UNIT OPERATIONS NOTES & EQUATIONS

E.Tozzi
2003
Notes used in discussion sessions in CHE 326 at UW Madison
in Spring 2003. The textbook used in the class was: McCabe
Smith & Harriot "Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering", McGraw Hill, 2000. Please check for typos
before using.
E.Tozzi 2008 - emitozzi@yahoo.com.ar
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS : Buckingham Pi Method
FLUID STATICS: Absolute and gauge pressure, Buoyancy How to
aproach the problem?
Dimensional analysis
A relation between dimensional variables is replaced by an equivalent relation
between dimensionless groups. The number of dimensionless groups is
smaller than the number of variables.
Features:
Simplifies the theoretical analysis and experiment design. (Due to
reduced number of independent variables)
Useful in scaleup of pilot tests to predict performance of full scale
equipment
Even if there's no theoretical model available one can speculate and
obtain relationships which can be verified by testing.
Buckingham Pi method (1914)
Gives a systematic way to obtain nondimensional groups
i
from a given set
of variables.
Number of variables = n
Number of dimensions = j
Number of dimensionless parameters
i
: k=n-j
Select j "repeating variables" which represent all of the primary
dimensions involved in the problem, There are preferred choices such
as velocity and density which will generate recognizable
i
s such as
the Reynolds number.
Example: Find a dimensionless relationship relating the pressure drop in a
pipe and the other variables listed below.
Pressure drop in tube P| =

A p
L
|
=L
2
M
1
O
2
Fluid velocity V | =L
1
O
1
Pipe diameter D| =L
1
Fluid density

p
|
=L
3
M
1
Dynamic viscosity v| =

p
|
=L
2
O
1
Pipe roughness t |=L
1
It's most useful to put the dimensions and variables in matrix form.
p p V D v t
L 2 3 1 1 2 1
M 1 1 0 0 0 0
O 2 0 1 0 1 0
(1)
# of variables n=6, # of dimensions j=3
Number of dimensionless parameters
i
: k=6-3=3
Each
i
is a power product consisting of the j repeating variables raised to
unknown exponents a
i
, b
i
, c
i
...etc
.
and each of the remaining k variables.
j repeating variables : p , V , D
k remaining variables: P , v ,t
I
1
= Pp
a
1
V
b
1
D
c
1
I
2
=tp
a
2
V
b
2
D
c
2
I
3
=vp
a
3
V
b
3
D
c
3
(2)

1
is dimensionless if:
L
(2+a
1
(3)+b
1
1+c
1
1)
=L
( 0)
M
(1+a
1
1+b
1
0+c
1
0)
=M
( 0)
O
(2+a
1
0+b
1
(1)+c
1
0)
=O
( 0)
or equivalently:
2+a
1
(3)+b
1
1+c
1
1=0
1+a
1
1+b
1
0+c
1
0=0
2+a
1
0+b
1
(1)+c
1
0=0
In matrix notation:

3 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
|

a
1
b
1
c
1
|
+

2
1
2
|
=

0
0
0
|
Important: Note how the matrix columns are related to columns of the matrix
(1) of dimensions of the variables, and the choice of variables in (2).
Solving for a1, b1, c1 one obtains: a1=-1 b1=-2 c1=1
I
1
= p
D
pV
2
Analogously for
2
In matrix notation:

3 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
|

a
2
b
2
c
2
|
+

1
0
0
|
=

0
0
0
|
Solving for a2, b2, c2 one obtains: a2=0 b2=0 c2=-1
I
2
=
t
D
Analogously for
3
In matrix notation:

3 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
|

a
3
b
3
c
3
|
+

2
0
1
|
=

0
0
0
|
Solving for a3, b3, c3 one obtains: a3=0 b3=-1 c3=-1
I
3
=
v
V D
=

pV D
The dimensionless relation is:
I
1
= f
(
I
2
, I
3
)

p
D
pV
2
= f
(
t
D
,

pV D
)
i 's are found by forcing the exponent of each dimension to be zero. A
matrix method can be used to quickly obtain the values of the unknown
exponents.
Any function of the
i
groups will be dimensionally homogeneous, and more
easily correlated than the variables taken individually. The groups are not
unique, since different choices of variables can be made.
Fluid Statics:
Absolute pressure: Actual pressure
independent of the atmospheric pressure (this
must be used in eq. of state for gases) Its
always positive.
Some units indicate absolute pressure:
psia (pound per squre inch absolute)
ata (absolute technical atmosphere)
Relative, Gauge, Gage, or manometric
pressure:
The difference in pressure between the pressure
of a fluid and a reference pressure (which is
generally the atmosphere) Can be positive or
negative.
Many mechanical or electromechanical
instruments measure pressure differences
between two parts of the instrument rather than
absolute pressures.
If the gage pressure is negative, sometimes it's
called vacuum. In this case Pabs < Patm
Vacuum can never be less than one
atmosphere, because absolute pressure is by
definition positive.
Pressure & Stress force calculations
Rotating liquids
Use of equations of motion to obtain velocity profiles in simple geometries.
Pressure:
Is a force always perpendicular to the area element.
Is not associated with viscous forces (exists even when the fluid is at rest)
d F=p ndA
F=

