Characterization of polymeric foams

D.V.W.M. de Vries (0611747) MT 09.22

Supervisors: J.G.F. Wismans, MSc. J.A.W. van Dommelen, Dr. Ir. Eindhoven University of Technology Department of Mechanical Engineering Mechanics of Materials July 2009

Table of contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 2 1 - The mechanics of foams .................................................................................................................... 3 1.1 - Introduction to foams.................................................................................................................. 3 1.2 - Deformation mechanisms in foams ............................................................................................ 3 1.2.1 - Linear elasticity ................................................................................................................... 4 1.2.2 - Elastic collapse and densification ........................................................................................ 5 1.2.3 - Plastic collapse and densification ........................................................................................ 6 1.2.4 - The effect of strain rate ........................................................................................................ 6 1.2.5 - The effect of air ................................................................................................................... 7 2 - Experimental procedure ..................................................................................................................... 9 2.1 - Materials ..................................................................................................................................... 9 2.1.1 - IMPAXX foams ................................................................................................................... 9 2.1.2 - Johnson Controls Foams .................................................................................................... 10 2.2 - experimental set-up................................................................................................................... 11 2.2.1 - Set-up for IMPAXX foams ................................................................................................ 11 2.2.2 - Set-up for Johnson Controls foams.................................................................................... 12 3 - Results ............................................................................................................................................. 14 3.1 - IMPAXX .................................................................................................................................. 14 3.1.1 - Stress-strain behaviour....................................................................................................... 14 3.1.2 - Linear elasticity ................................................................................................................. 15 3.1.3 - Plastic collapse................................................................................................................... 18 3.2 - Johnson Controls foams............................................................................................................ 24 3.2.1 - Stress-strain behaviour....................................................................................................... 24 3.2.2 - Linear elasticity ................................................................................................................. 24 3.2.3 - Elastic collapse .................................................................................................................. 27 Conclusions and discussion .................................................................................................................. 32 References ............................................................................................................................................. 34

Introduction
The macroscopic constitutive behaviour of polymer foams is determined by a subtle interplay of (i) the intrinsic constitutive behaviour of the polymeric material and (ii) the complex microstructure. Goal of this project is to mechanically characterize two different types of polymer foams (an open-cell flexible foam and an elasto-plastic foam with a closed-cell structure) in order to determine the effect of phenomena, such as flow of air through cells in foams and the influence of intrinsic material behaviour. As stated above, the macroscopic constitutive behaviour will partially be determined by the intrinsic constitutive behaviour of the polymeric material of which the foam is made. There are a lot of models in literature that relate material properties of the polymer foam to the polymeric material of which the cell walls of the foam are made [3][4]. Some of these are referenced in chapter 1. The models explained there will be applied to validate experimental results. The other contribution that partially determines the material behaviour of foams is the complex microstructure. Besides that, there are a lot of external conditions that can influence the material behaviour of the foam, like temperature and pressure. As a result of these contributions (and the interplay between them), the strain rate and flow of air through cells will affect the macroscopic constitutive behaviour of the foams. This will be further investigated with experiments. Uni-axial compression tests will be executed at different strain rates and with specimens of different length scales. For both open- and closed-cell foams, foams with different densities will be analysed. Because of the great complexity of parameters which influence the macroscopic constitutive behaviour of polymer foams, a large number of experiments is performed in order to investigate the effect of these phenomena. The expectation is that for open-cell foams the influence of air flow will be higher than for closed cell foams, because the air in foams with an open structure can be forced to flow out of the foam. For larger length scales the air will pass a longer way to get out of the material and the resistance to it will grow. Strain rate will influence the mechanical behaviour of both foams, like a viscous response of the material [6]. A higher strain rate will give also higher resistance due to air flow. In order to perform an analysis of test results, first an introduction will be given to foams. Both the mechanics of open- and closed-cell foams will be discussed in here. The most important deformation mechanisms of foams will be clarified. After this introduction to foams, the materials used for the experiments will be highlighted and for each material a specific experimental set-up will be clarified. In the third chapter, the test results will be analysed. The results will also be examined on the analytical expressions, given in chapter 1. Finally, conclusions will be given about the influence of air flow and intrinsic material behaviour on the macroscopic constitutive behaviour of polymer foams. Also some discussion points are reported and some recommendations will be given for future investigations to the material behaviour of polymer foams.

