. Figure 37-11 compares block diagrams for A(4) closed-loop

Disturbance Environment Input + Comparator Desired level of operation A(4) closed loop Error signal Machine controller unit Process under control Output A(4) machines feedback position or velocity

Can change feed rate, cutting speed, or tool position (DOC)

Table position or velocity

Sensor position or velocity

Feedback

Feed forward sensor Input + Comparator A(5) adaptive control Error signal Machine controller unit

Disturbance Process under control Sensors A(5) machines adaptive control loop to modify process Output

Modification

FIGURE 37-11 Block diagrams of A(4) and A(5) level of control: A(4), closed-loop NC; A(5) closed-loop NC with adaptive control loop.

Decision computer analysis

Identification

Microcomputer or microprocessor Feedback

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control (with encoder) to A(5) adaptive control. A(5) requires a feedback loop from the process or the product and seeks to either constrain or optimize the process. Note how this loop lies inside the position feedback loop. The multiple loops can cause conflicts in the controllers decision-making software. CNC machines, with their onboard computers, are potentially capable of the A(5) level of automation. In the standard versions of NC and CNC machines in use today, speed and feed are fixed in the program unless the operator overrides them at the control panel of the machine. If either speed or feed is too high, the result can be rapid tool failure, poor surface quality, or damaged parts. If the speed and feed are too low, production time is greater than desired for best productivity. An adaptive control (A/C) system that can sense deflection, force, heat, geometry, torque, and the like will use these measurements to make decisions about how the input parameters might be altered to constrain or optimize the behavior of the process.This means that the computer must have mathematical models in its software that describe how this process behaves and mathematical functions that state what is to be constrained or optimized (surface quality, cutting force, metal removal rate, power consumed, and so on). The A(5) level requires that machines perform evaluation of the process itself. Thus the machine must be cognizant of the multiple factors on which the process performance is predicted, evaluate the current setting of the input parameters versus the outputs from the process, and then determine how to alter the inputs to optimize the process. A(5) level, typified by adaptive control, emulates human evaluation. Many A(5) machines are capable of adapting the process itself so as to optimize it in some way, so this level of automation requires that the system have a computer programmed with models (mathematical equations) that describe how this process behaves, how this behavior is bounded, and what aspects of the process or system are to be constrained or optimized. This modeling obviously requires that the process be sufficiently well understood theoretically so that equations (models) can be written that describe how the real process works. This level of automation has been achieved for continuous processes (oil refineries, for example) where the theory (of heat transfer and fluid dynamics) of the process is well understood and parameters are easier to measure. Unfortunately, the theory of metal forming and metal removal is less well understood and parameters are usually difficult to measure. These processes have resisted adequate theoretical modeling, and as a consequence there are very few A(5) machines on the shop floor. A/C applications are important where the components vary in size (like castings), which alters the depth of cut and so changes the cutting forces, perhaps producing chatter. Similarly, changes in the hardness of the workpiece, perhaps produced by improper heat treating, prior nonuniform rolling, or surface processing, can produce significant variations in the cutting forces, again leading to dynamic instability or quality problems. The basic elements of the adaptive control loop are the following: 1. Identification: measurements from the process itself, its output, or process inputs using sensors to determine operating conditions 2. Decision analysis: optimization of the process in the computer 3. Modification: signal to the controller to alter the inputs 4. Monitoring: continuous control over the process As shown in Figure 37-11, many machines have built-in feedforward devices. This means that the system takes information from the input side of the process rather than the output side and uses that information to alter the process. For example, the temperature of the billet as it enters a hot-rolling or hot-extrusion process can be sensed and used as feedforward information to alter the process parameters. This would be an A(5) or adaptive control example. Sensors can be located in three positions: ahead of the process, in the process, or on the output side of the process.The feedforward concept can also be applied at the A(4) level. Suppose that you have a transfer line that processes flywheel housings from castings that are similar in shape but will have slight differences in size, which will alter depth of cut during different machining operations. When the

SECTION 37.2
Laser scanner Gage-size Grinding wheel + Part held between centers Infeed y Machine Control Force Computer AIC Grinding force Final work size control Machine tool

The A(4) Level of Automation

Top view Center Deflection

W17

Part

x y
Grinding wheel

FIGURE 37-12 Developing adaptive control systems for metalcutting machines usually requires that the part be measured as well as the cutting forces.

housings are fed into the machine, a sensing device contacts the casting and determines the variation from the nominal size.The sensing and feedforward system then selects the proper tooling for the housing and adjusts cutting parameters accordingly. Here is an example of what is required to raise the automatic CNC grinder to the A(5) level, assuming that it is a cylindrical center-type grinder on which part deflection and part size are measured (see Figure 37-12). The position of the grinding wheel with respect to the part is controlled numerically in XY coordinates. However, the cutting forces tend to deflect the part more as the grinding wheel gets farther from the centers. The adaptive control software program would have equations that relate deflection to grinding forces and infeed rates. The infeed would be decreased to reduce the force and minimize deflection. Notice that the overall system would still have to compensate for the grit dulling and grit attrition that accompanies wheel wear and that also alters the grinding forces. The A(5) level reflects deductive reasoning whereby particular outcomes are predicted from general theory. A/C systems that place a constraint on a process variable (such as forces, torque, or temperature) are called adaptive control constraint (ACC) systems. Thus, if the thrust force and the cutting force (and hence the torque) increase excessively (for example, because of the presence of a hard region in a casting), the adaptive control system changes the depth of cut or the feed to lower the cutting force to an acceptable level. Note that altering the feed may cause a change in the surface finish that may be unacceptable. Without adaptive control (or without the direct intervention of the operator), excessive cutting forces may cause the tools to break or cause the workpiece to deflect, resulting in a loss of size in the part, so the system tries to maintain a constant force. A/C systems that optimize an operation are called adaptive control optimization (ACO) systems. Optimization may involve maximizing the material removal rate (MRR) between tool changes (or resharpening) or improving surface finish. Currently, most systems are based on ACC, because the development and the proper implementation of ACO is complex.