p ndA
Area element for different geometries:
Rectangle : dA=dW dZ
Circle: dA=r dr d O
Cylinder : dA=r d OdZ

0
2
d O=2
Stress:
Viscous forces in fluids produce shear stresses. The total force can be
calculated by integration over the area in which the stress acts.
dF
x
=f
yx
dA dAy
F
x
=

f
yx
dA
In the example of the falling film, the force on the wall equals the weight of
the fluid.
F= m g
x
= V g
x
x
Sign convention: The stress
yx
is the force in the x direction exerted by the
fluid of lesser y to the fluid of greater y on a unit area perpendicular to the y
direction.
f
yx
=
dv
x
dy
BSL
Rotating liquid
1
A liquid is in equilibrium in a container which rotates at some angular velocity
.
The fluid elements are subject to the gravity field and a centrifugal field
whose acceleration depends on the radius. The pressure is then a function of
two variables, the radius and the height.
P=P(r , z)
dP=
P
r
dr+
P
z
dz
P
r
=pu
2
r
P
z
=p g

p1
p2
dP=

r1
r2
pu
2
r dr

z1
z2
pg dz
P
2
P
1
=p
u
2
2
(r
2
2
r
1
2
)p g( z
2
z
1
) pconstant
Exercise: Calculate the surface profile (z=z(r)) of a liquid rotating at a
constant angular velocity.
1See example 3.6-4 BSL Transport Phenomena 2nd edition.
Equations of motion
p
Dv
Dt
=p g P+
2
v Navier Stokes equation
Navier stokes equation states the conservation of linear momentum, and is
valid for
Incompressible fluid p=constant
Newtonian fluid f
yx
=
dv
x
dy

In some common coordinate systems it takes the following form:
Solution is greatly simplified in problems with:
Steady state
Simple geometries (generally with symmetry)
Unidirectional flow
(Note: A macroscopic momentum balance can be a simpler way to solve a
problem as seen in the inclined film example)
Typical steps to solve the problem
1-Identify the best geometry for the problem (rectangular, cylindrical,
spherical)
2- Determine what are the boundary conditions, some examples are:
Wall: No slip condition v
fluid
=v
wall
(v=0 if the wall is at rest)
Liquid-Liquid interfase: Equal stress & velocities on both sides of the
interfase
Liquid-gas interfase: No stress in the interfase
Symmetry conditions: derivative of v=0 at the center of a symmetric tube
3- Chose equations of motion in coordinates according with the geometry
4- Find which terms are zero:
Time derivatives, due to Steady state
Some spatial derivatives of velocities, due to unidirectional flow
Some velocities, due to geometry and symmetry
Pressure or gravity terms according to the problem.
Use of modified pressures can abbreviate the calculation
Modified pressure: P = P - g z
The equation of continuity may be useful v=0 constant p
5-A differential equation is obtained
6-Integrate to obtain the velocity profile, some constants of integration appear
7-Boundary conditions permit the calculation of the integration constants
8-A velocity profile is obtained
9-The velocity profile allows calculation of volumetric & mass flow rate and
force on the wall
Q=

vn dA=<v> A
m=p

vndA=p<v> A
F
x
=

f
yx
dA=

dv
x
dy
dA
Bernoulli equation
Friction losses
"Pumps, heat exchangers will usually be cheap compared to reactors, specialized
equipment (extruders, dryers) compressors and towers. So don't sweat getting your pump
prices to three significant figures."
Tom McVey, Process Economics Program, SRI Consulting, 2001.