1 - The mechanics of foams

1.1 - Introduction to foams
There are a lot of different applications for foams. Examples of applications are absorbing the energy during impact events, lightweight structures and thermal insulation. To use foams efficiently a detailed understanding of their mechanical behaviour is required. The mechanical properties of foams are related to their complex microstructure and to the properties of the material of which the cell walls are made, in here a solid polymeric material. Some salient structural features of foams [4] are: the relative density R =

* , in which the superscript * refers to the effective properties of s

the polymer foam and the subscript s refers to the properties of the solid; the degree to which cells are open or closed; the geometric anisotropy of the foams.

The most important properties of the solid [4] (which will be used here) are the polymer density s , Youngs modulus Es and yield stress ys. These material parameters can be found in literature or are given by companies. The analytical expressions are based on these parameters and test results will be referenced to the material properties of the solid polymeric material. Factors such as strain-rate and specimen size will influence the material behaviour of polymer foams too. The latter two factors form the central topic in this report. Besides that, some other factors, like temperature, anisotropy and loading conditions all influence the properties too. These will not be considered in this study. Experiments have to be done in order to ensure the effect of strain rate and air flow on the macroscopic constitutional behaviour. With the experimental results, the macroscopic constitutive behaviour of foams can be analysed and analytical expressions can be validated. In this chapter the mechanics of foams is further explained in order to analyse the test results later.

1.2 - Deformation mechanisms in foams

Stress-strain responses of foams in compression tests show equivalent properties for different types of foams. Figure 1.1 and 1.2 show typical schematic compressive stress-strain responses for an elastomeric foam and for an elasto-plastic foam respectively. Because only uni-axial compression tests will be executed, only mechanical properties in compression will be of importance, but it should be noted that the mechanical behaviour of foams in tension is different. For example, a foam can be plastic in compression but brittle in tension, caused by the stress-concentrating effect of a crack, which leads to fast fracture in tension [4]. For the stress-strain responses in compression tests, a region of linear elasticity (Hookean) at low stresses is followed by a long collapse plateau in which the stresses do not vary a lot, truncated by a region of densification in which the stress rises steeply. Each region is determined by some mechanism of deformation. Linear elasticity is controlled by cell wall bending and, in case of closed cells, by stretching of the cell walls. The Youngs modulus E* is the initial slope of the stress-strain response of the polymer foam. For small strains, the foam will have an elastic response. In this region, the compressive stress can be determined by (1.1) * = E *

In compression, the plateau is associated with collapse of the cells. The plateau region is different for elastomeric foams and elasto-plastic foams. For an Densification E elastomeric foam the plateau is determined by elastic buckling and in elasto-plastic foams by the formation of plastic hinges [4] . For a pure elastomeric foam, there is no plastic deformation, but for an elastoel* plastic material the foam has a plastic Plateau region. When the cells have almost completely Linear elasticity collapsed opposing cell walls touch and further strain compresses the solid itself, max 1 Strain 0 giving the final region of rapidly increasing stress, referred to as Figure 1.1 - Schematic compressive stress-strain response for densification. Increasing the relative [4] elastomeric foams density of the foam increases the Youngs modulus, raises the plateau stress and Elasto-plastic foam reduces the strain at which densification begins. The influence of different densities will be validated in the experiments. Densification Superimposed on the deformation of the cell edges and cell walls is the effect of the fluid (air) contained within the cells. When a closed-cell foam is compressed, the cell fluid is compressed too. This leads to an pl* additional force which can be calculated from Boyles law [3]. If the cells are open Plateau and interconnected, deformation forces the Linear elasticity fluid to flow from cell to cell, doing viscous work, and this generates a force max 1 Strain which must also be overcome [4]. 0 As indicated before, in this survey foams Figure 1.2 - Schematic compressive stress-strain response for will be tested in compression. In the next [4] elasto-plastic foams paragraphs, a more detailed analysis will be given for the mechanical properties of foams for this loading regime and foam properties will be expressed in terms of properties of the solid polymer. The different regions in the stress-strain responses will be discussed and also some theorem about strain rate and air flow is given. As indicated in this paragraph, the mechanical behaviour is different for open-cell and closed-cell foams and for elastomeric and elasto-plastic foams, so a distinction between them has to be made in the analysis of foams.
Elastomeric foam