A(6) LEVEL OF AUTOMATION AND BEYOND

There are very few examples of A(5) machines on the factory floor and fewer at the A(6) level, wherein the machine control has expert systems capability. Expert systems try to infuse the software with the deductive decision-making capability of the human brain by having the system get smarter through experience. The software is designed to emulate human learning by configuring neural networks where the computer relates inputs to outputs. Artificial intelligence (AI) carries this step higher by infecting the control software with programs that exhibit the ability to reason inductively. The A(6) level tries to relate cause to effect. Suppose that the effect was tool failure.At the A(5) level, the system would detect the increase in deflection due to increased forces (due to the tools dulling) and reduce the feed to reduce the force. However, it might simultaneously try to increase the speed to maintain the MRR constant, which would increase the rate of tool wear. This was not the desired result. At the A(6) level, multiple factors are evaluated so that the system can recognize the need to change the

Spindle

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tool rather than reduce the cutting feed. That is, the system learned by experience that feed reduction or speed increase was the wrong decision, and that it was tool wear that caused force to increase. Such systems are often called expert systems when the software contains the collective experience of human experts or prior replications of the same process. The use of neural networks will allow the process to learn (i.e., the expert system will become more intelligent about the process). An alternative approach is being evaluated using fuzzy logic control. The behavior of the process is described with linguistic terms. Fuzzy logic control statements replace closed-form mathematical models. The decision analysis element depends on a set of ifthen statements rather than specific equations. The A(6) level reflects the beginnings of artificial intelligence, in which the control software is infected with elements (subroutines) that permit some thinking on the part of the software. Few, if any, such systems exist on the factory floor. Figure 37-13 presents a summary of the A(3) through A(6) levels of automation. The A(7) level reflects the next level of AI, whereby inductive reasoning is used.The system software can determine a general principle (the theory) based on the particular facts (the database) collected. Levels A(6) and A(7) are the subjects of intensive worldwide research efforts. Levels A(8) and A(9) are left to the whims of the science fiction writer.

ORDER OF AUTOMATICITY A (3) Automatic repeat cycle or Open-loop control See Fig. 36-4, 36-5

HUMAN ATTRIBUTE MECHANIZED DILIGENCE Carries out routine instructions without aid of man Open end or nonfeedback

DISCUSSION All automatic machines Loads, processes, unloads, repeats System assumed to be doing okay; probability of malfunctions negligible Obeys fixed internal commands or external program

EXAMPLES Record player with changer Automatic screw machine Bottling machines Clock works Doughnut maker Spot welder Engine production lines Casting lines Newspaper printing machines Transfer machines Product control Can filling NC machine tool with position control Self-adjusting grinders Windmills Thermostats Waterclock Fly ball governor on steam engine CNC machine with A/C capability
O

A (4) Self-measuring and adjusting feedback or closed-loop systems

JUDGMENT Measures and compares result (output) to desired size or position (input) and adjusts to minimize any error

Self-adjusting devices Feedback from product position, size, velocity, etc.

Input Process Positional feedback Output

Multiple loops are possible A (5) Adaptive or computer control: Automatic cognition; Fuzzy logic control EVALUATION Senses multiple factors on process performance, evaluates and reconciles them Uses mathematical algorithms or fuzzy logic Process performance must be expressed as equation
Position Position and velocity
Computer

Maintaining pH level Turbine fuel control Maintaining constant cutting force

In

NC mach.

Metal Out cutting process

Corrections to input
A/C Unit

Process variables

(Computer)

A (6) Expert systems or neural networks or limited selfprogramming

LEARNING BY EXPERIENCE

The subroutines in the AC computer are using a form of limited self-programming Trial-and-error sequencing develops history of usage

Phone circuits Elevator dispatching

FIGURE 37-13

Yardstick for automation: levels A(3) to A(6).

SECTION 37.3

Robotics

W19

Automation involves machines, or integrated groups of machines, that automatically perform required machining, forming, assembly, handling, and inspection operations. Through sensing and feedback devices, these systems automatically make necessary corrective adjustments. That is, human thinking must be automated. There are relatively few completely automated systems, but there are numerous examples of highly mechanized machines.While the potential advantages of a completely automated plant are tremendous, in practice, step-by-step automation of individual operations is required. Therefore, it is important to have a piecewise plan to first convert the classical job shops to a simplified, integrated factory that can be automated step by step. Perhaps the most serious limitation in automation is available capital, as the initial investments for automation equipment and installations are large. Because proper engineering economics analysis must be employed to evaluate these investments, students who anticipate a career in manufacturing should consider a course in this area a firm requirement.