The wheel in the picture is one of the first devices used by mankind for lifting
water continuously: Where is the source of mechanical energy in this system?
If you want to make an energy balance which variables would you use?. How
are they related?
Bernoulli equation
Is a particular case of the conservation of mechanical energy between to points
of an open system in steady state.
Simplified bernoulli equation without friction.
p
a
p
+g Z
a
+
u
a
2
2
=
p
b
p
+g Z
b
+
u
b
2
2
Valid for: Unidirectional flow, steady
state, no friction loss, plug flow,
constant density.
Each term has units of energy/mass:
Working version of Bernoulli eqn, with corrections for friction and realistic
velocity profile and energy input from pump:
p
a
p
+g Z
a
+o

V
a
2
2
+p W
p
=
p
b
p
+g Z
b
+o

V
b
2
2
+h
f
Valid for: Unidirectional flow, steady state, constant density.
Skin friction, friction due to accesories
h
f , surf
=
A p
p
=2 f

V
2 L
D
=f
D

V
2 L
2 D
h
f , acc
=

K
acc

V
2
2
=2 f

V
2
2

L
eq
D

f = f (Re,roughness) nonlinear function, valid for constant pipe section
What is the friction factor of Fanning?
What is the friction factor of D'Arcy?
What is the relationship between them?
How do you obtain the values of the friction factor?
What factors influence the sizing of a pipeline?
Discuss use of nomographs.
Discuss different methods for calculating pressure drop due to accesories.
Discuss selection of points for the energy balance in tanks.
Discuss modelling of ramified systems.
Calculate the total pressure drop in the following system:
"Figure out what might make course material clearer and try to get it in class."
Richard Felder "How to survive Engineering School", Chemical Engineering Education,
2003.
Questions about compressible Flow
Example calculation of flow rate for isothermal flow.
Should the flow of gases always be considered compressible?
Should the flow of liquids always be considered incompresible?
In most chemical process aplications compressible flows are ........
dimensional.
Why is Mach number important?
Why is the mass velocity G used in the calculations?
What happens at subsonic/supersonic flow in diverging/converging channels?
At what mach number are compressibility effects important?
Can compressibility be important at low mach numbers?
Cases where solutions are available:
Isothermal Long ................................ pipes, ..................... Area.,
Constant .......
Adiabatic
Without Friction
................... area (Nozzle), Isoentropic , ...................cross sonic
barrier
With Friction
.........................area, ......................cross sonic barrier.
Terminal velocity for one spherical particle:
u
t
=
.
a
e
(p
p
p) 2m
C
D
A
p
pp
p
K=D
p

(p
p
p) p g

2
|
1
3
NRe
p
=
pV D
p

CD=
b
NRe
p
n

u
t
=

4a
e
(p
p
p) Dp
n+1
p
n1
3b
n
|
1
2n
K Rep b n CD
<3.3 <2 24 1 24/Rep
3.3-43.6 2-500 18.5 0.6 18.5/(Rep^0.6)
43.6-
2360
500-
2e5 0.44 0 0.44
u
t
=
D
p
2
a
e
(p
p
p)
18
u
t
=
0.153 D
p
1.14
a
e
0.71
(p
p
p)
0.71
p
0.29

0.43
u
t
=1.75
.
D
p
a
e
(p
p
p)
p
Behavior of particles in different conditions: Diffusion, Stokes equation,
intermediate and turbulent regimes, hindered settling. Relative velocity,
transport of particles.
Questions
What is the sphericity factor?
Can always the drag force on a particle be calculated analytically?
How can one calculate the terminal velocity if the drag coefficient is not
known?
Can two particles of different size and different densities have the same
terminal velocity?
What's the effect of increasing the particle concentration on the settling
velocity?
Comment: Applications of terminal velocity calculations:
Determination of density, viscosity, size
Separation by size, density
Design of decanters, cyclones
Example 1:Calculate the density of particles of a ion exchange resin if the
particle diameter is Dp=604.26 u and the terminal velocity is Vt=2.41 cm/s
R:1282 Kg/m^3
Example 2: Two particles have densities
a
,
b
and they have the same
terminal velocity. What is their diameter ratio Da/Db?
Dp 6.0426E-04m
vt 2.41E-02m/s
Re 1.46E+01=> intermediate regime
(rhop-
rho)^0.71
54.931(Kg/m3)^0.71
(rhop-rho) 282.13Kg/m3
rhop 1282.13Kg/m3
"Practice is required for maintaining know
how. It can be lost through inactivity"
H.L.Dreyfuss "Mind over machine."
Packed beds and fluidization
Comments on fluidized beds:
Transport coefficients in fluidized beds, surface area of particles, agitation.
Disadvantages erosion, lost of fines.
Definitions Sphericity, D
eq
, Dp, void fraction, V, Vo, Contact time, Rep.
Equations Kozeny Carman, Burke Plummer, Ergun. (Existence of alternative
eqns)
A P
L
=
150