1.2.1 - Linear elasticity

The linear elastic behaviour of a foam is characterized by a set of moduli, that depends on its (an)isotropy. The determination of the material parameters of foams can be done with different loading regimes. Only uni-axial compression tests will be performed here. In order to give some analytical expressions, some simplifications will be made. This analysis is based on an isotropic foam [4]. Foam properties will be related to the properties of the polymer solid in order to predict the foams Youngs modulus. Distinction is made between open- and closed-cell foams.

Stress

Stress

1.2.1.1 - Open-cell foams At low relative densities, open-cell foams deform primarily by cell-wall bending. As the relative density increases (R > 0.1) the contribution of simple extension or compression of the cell walls becomes more significant. There are several models in literature to predict the Youngs modulus of the foam which are based on simple cell shapes in structural arrays, like honeycomb structures [3][4]. In practice, this wont be the case, but for understanding the behaviour of foams such analyses are important. For a cubic array of members simple beam theorem can be applied, and it can be derived that [4]

E* = C1 R 2 in which C1 is a constant and C1 1. Es

(1.2)

The modulus found here, is the modulus at small strains. As the elastic distortion increases, the axial load on a cell increases. This exerts an additional moment on the bent edge and in compression the modulus will decrease. So the part of the stress-strain response which is called linear elastic is concave downwards. When the axial load on the cell edge reaches a critical load, the edge buckles and the foam loses stiffness. This will be analysed further in 1.2.2. 1.2.1.2 - Closed-cell foams In closed-cell foams the cell edges both bend and extend or contract, while the membranes which form the cell faces stretch, increasing the contribution of the axial cell-wall stiffness to the elastic moduli. If the membranes do not rupture, the compression of the air in the cells also increases their stiffness (see 1.2.5.2). So, for Youngs modulus, there are three contributions to the initial stiffness of foams and therefore the analysis is more complicated. A model - in which the Poissons ratio is assumed to be zero - that predicts the Youngs modulus for closed-cell foams is given by equation 1.3 [4].

p0 E* = 2 R 2 + (1 ) R + Es Es (1 R )
in the cell edges. Reasonable values for are 0,6 and 0,8 [4].

(1.3)

In which (1 ) indicates the fraction of solid in the cell faces, i.e. is the fraction of solid contained

1.2.2 - Elastic collapse and densification

For open- and closed-cell foams, the elastic collapse stress and the densification behaviour are different. This part counts for elastomeric open-cell foams. In compression the stress-strain response for polymeric foams will show an extensive plateau at a stress level which doesnt change much. This stress level is referenced to as the elastic collapse stress and the slope of the plateau in the stress-strain diagram is called the Plateau modulus in here. The elastic collapse in foams is caused by the elastic buckling of cell walls. The stress level at which elastic collapse occurs - also referred to as el*, the elastic collapse stress of the foam - can also be predicted. Based on a open-cell structure with cubic cells consisting of interconnected cell edges with length l and thickness t (square cross section t2), the elastic collapse stress can be estimated with the following model [4]. When an elastomeric open-cell foam is compressed the cell walls will bend till a critical load is applied at which the cell walls buckle. This load can be calculated with the Euler formula:

Fcrit =

n 2 2 Es I l2
Fcrit Es I 4 l2 l

(1.4)

With second moment of inertia I and the factor n2, that describes the degree of constraint at the ends of the column. Elastic collapse will initiate at
* el

(1.5)

t Using I t and R which counts for open cells [4], the elastic collapse stress can be related to l
4

the relative density and the Youngs modulus of the polymer solid, as stated in equation 1.6.
* el

Es

= C2 R 2 in which C2 is a constant and C2 0.05.