37.3 ROBOTICS
Robots, or steel-collared workers, are typically A(3)-,A(4)-, or A(5)-level machines.As defined by the Robot Institute of America, A robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to handle material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.The word robot was coined in 1921 by Karel Capek in his play R.U.R. (Rossums Universal Robots).The term is derived from the Czech word for worker.The principal inventor of the underlying control technology for robots was George Devol, who worked for Remington-Rand in the 1950s. His patents were purchased by CONDEC, Inc., which developed the first commercial robot, called Unimate. Much of the work for the next 20 years was spearheaded by Joseph Engelberger, who came to be called the father of robotics.A famous author, Isaac Asimov, depicted robots in many of his stories and gave three laws that hold quite well for industrial robotic applications. Asimovs three laws of robotics are the following: 1. A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to be harmed. (Safety first.) 2. A robot must obey orders given by human beings except when that conflicts with the First Law. (A robot must be programmable.) 3. A robot must protect its own existence unless that conflicts with the First or Second Law. (Reliability.) In considering the use of a robot, the following points should be considered. Anything that makes a job or task easy for the robot to do makes the job easy for a human being to do as well. Why? The robot is a severely handicapped worker and is several orders of magnitude less flexible than a human being. Robots cannot think or solve problems on the plant floor. The big advantage of the robot is that it will do a job in an exact cycle time, and do it every time, whereas a human being often cannot. This is an important feature in robotic assembly lines and manufacturing and assembly cells. For our purposes, if a machine is programmable, capable of automatic repeat cycles, and can perform manipulations in an industrial environment, it is an industrial robot. All robots have the following basic components (Figure 37-14): 1. Manipulators: The mechanical unit, often called the arm, that does the actual work of the robot. It is composed of mechanical linkages and joints with actuators to drive the mechanism directly or indirectly through gears, chains, or ball screws. 2. End effector: The hand or gripper portion of the robot, which attaches the end of the arm and performs the operations of the robot. 3. Controller: The brains of the system that direct the movements of the manipulator. In higher-level robots, computers are used for controllers. The functions of the controller are to initiate and terminate motion, store data for position and motion sequence, and interface with the outside world, meaning other machines and human beings. Teach pendants are often used to program the robot. The operator manipulates the arm and gripper and the robot remembers the taught path.

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Position-sensor data feedback Teach
M

arm

at ul ip an

Joi n

Actuator

Computer memory (end points)

Controller or computer

ted

or

Hand Playback Wrist Base Servo +

Servo valve Teach Teach pendant (hand control) see below

Teach pendant

FIGURE 37-14 Major elements of an industrial robot.

4. Feedback devices: Transducers that sense the positions of various linkages and joints and transmit this information to the controllers in either digital or analog form on A(4)- or A(5)-level robots. 5. Power supply (not shown): Electric, pneumatic, and hydraulic power supplies used to provide and regulate the energy needed for their manipulators actuators. The early robots were programmed using analog rather than digital control technology. The next generation of robots was more accurate and precise, with reliable electric (digital) controls. Many robot manufacturers made it hard to integrate their robots with other CNC equipment by retaining proprietary operating systems. Today, Japan leads the world in the implementation of robots in the factory. Many of the commercially available robots have one of the mechanical configurations shown in Figure 37-15. Cylindrical coordinate robots have a work envelope (shaded region) that is a portion of a sphere. Jointed-spherical coordinate robots have a jointed arm and a work envelope that approximates a portion of a sphere. Rectangular coordinate robots with a rectangular work envelope have been developed for high precision in assembly applications. Another design, called SCARA (selective compliance assembly robot arm), also has good positioning accuracy, high speeds, and low cost for a robot with three or four controllable axes, which is usually adequate for assembly tasks.

SECTION 37.3
Arm rotation330 3 Shoulder rotation310

Robotics

W21

4 Elbow rotation300 5

Flange rotation630 (Yaw)

Wrist bend240

(Pitch)

Wrist rotation630 (roll) (a) u2 u0 Z axis pneumatic actuator u1 u0 motor u1 motor (b)

Preset height u2 motor

Pneumatic gripper

(c) SCARA

FIGURE 37-15 The axis of motion of three basic designs for industrial robots (including roll, pitch, and yaw movement of the wrist) and the robotic work envelope. (a) Six axes of motion of a Fanuc robot. (b) Jointed-arm robot.

Jointed-arm robots may have two or three additional minor axes of motion at the end of the arm (commonly called the wrist). These three movements are pitch (vertical movement), yaw (horizontal motion), and roll (wrist rotation). The hand (or gripper or end effector), which is usually custom-made by the user, attaches to the wrist.

TACTILE AND VISUAL SENSING IN ROBOTS

Many of the industrial robots in use at this time are A(4) point-to-point machines. Most robots operate in systems wherein the items to be handled or processed are placed in precise locations with respect to the robots. Even robots with computer control that can follow a moving auto conveyor line while performing spot-welding operations have point-to-point feedback information, but this is satisfactory for most industrial applications. To expand the capability of this handicapped worker made of steel, sensors are used to obtain information regarding position and component status. Tactile sensors provide information about force distributions in the joints and in the hand of the robot