V
0

4
2
D
p
2
(1c)
2
c
3
+1.75
p

V
o
2
4D
p
1c
c
3
Fluidization mechanism Minimum velocity, expansion of bed height.
V
0

g(p
p
p)
150
c
M
3
1c
M
4
s
2
D
p
2
for NRe
p
1
V
0

4
s
D
p
g( p
p
p) c
M
3
1.750p
|
1
2
for NRe
p
>10
3
L
L
M
=
1c
M
1c

c
1c
=
150

V
0

g (p
p
p)4
s
2
D
p
2
For laminar flow
V
0
=c
m
large particles m= f ( Nre
p
)
Comment on study techniques.
Probl 7.11-7.13 McCabe
"Though a model may have been formulated with perfect propriety and perspicacity it is
almost always a mistake to jump in with an extensive series of computations. It is better to
live with it for a bit, to view it from different angles, to shape and mould it more justly"
R.Aris "Mathematical modelling techniques"
Filtration, Pumps.
Cake filtration at constant pressure.
Cake vs clarifying: Cake filtration separates a large amount of solids, the cake
is sometimes washed. Clarifying involves sep of small quantities of solids to
produce a clean gas or liquid.
Filtrate: Is the clear fluid coming out of the filter, V : Volume of filtrate.
Superficial velocity of the filtrate: Flow rate of filtrate per unit area.
u=(dV/dt)/A
Surface volume ratio of particles: s
p
/v
p
Density of particles:
p
Cake thickness: L Mass of solids in cake:
m
c

Mass deposited per unit volume of filtrate: c=m
c
/V
Relation with the slurry concentration: c < c
s
(slightly smaller)
c=
c
s
1(
m
F
m
c
1)
c
s
p
m
F
=mass of wet cake
Cake resistance:
o=
A p
c
A
u m
c
=
k
1
(
s
p
v
p
)
2
(1c)
c
3
p
p
=k
2
(1c)
(4
s
D
p
)
2
c
3
p
p
For incompressible cakes, alpha is independent of pressure drop and position.
Filter medium: Area: A Rm=Resistance of medium
Pressure drop & flow rate:
Fundamental eqn:
dt
dV
=

AA P
(
ocV
A
+R
m
)
At constant P :
t
V
=
(
K
c
2
)
V+
1
q
0

Pumps:
Pump head:
A H=p W
p

p
a
p
+g Z
a
+o

V
a
2
2
+p W
p
=
p
b
p
+g Z
b
+o

V
b
2
2
+h
f
Power requirement from external source:
P
B
=

mW
P
=
mA H
p
Power delivered to the fluid:
P
F
= mA H
NPSH: Excess pressure at pump inlet with respect to vapor pressure to insure
no cavitation occurs, expressed as height of liquid.
NPSH=
1
g
(
P
a
' P
v
p
h
fs
)Z
a

Theoretically for no cavitation NPSH>0. In practice the manufacturer of the
pump specifies a minimum value called NPSHR.
If NPSH > NPSHR The system is suitable, no cavitation occurs.
Priming, use of check valves.
The process of hand-filling the suction pipe and intake of a surface pump.
Priming is generally necessary when a pump must be located above the water
source. A self-priming pump is able to draw some air suction in order to prime
itself, at least in theory.
Example: What happens with NPSH calculation if we have two pumps in
series or in parallel?
Z
a
a
a'
Flow meters, Agitation
Flow meters: Orifice meter
u
o
=
C
o
.
1
4
.
2A p
p
L
m=pu
o
S
o
A p=(p
Hg
p
L
) g AZ
New technologies : Clamp-on meters, transmitters,digital protocols, HART:
"Highway Addressable Remote Transducer".
Agitation, Mixing:
Purposes of agitation: Mixing, mass transfer, heat transfer.
Power requirement calculation:
Power Number:
NP=
P
n
3
D
a
5
p
Reynolds number: NRe=
npD
a
2