(1.6)

At larger compressive strains the opposing walls of the cells crush together. Then the cell wall material itself will be compressed. This results in a steeply rising stress-strain response, with a slope approaching the Youngs modulus of the solid polymer at a limiting strain of max. This limiting strain could be given by the porosity - which is given by equation 1.7 - but in practice the cell walls gather together at a smaller strain. With experimental data it is verified that this limiting strain can be assessed with equation 1.8. (1.7) = 1 R

max = 1 1.4 R

(1.8)

1.2.3 - Plastic collapse and densification

Foams that have a plastic collapse stress, referred to as pl*, collapse plastically when loaded beyond the linear-elastic regime. Plastic collapse gives a long, approximately horizontal, plateau to the stressstrain response. Advantage from the long stress plateau is taken in crash protection, since the energy absorption per unit of volume is defined as the area under the stress-strain responses (Equation 1.9). Like elastic buckling, the failure is localized in a band transverse to the loading direction. This band propagates throughout the foam with increasing strain.
max

U=

(1.9)

Since the elasto-plastic foam, that will be tested, has a closed-cell structure, the plastic collapse and densification will only be further explained for this type of foams. The plastic collapse stress is affected by stretching as well as bending of cell walls. Besides that, also the fluid in the cells can give a stress contribution to the plastic collapse stress. This contribution is further explained in section 1.2.5.2. Plastic collapse causes the cell faces to crumple in the compression direction. If the cell faces are very thin, they could rupture before full plastic collapse, and then the closed-cell foams will behave like a foam with an open-cell structure. Because of complexity, analytical expressions that predict the plastic collapse stress are difficult to determine. One analytical description is given by [4]
3 * p patm pl 0.3 ( R ) 2 + 0.4 (1 ) R + ys ys

(1.10)

In which the pressure p represents the pressure of the fluid (air) in the cells and patm is the atmospheric pressure.

1.2.4 - The effect of strain rate

The material behaviour of foams depends, as one might expect, also on strain rate. There are two separate contributions to the strain rate-dependence of foam properties. The first one derives from the polymer solid and will be called inherent strain rate-dependence; the foam inherits the strain ratedependence of the solid polymeric material of the cell walls. A relationship for the strain rate dependency of the yield strength of a polymer is given by Eyring [6]

ys =

kT

act

ln C3

(1.11)

In which ys is the yield strength of the solid polymer, k is the Bolzmann constant, T is the current and temperature temperature and act is a so called activation volume. The strain rate is given by dependent parameter C3 is given by [6]

C3 (T ) =

U exp 2 kT

(1.12)

0 is a material property and U is the activation energy. In here,

The second contribution to strain rate dependent behaviour derives from the liquid in the cells of the foam. When the foam is compressed the liquid (in the foams used this will be air) either deforms or is forced to flow from cell to cell. In an open-cell foam, the air is expelled out of the foam during compression. This induces viscous forces that are also dependent on strain rate. This is related to air flow and will further be explained in section 1.2.5.2. Data in literature [4] states that the plastic collapse strength of polymer foams linearly increases with the logarithm of strain rate. This is stated in equation 1.13.
* * 1 pl = ( pl ) 0

AT ln 0 Tg

(1.13)
g

In which * pl

( ) is the plastic collapse stress at 0 K, A is material property and T

V

is the glass

transition temperature of the polymer.

1.2.5 - The effect of air

Air flow 1.2.5.1 - Open-cell foams: air-flow The air flow resistance of foams is one of the main aspects in this survey. The contribution of it to the macroscopic constitutive behaviour of polymer =0 foams is investigated. In contrast to the influence H on mechanical properties of a foam, the cell size strongly influences air-flow properties. In closedcell foams the effect of air-flow can be neglected in ey most cases, but if the membranes are very thin, the L cells will burst and the air will flow through the ex foam. But in common, the effect of air-flow is of importance for open-cell foams. When an open-cell foam is compressed, the air it Figure 1.3 - Illustration of the cross-sectional area of a contains is squeezed out. Air has a viscosity, so work foam specimen during uni-axial compression [4] is done forcing it through the interconnected porosity of the foam. The faster the foam is deformed, the more work is done; the air flow phenomenon is therefore strongly dependent on strain rate. One way to analyse the effect of strain rate is to treat the foam as a porous medium, characterized by an absolute permeability K; then the fluid through it is described by Darcys law [4]

u=

K dp dx

(1.14)