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during manipulations. This information is then used to control movement rates. Visual sensors collect data on spatial dimensions by means of image recording and analysis. Visual sensors are used to identify workpieces; determine their position and orientation; check position, orientation, geometry, or speed of parts; determine the correct welding path or point; and so on. To provide a robot with tactile or visual capability, powerful computers and sophisticated software are required, but this appears to be the most logical manner to raise the robot to the A(5) level of automation, at which it can adapt to variations in its environment. Vision systems can locate parts moving past a robot on a conveyor, identify those parts that should be removed from the conveyor, and communicate this information to the robot. The robot tracks the moving part, orients its gripper, picks up the part, and moves it to the desired work station. See Table 37-4 for a summary on sensors. Industrial robots used in industry today fill three main functions: material handling, assembly, and material processing. They have, for the most part, very primitive motor and intelligence capabilities, because most robots are A(3)-level machines. The sensory interactive control, decision-making, and artificial intelligence capabilities of robots are far inferior to those of human beings at this time. With regard to shortcomings in performance, the robots major stumbling blocks are its accuracy and repeatability (i.e., process capability or dexterity), but robot capabilities are progressing steadily, with improvements in controls, ease of programming, operating speeds, and precision. Robots are having a strong impact in certain industrial environments, often doing jobs that are unhealthy, hazardous, extremely tedious, and unpleasant. Robots perform well doing paint spraying, loading and unloading small forgings or die-casting machines, spot welding, and so on. The A(3)-level robot, usually called a pick-and-place machine, is capable of performing only the simplest repeat-cycle movements, on a point-to-point basis, being controlled by an electronic or pneumatic control with manipulatory movement controlled by end stops. A(3) robots are usually small robots with relatively high-speed movements, good repeatability (0.010 in.), and low cost. They are simple to program, operate, and maintain but have limited flexibility in terms of program capacity and positioning capability. To raise the robot to an A(4)-level machine, sensory devices must be installed in the joints of the arm(s) to provide positional feedback and error signals to the servomechanisms, just as was the case for NC machines. The addition of an electronic memory and digital control circuitry allows this level of robot to be programmed by a human

TABLE 37-4
Sensor Type
Visual

Sensors Used on Robots with Some Typical Application

Design
Video pickup tubes (TV camera) Position detection, part inspection Semiconductor sensors (lasers) Fiber optics

Application
Position detection, part inspection Parts detection, identification, sorting Consistency testing (e.g., in manipulation, welding, and assembly) Guidance and control Position detection Tool monitoring (e.g., in casting, cleaning, grinding, manipulation, and assembly) Force sensing, part identification Object recognition, pressure Position detection Status determination (e.g., in manipulation and welding)

Tactile

Feelers Pin matrix Load cells (piezo, capacitance) Conductive elastometers Silicon Shunt (current determination) Capacitor Coil manipulation and welding

Electrical (inductive capacitative)

SECTION 37.3

Robotics

W23

PaintTool Setup and Teaching:

PaintTool Application Keys

FIGURE 37-16 This teach pendant allows the operator to teach the robot paths for painting. (Courtesy of Fanuc Robotics.)

Teach Pendant

3 Screen Access Keys

Seven paint specific Teach Pendant Hard Keys provide single key stroke

being guiding the robot through the desired operations and movements using a hand controller (Figure 37-16). The handheld control box has rate-control buttons for each axis of motion of the robot arm. When the arm is in the desired position, the record or program button is pushed to enter that position or operation into the memory. This is similar to point-to-point NC machines, as the path of the robot arm movement is defined by selected endpoints when the program is played back. The electronic memory can usually store multiple programs and randomly access the required one, depending on the job to be done. This allows for a product mix to be handled without stopping to reprogram the machine. The addition of a computer, usually a minicomputer, makes it possible to program the robot to move its hand or gripper in straight lines or other geometric paths between given points, but the robot is still essentially a point-to-point machine. Using computer simulations, robots can be programmed offline to do assembly and processing tasks, but they must usually be taught the final location of the points by the operator. There are three ways of controlling point-to-point motion independently: (1) sequential joint control, (2) noncoordinate joint control, and (3) terminal coordinate joint control. Point-to-point servocontrolled robots have the following common characteristics: high load capacity, large working range, and relatively easy programming, but the path followed by the manipulator during operation may not be the path followed during teaching. To make an A(4) robot continuous-path, position and velocity data must be sampled on a time basis rather than as discretely determined points in space. Due to the high rate of sampling, many spatial positions must be stored in the computer memory, thus requiring a mass storage system. The current generation of robots is finding applications in the following areas: 1. Die casting. In single- or multishift operations, custom or captive shops, robots unload machines, quench parts, operate trim presses, load inserts, ladle metal, and perform die lubrication. Die life is increased because die-casting machines can be operated without breaks or shutdowns. Die temperatures remain stable and better controlled, with uniform cycle times. 2. Press transfer. Robots in sheet metal press transfer lines guarantee consistent throughput shift after shift. Large and unwieldy parts can be handled at piece rates as high as 400 per hour, with no change in cycle time due to fatigue. Robots are adaptable for long- or short-run operations. Programming for new part sizes can be accomplished in minutes (Figure 37-17).

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FIGURE 37-17 Robots are used to transfer sheet metal parts from press to press in the automobile bodymaking factory.

3. Material handling. Strength, dexterity, and a versatile memory allow robots to pack goods in complex palletized arrays or to transfer workpieces to and from moving or indexing conveyors or to and from machines. These are boring, labor-intensive operations. Operating costs are reduced when robots feed forge presses and upsetters. They work continuously without fatigue or the need for relief in the hot, hostile environments commonly found in forging. Robots can easily manipulate the hot parts in the presses 4. Investment casting. Scrap rates as high as 85% have been reduced to less than 5% when molds are produced by robots. The smooth, controlled motions of the robot provide consistent mold quality impossible to achieve manually 5. Material processing. Product quality is improved and sustained with point-to-point, continuous-path robots in jobs such as routing, flame cutting, mold drying, polishing, and grinding. Once programmed, the robot will process each part with the same high quality. 6. Welding and cutting. Robots spot weld cars and trucks for almost every major manufacturer in the world, with uniformity of spot location and weld integrity. See Figure 37-18. With the addition of laser seam-tracking capability, robots can be used for arc welding, increasing arc time, freeing operators from hazardous environments, reducing the cost of worker protection, and improving the consistency of weld quality.