P=Power Da=Diameter of impeller n=RPM/60

There are correlations and plots for different impeller types and geometries.
Correlations: Re<10 P=KL/Re
Re>10000 P=KT
Mixing time:
Can be determined by experiment. Example: Measure concentration of a
tracer at different points in the vessel. Time to reach 95% of the final
concentration is taken as mixing time.
Can be estimated as the time required to circulate the entire volume of the
vessel 5 times.
t
T
=5V/q
T
qT=flow rate of liquid moved inside the vessel by impeller
Correlation: q
T
=n D
a
3
N
Q
(N
Q
is the flow number, depends on the impeller
type)
Correlations f
T
= n tT f1(Geometry, N.Fr) = f2(Re)
N.Fr= n
2
Da /g Froude number relates inertial stress and gravity
force:
Scale up:
Low Re:
n
1
n
2
=
(
D
a2
D
a1
)
High Re:
t
T2
t
T1
=
n
1
n
2
=
(
D
a2
D
a1
)
2
3
Heat transfer: Conduction, Convection
Thermal conductivity, heat flux or "flow rate".
Unidirectional, Steady state
Plane geometry
q
A
=
k
A x
(T
1
T
2
)
Multiple walls:
q
A
=
(T
1
T
2
)
A x
1
k
1
+
A x
2
k
2
+
A x
3
k
3
[q]=(J s
-1
) [k]=( J m
-1
s
-1
K
-1
)
Cylindrical Geometry
q=A
lm
h
(T
i
T
o
)
r
o
r
i
Multiple walls:
q=
2 L(T
1
T
2
)
ln
r
2
r
1
k
a
+
ln
r
3
r
2
k
b
+
ln
r
4
r
3
k
c
A
lm
=
2 L(r
o
r
i
)
ln
r
o
r
i
Convection
q=h A(T
1
T
2
) [h]=( J m
-2
s
-1
K
-1
)
Convection and conduction in plane wall.

Q=
q
A
=
(T
o
T
i
)
1
h
i
+
A x
1
k
1
+
A x
2
k
2
+
1
h
o
=U (T
o
T
i
)
General equation for conduction:
pCp
T
O
=k
2
T +H
v
Comments on linear PDE's.
Geometries, Boundary conditions, Generation, Methods for Unsteady state:
Limit cases, Numerical, Fourier analysis.
Comments about heat exchangers.
m
1
Cp
1
(t2t1)
1
=

m
2
Cp
2
(t2t1)
2
Q=U AAT
lm
Comments about homework problems.
Heat transfer: Convection, Heat transfer in pipes.
In McCabe nomenclature: [q]=(J/s)=(W) Power, or energy per unit time.
Other authors use the symbol q for heat flux per unit area. q
other
=
q
McCabe
/A (W/m
2
)
Energy balance
q= m
1
A H
1
= m
2
A H
2
A H=C
p
AT (if no phase change)
Heat transfer in a differential surface element. dq/dA=UT
U:overall heat transfer coefficient, includes conduction, convection terms.(can
be based on internal or external surface) [U]=(W m
-2
C
-1
) or (Btu ft
-2
h
-1
F
-1
)
U for a pipe, based on the outer surface:
1
U
o
=
1
h
i
D
o
D
i
+
x
w
k
m
D
o
D
LM
+
1
h
o
Uo= Overall heat transfer coeff based on outer surface.
hi=Convective heat transfer coeff in the inner surface
ho=Convective heat transfer coeff in the outer surface
Di=inner diameter Do=outer diameter DLM=Log mean diameter
km=conductivity of the metal wall (W m
-1
C
-1
) xw=thickness of the metal wall (m)
Heat transfer in an entire surface of an exchanger: q/A=UT
L
T
L
for different cases: Cocurrent, countercurrent, change of phase,
countercurrent with same Cp, chemical reactor, shell and tube exchangers,
effect of fouling.
Discuss several cases:
Convective heat transfer coefficients: [h]=(W m
-2
C
-1
) or (Btu ft
-2
h
-1
F
-1
)
Local value: Valid in a differential surface element.
Average value of h inside a pipe: Based on an entire pipe surface.
mCp(

TbTa)=h
i
DLAT
L
Nu=
h
i
D
k
Nu can be calculated with different correlations for laminar, turbulent, non-
newtonian,etc.
The following non dimensional numbers are used in the correlations.
Re=
p

V D

Pr =
C
p

k
Gz=

mC
p
k L
=

4
Re Pr
D
L
Pe=Re Pr
=
(

w
)
0.14
Reynolds Prandtl Graetz Peclet
Example of correlation: Nu = c Re
a
Pr
b
a,b,c=constants

Multiple effect evaporation:
Increases the evaporation per kg of steam.
Thermodynamics: Steam tables, Enthalpy of concentrated solutions.
Mass balances: Global, for each evaporator.
Energy balances: Global, for each evaporator.
Transfer equations: For each evaporator q
i
=U
i
A
i
AT
i
U
i
's are known,
fixed
Iterative design method:
Initial guess of Temperatures:
AT
i
=
AT
TOTAL
U
i

j
1
U
j
Solution of mass and energy balances:
Simultaneous
Iterative : Guess of vapor flow rates:
V
1
V
2
V
n
One obtains flowrates of steam, concentrated liquor and evaporation.
Calculation of areas: A
i
=
V
i
\
i
U
i
AT
Correction of temperatures. AT
i
' =AT
i
A
i
A
AVG
Example Make a schematic and equations neccesary to solve example 16.3
McCabe