FIGURE 37-18 Robots are widely employed.

SECTION 37.3

Robotics

W25

FIGURE 37-19 Robots are used to assemble an airbag inflator, providing safety and process control while improving quality and reducing cost. (Courtesy of: Fanuc Robotics.)

7. Assembly. The replacement of pneumatic and hydraulic systems with electric motors has improved the accuracy and precision of robots, permitting them to be more widely used in assembly. To perform assembly tasks using robots requires consideration of the entire system, from part presentation through joining, test, and inspection. Most important, the parts must be designed for robotic assembly. Flexible assembly, as this is now referred to, usually addresses mid-volume products.As opposed to hard automation that uses special-purpose fixtures, part feeders, and work heads, flexible (or robotic) assembly uses general-purpose and programmable equipment and combinations of visual and tactile sensing so that a variety of parts can be assembled using the same equipment. This requires multiple degrees of freedom and generalpurpose grippers, which usually decreases the accuracy and precision of the robot, so vision systems are needed to compensate. See Figure 37-19. 8. Painting.The automobile painting process uses robots to apply paint to thicknesses of about 0.1 mm using repeated painting and drying cycles. The painting process is the highest energy user in the entire automobile manufacturing and assembly process. Each car gets about 100 liters of paint. The system, shown in Figure 37-20, can paint about 100,000 cars per year at a rate of 30 cars per hour, using an air volume of 860,000 in.3. This is a huge volume of air recirculated every 30 minutes. The figure shows how the typical paint booth was redesigned to reduce energy consumption while improving quality, using robots to apply the materials. The integration of robots into cellular arrangements with machine tools to process families of component parts where the robot performs tasks right along with one or more human beings is very efficient. The robot can perform part loading and unloading, as well as material processing (like joining), when machines are grouped properly in a machining or forming cell. Totally unmanned cells can facilitate maximum automation and productivity while maintaining programmable flexibility in producing small to medium-sized production lots of parts from compatible parts families. The robots can also change tools in the machines and even the workholding devices, thereby adding more flexibility to the cell. Unmanned manufacturing cells help to achieve maximum machine tool utilization by greatly increasing the percentage of time the machines spend cutting, which in turn increases the output for the same investment.

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Air makeup M house Oven Primer surfacer Oven Anti-corrosion and sealer Exhaust

Intake

Pretreatment From body shop

ELPO primer

Oven Two tone, pearl mica, etc. Topcoating Oven To assembly shop Scrubber

Wet sanding Oven

Outline of the Painting Process

Paint Booth

Metallic base

Clear/solid

Conventional System Metallic base interior panels

Clear/solid exterior panels

Clear/solid interior panels

Flush off

Metallic base exterior panels

New System

FIGURE 37-20 The painting process for automobiles uses many robots to consistently apply the primer and topcoating to the car bodies. (Source: TOYOTA Technical Review, vol. 48, No. 2, March 1999.)

Here are some things to consider when selecting a robot: 1. 2. 3. 4. Economic analysis: Can this robotic application be cost-justified? Process capability: Can this robot do the jobis it accurate and precise enough? Changing product designs: Can this robot handle new product designs? Changing existing machine and tooling (either cutting tools or workholders): Will this change the product? 5. Doing simple, hazardous, harmful, or fatiguing jobs first. Is this a good application for a robot? 6. Does the supplier have a training program and will the supplier help during initial installation?

SECTION 37.4

Computer-Integrated Manufacturing Automation

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37.4 COMPUTER-INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING AUTOMATION

When many people in manufacturing think about automation, they think about computers, and no three-letter acronym has been more widely discussed than CIM.A number of definitions have been developed for computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM). However, a CIM system is commonly thought of as an integrated system that encompasses all the activities in the production system, from the planning and design of a product through the manufacturing system, including control. CIM is an attempt to combine existing computer technologies to manage and control the entire business. CIM is an approach that very few companies have adopted at this time, since surveys show that only 1 or 2% of U.S. manufacturing companies have approached full-scale use of FMS and computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM), let alone CIM systems. As with traditional manufacturing approaches, the vision of CIM is to transform product designs and materials into salable goods at a minimum cost in the shortest possible time. CIM begins with the design of a product (CAD) and ends with the computer-aided manufacture of that product (CAM). With CIM, the customary split between the design and manufacturing functions is (supposed to be) eliminated. CIM differs from the traditional job shop manufacturing system in the role the computer plays in the manufacturing process. Computer-integrated manufacturing systems are basically a network of computer systems tied together by a single integrated database. Here the word integrated means everyone can access (via computers) the same database. Using the information in the database, a CIM system can direct (not perform) manufacturing activities, record results, and maintain accurate data. CIM is the computerization of design process planning (how to make it), manufacturing, distribution, and financial functions into one coherent system. Figure 37-21 presents a block diagram illustrating the functions and their relationship in CIM.These functions are identical to those found in a traditional production (planning and control) system for a job shopflow shop manufacturing system. With the introduction of computers, changes have occurred in the organization and execution of production planning and control through the implementation of such systems as material requirements planning (mrp), capacity planning, inventory management, shop floor control, and cost planning and control. Engineering and manufacturing databases contain all the information needed to fabricate the components and assemble the products.The design engineering and process planning functions provide the inputs for the engineering and manufacturing database. This database includes all the data on the product generated during design, such as part geometric data, parts lists, and material specifications.The bill of materials is shown separately, but it is a key part of the database. Figure 37-22 shows how CAD/CAM is related to the design and manufacturing activities. Included in the CAM is a CAPP (computeraided process planning) module, which acts as the interface between CAD and CAM. Capacity planning is concerned with determining what labor and equipment capacity is required to meet the current master production schedule as well as the longterm future production needs of the firm. Capacity planning is typically performed in terms of labor and/or machine hours available. The master schedule is transformed into material and component requirements using mrp.These requirements are then compared with available plant capacity over the planning horizon. If the schedule is incompatible with capacity, adjustments must be made either in the master schedule or in plant capacity. The possibility of adjustments in the master schedule is indicated by the arrow in Figure 37-21 leading from capacity planning to the master schedule. The term shop floor control in Figure 37-21 refers to a system for monitoring the status of manufacturing activities on the plant floor and reporting the status to management so that effective control can be exercised. The cost planning and control system consists of the database to determine expected costs to manufacture each of the firms products. It also consists of the cost collection and analysis software to determine what the actual costs of manufacturing are and how these costs compare with the expected costs.

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37.5 COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN

A major element of a CIM system is a computer-aided design (CAD) system. CAD is the process of solving design problems with the aid of computers. This includes computer generation and modification of graphic images on the video display, analysis of design data, electronic storage and retrieval of design information, and output images as hard copy to a printer or plotter. CADD (computer-aided design drafting) is a subset of CAD that deals with the computer-assisted generation of working drawings and other engineering documents. Most good design engineers agree that the computer does not change the nature of the design process and consider it simply a tool to improve efficiency and productivity. The designer provides knowledge, creativity, and control while the computer assists with accurate, easily modified geometric models and the capacity to perform complex design analysis and recall design information with great speed. So CADD offers the advantages of being able to do the following: visualize and correct the drawings store and retrieve design data integrate computation design analysis (such as stress analysis) simulate and test designs ultimately improve accuracy (fewer errors)

Sales and marketing

Forecasting of demand

Conceptual design engineering (CAD)

Bill of materials

Master production schedule

Engineering and manufacturing (CAM)

Material requirements planning (mrp)

Capacity planning

Purchasing

Shop floor control

Inventory management

Outside suppliers

Manufacturing system Processes subassembly assembly

Shipping and warehousing

FIGURE 37-21 Cycles of activities in a computerintegrated manufacturing system.

Quantity control

Customers (requirements)

Production planning

Process planning (CAPP)

SECTION 37.5

Computer-Aided Design

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Geometric modeling corresponds to the synthesis phase of the design process. To use geometric modeling, the designer constructs the graphical image of the object on the computer screen. The object can be represented using several different methods. The simplest systems use wire frames to represent the object. The wire-frame geometric modeling is classified as one of the following: Two-dimensional representation, used for flat objects Three-dimensional modeling, used for more complex geometries Other enhancements to wire-frame geometric modeling are: Color graphics Dashed lines to portray rear edges that would be invisible from the front Removal of hidden lines Surface representation that makes the object appear solid to the viewer.

CAD/CAM Elements CAD

CAD/CAM Steps

Traditional Steps

Geometric modeling

Customer needs and requirements Preliminary design

Conceptual design Engineering analysis Preliminary calculations and dimensions Design review and evaluation

CAD Detailed design Analysis (FEM)

Automated drafting

Prototypes/testing Manufacturing design

CAPP CAM CAM Tool and fixture design

MRP & MRP II Control

Factory master planning Numerical control programming Manufacturing system Products

FIGURE 37-22 CAD/CAM elements and typical relationships in manufacturing.

Production planning and scheduling

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The more advanced (intelligent) CAD work uses solid geometry shapes called primitives to construct objectsthe object is a collection of geometric shapes that can be understood by both the CAD and the CAM software. To tie the geometric shapes to the processing, features are used. Features are higher-order abstract geometric forms that allow the designer to consider both design and manufacturing activities when describing an object to be manufactured. Engineering analysis is required in the formulation of any engineering design project. The analysis may involve stress calculations, finite element analysis for heat-transfer computations, or differential equations to describe the dynamic behavior of the system. Generally, commercially available general-purpose programs are used to perform these analyses. Design review and evaluation techniques check the accuracy of the CAD design. Semiautomatic dimensioning and tolerancing routines that assign size specification to surfaces help to reduce the possibility of dimensioning errors. The designer can zoom in on the part design details for close scrutiny. Many systems have a layering feature that involves overlaying the geometric image of the final shape of a machined part on top of the image of a rough part. Other features are interference checking and animation, which enhance the designers visualization of the operation of the mechanism and help to ensure against interferences. Automated drafting involves the creating of hard-copy engineering drawings from the CAD database. Typical features of CAD systems include automatic dimensioning, generation of cross-hatched areas, scaling of drawings, the ability to develop sectional views and enlarged views of particular part details, and the ability to rotate the part and perform transformations such as oblique, isometric, and perspective views. Using the CAD database, a group technology (GT) coding and classification system can also be developed. Parts coding involves assigning letters or numbers to parts to define their geometry or manufacturing process sequence.The codes are used to classify or group similar parts into families for manufacturing using groups of machines. Designers can use the classification and coding system to retrieve existing part designs rather than design new parts.

COMPUTER-AIDED PROCESS PLANNING

Process planning is responsible for the conversion of design data to work instructions, through the specification of the process parameters to be used as well as those machines (cells) capable of performing these processes in order to convert the piece part from its initial state to final form. The output of the planning includes the specification of machine and tooling to be used, the sequence of operations, machining parameters, and time estimates. Doing all this with computer-aided assistance is called computer-aided process planning (CAPP). CAPP uses computer software to determine how a part is to be made. If group technology is used, parts are grouped into part families according to how they are to be manufactured. For each part family, a standard process plan is established.That is, each part in the family is a variation of the same theme. The standard process plan is stored in computer files and then retrieved for new parts that belong to that family. Figure 37-23 explains the CAPP process. The designer can initiate the program by entering the GT part code. The CAPP program then searches the part family file to determine whether a match exists. If the file contains an identical code number, the standard machine routing and operation sequence are retrieved for display to the user. The standard operation sequence is examined by the user to permit any necessary editing of the plan to make it compatible with the new part design.This is variant CAPP. After editing, the process plan formatter prepares the paper documents (the route sheet and operation sheets for the job shop). If an exact match cannot be found, a new plan has to be generated. Generative process planning synthesizes process information in order to create a process plan for a new component. Design logic and machinability data are required for generative process planning. The system automatically retrieves the part code, operation code, and tool code from the feature database. These codes are compared to the status database in order to establish a process plan. The machinability data utilized are in the

SECTION 37.6

Computer-Aided Manufacturing

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Raw material selection Standard process plan sequence of operations (GT)

Create operation sequence variant generative

Design logic

Create operation details

Tool plan

Tool layout

Cut sequence

Feeds & speeds

Create detailed operation instructions

FIGURE 37-23 CAPP can be variant or generative.

Interactive graphics

Machinability data base

form of mathematical models. These models relate cutting stability and forces as a function of speed, feed, and depth of cut using parameters such as surface finish and tool life to constrain the selected machining parameters. Given these relationships, the system may generate (compute) process parameters that result in minimum cost of time and do not violate set constraints. Once the process plan for a new part code number has been entered and verified, it becomes the standard process for future parts of the same GT classification. The process plan formatter may include software to compute machining conditions, layouts, and other detailed operation information for the job shop.

37.6 COMPUTER-AIDED MANUFACTURING

Another major element of CIM is computer-aided manufacturing (CAM).An important reason for using a CAD system is that it provides a database for manufacturing the product. However, not all CAD databases are compatible with manufacturing software (CNC machine tool software). The tasks performed by a CAM system are: Numerical control or CNC programming Production planning and scheduling Tool and fixture design Numerical control can use special computer languages. APT and COMPACT II are two of the early language-based computer-assisted programming systems. These systems take the CAD data and adapt them to the particular machine control unit/machine tool combination used to make the part. The development of computer-aided design in the 1980s led to an attractive alternative method for NC programming. However, virtually all CAD graphics systems were developed as part (or product) design tools, with NC capability added as an afterthought. CAD programs depict the final part and do not usually deal with how the part is processed from raw material to finished goods, that is, the sequence of operations. The major advantage of NC graphics is visualization of a part. You can see how to machine it. Even so, it takes considerable training (months) to achieve proficiency in the use of CADNC, or, as it is commonly called, CAD/CAM. APT was designed in exactly the opposite way to CADNC. APT starts with the cutter and proceeds to machine the raw material into the final part shape. However, APT users must be able to visualize or imagine the part and see it being

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machined in their minds eye, so APT also requires considerable training to become expert. For modern CAM applications for complex parts, the software simulates the machining steps necessary to generate the part. However, the CAD capability to design a complex part may still exceed the CAM capability of the CAD system. It is estimated that 5 to 10% of the parts in the aerospace and defense industries still require APT programming. Chapter 27 has additional information on CNC programming, Chapter 40 discusses production planning and scheduling, Chapter 22 presents the fundamentals of cutting-tool design, and Chapter 26 presents the basics of jig and fixture design.

37.7 SUMMARY
The yardstick for automation developed in 1962 still serves us well today, with only some minor additions. Clearly, numerical control machines, robots, FMSs, and computers are seen as critical elements of the advanced manufacturing technologies available for the next decade, which is being touted as the time when computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) will become a widespread reality. Clearly computer technology abounds, often labeled intelligent or integrated manufacturing: computer-aided design; computer-aided manufacturing with NC, CNC, or A/C and DNC; computer-aided process planning; computer-aided testing and inspection (CATI); artificial intelligence; smart robots; and much more. But a word of caution: Any company can buy computers, robots, and other pieces of automation hardware and software. The secret to manufacturing success lies in the design of a unique manufacturing system that can produce superior-quality goods at the lowest unit cost with on-time delivery and still be flexible. Flexibility means the system can readily adapt to changes in the customer demand (both volume and mix) while quickly implementing design changes as well as new designs. The flexibility characteristic is often difficult to couple with automation and requires a visionary management team and a change in culture on the factory floor (i.e., an empowered and involved workforce). Changing how people work in a manufacturing system means the manufacturing system must be redesigned. No better example of this can be found than at the Toyota Motor Company. Led by their vice president for manufacturing, Taiichi Ohno, who conceived, developed, and implemented Toyotas unique manufacturing system, this company has emerged as the world leader in car production. The implementation of this system has saved many companies (Harley Davidson, for example) and carried many others to the top position in their industry.The Toyota system is unique and as revolutionary today as the American Armory System (job shops) and the Ford system (flow shops) for mass production were in their day. It is significant that virtually every manufacturing technology cited in this chapter is practiced at Toyota. This new system is now being called lean production, to contrast it to mass production. Toyota does not use the word CIM because the computer is viewed as just a tool used in its system, a system that recognizes people as the most flexible element. This new system is discussed in Chapter 39. Students of industrial, mechanical, and manufacturing engineering are well advised to be knowledgeable about this unique system.

Key Words
adaptive control (A/C) adaptive control constraint (ACC) adaptive control optimization (ACO) automated guided vehicle (AGV) automation closed-loop control computer numerical control (CNC) computer-aided design (CAD) computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) computer-aided process planning (CAPP) computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) controller end effector feedback device feedforward flexible manufacturing system (FMS) machine control unit (MCU) machining center manipulators mechanization numerical control open-loop control pallet changer part program point-to-point machines programmable logic controller (PLC) robotic cell transfer machine

Review Questions

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Review Questions
1. What human attribute is replaced by a machine capability for the first five levels of automation? 2. Give an everyday example of a household device or appliance that exhibits automation levels A(1), A(2), A(3), and A(4). 3. Explain how a windmill is an A(4) device or machine (i.e., self-adjusting). 4. What device in the typical modern bathroom has a feedback control device in it? 5. In terms of a transfer line, explain what is meant by line balancing. Discuss using the rotary transfer line shown in Figure 37-3. 6. How is a machining center different from a milling machine? 7. What role did John Parsons play in the development of NC? 8. How does an adaptive control system differ from a numerical control system? 9. What makes an NC machine a machining center? 10. At what level of automation is your typical kitchen toaster? 11. Figure 37-6 shows tool paths to rough and finish turn a part. What is the difference between a rough and a finish turn? 12. In Figure 37-6, what is a G70 finish cycle (see Chapter 27)? 13. What are some ways an NC machine can receive inputs (information)? 14. What is an AGV? 15. What has prevented widespread applications of FMS? 16. In FMS configurations, what is the CPU? 17. What is the difference between an FMS and an FMC? 18. What does the A(5) level of automation require beyond the A(4) level? 19. What is feedforward compared to feedback? 20. Name an A(5)-level machine or device in your home. 21. What is AI? (Ask a computer science friend for an example of an expert system.) 22. In Figure 37-13, what is a fly ball governor and how does it work? 23. What is a PLC? 24. Flexible manufacturing systems use CNC machines for processing and AGVs, robots, or conveyors to transport parts. What differentiates the FMS from a transfer line? 25. Why are transfer lines replacing relay logic with more programmable controls? 26. The A(6) level tries to relate causes to effect using AI. What is AI? 27. A standard piece of CAD analysis is called finite element analysis (FEA). What does FEA do? 28. What are the basic components of all robots? 29. What are work envelopes for industrial robots? 30. How is positional feedback obtained in robots? 31. Compare a rotary transfer machine with an unmanned robotic cell. 32. Compare a human worker in a manned cell to the robotic worker in an unmanned cell. What are the advantages of one over the other? 33. What is tactile sensing? Name some examples of tactile sensing in the home. 34. The vast majority of robots are used in automobile fabrication for welding and painting. Why? 35. What is a teach pendant? 36. What is CIM versus CAD and CAM?

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Chapter 37
Vented Cap Screws

CASE STUDY

he machine shop at the Pogi Space Laboratories received an order from their engineering department for 10,000 of the vented cap screws shown in Figure CS-37a. Abby, the machine shop foreman returned the order to engineering, stating that there was no practical way to make these other than by hand. Langley, the design engineer, insisted that the vent slot, as designed, was essential to assure no pressure buildup around the threads of the screw body in the intended application, and that she knew they could be made because she had seen such cap screws. After some discussions, Langley submitted a sketch of a redesigned part, Figure CS-37b to manufacturing, now specifying that a vent hole be drilled parallel to the axis of the cap at location D. The small hole, with cross-sectional area equal to the previous 0.062 in. 0.031 in. slot, would be drilled 1/2 in. deep through the cap to connect to the longitudinal slot. Langley said that this would eliminate the right-angle slot geometry.

1. What problems will be incurred in the manufacture of the vented cap screw, as initially designed? As the manufacturing engineer, what do you think of this design? Why is the slot width 0.031 inches and how would you make it? 2. What is the major problem with the redesigned cap screw? What should the drill diameter be? How could it be made? 3. As the manufacturing engineer, working with the design engineer, can you suggest an alternative redesign that would be more practical to manufacture? Show a sketch of your redesigned cap screw and explain how you would make this new design. Do you think you have a good solution to this case study? Send it to blackjt@eng.auburn.edu. Maybe your design will make the next edition instead of the Langley design.

0.062 Initial design of vented cap screw Threaded 3 16 UNF*2 cap screw 4

Figure CS 37a

(Dimensions in inches)

0.062 Redesigned vented cap screw D=? Vent hole

End view

Threaded 3 16 UNF*2 cap screw 4

End view

Figure CS 37b Figure CS 37