Where u is the velocity of the fluid, K is the absolute permeability of the foam, is the dynamic viscosity and dp/dx is the pressure gradient. Because of small pore sizes and relative small velocities, it can be assumed that only laminar flows will occur (Re < 2300) so inertial effects can be neglected. For a permeable material with pores of average diameter d the permeability is given by [4]

K = C4 d 2 (1 R ) 2

(1.15)

Where C4 is a constant to which the empirical value 0,4 is generally assigned. Foams typically have permeabilities in the range 10-10 to 10-8 m2. The viscous flow in a block of foam is illustrated in figure 7

1.3 .The contribution of viscous flow to foam strength can be calculated with help of this figure. The air flux through each of the two vertical faces is given by

q=

L VL = 2H 2

(1.16)

Where V is the compression speed, H is the height of the block and L is the base length of the foam. The average flux across any vertical internal surface is one-half of this, because of symmetry. Inserting a factor of , and substituting the result into equation 1.14, gives

L 4

K dp dx

(1.17)

The pressure gradient is in here proportional to

(see figure 1.3). The pore size d is obviously L

proportional to the cell edge-length l at the start of deformation. During compression the pores become narrower. Gent and Rusch [4] suggest that
1

d l (1 ) 2

(1.18)

Substituting these relations into Equation 1.17, with K defined by Equation 1.15, gives the contribution of the air flow to the strength of open-cell foams like
* g =

L C5 1 l

(1.19)

In this equation, the proportionality constants have been combined in the constant C5 that is of order unity. The contribution of air flow to the strength * of a foam is therefore proportional to the strain rate and to the viscosity of air and to the reciprocal of the cell size, squared. To drop temperature influences, the temperature should remain constant, because also viscosity is temperature dependent. 1.2.5.2 - Closed-cell foams: air response As stated before in the introduction of paragraph 1.2, superimposed on the polymer response for closed-cell foams to compression must be the effect of fluid (air) contained within the cells. Skochdopole and Rubens (1965) [3] gave a qualitative model (figure 1.4) that suggests that the cell air and the polymer microstructure of the closed-cell foam are acting in parallel when they undergo deformation. The model simply adds the stress due to the polymer structure, p , to the stress g originated from the air in the cells. In here, a simple analysis on the air response will be taken (Rusch, 1970) [3]. Force
Air at pressure p0 1-R Stress

Air

Cell walls
Polymer R

Air at pressure p Polymer

1-R- R

Figure 1.4 - Model (redrawn from Skochdopole and Rubens) of air response and polymer response acting in parallel for a closed-cell foam [3]

Stress

Figure 1.5 - Volumes before and after compression [3]

Assuming zero lateral expansion, i.e. the Poisson ratio is zero and the volumetric strain is equal to the compressive strain , isothermal gas compression and incompressible polymer cell walls, with figure 1.5 can been proven that patm (1 R ) = p (1 R ) (1.20) And therefore the air in the cells give an additional stress equal to

g = p patm = patm

1 R

(1.21)

2 - Experimental procedure
In this chapter the experimental set-up and the materials will be clarified. Tests have been performed on an elasto-plastic polymer foam with closed-cell structure and on an elastomeric polymer foam with open-cell structure. Both materials will be introduced first and some available technical data will be given. In here, also some pictures of the foams, made with a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), will be given in order to validate the foam structure. After introducing the materials, a test set-up will be given which is different for the two polymer foams. Results of the experiments will be given in the next chapter.

2.1 - Materials
Tests have been performed on two polymer foams with various properties. The first material is called IMPAXX which is used in automotive industries for crash protection. The second foam will be called Johnson Controls inc. (JC). This foam is used for interior, like car seats. In this paragraph, both foams will be introduced.

2.1.1 - IMPAXX foams

For the first tests IMPAXX Energy Absorbing Foams (DOW Automotive) were used. IMPAXX foams are highly engineered polystyrene-based thermoplastic foams. It is formed by extruding polystyrene polymer - which contains a halogenated flame-retardant system - that has been formulated with blowing agents and other additives. The blowing agents expand when pressure is released at the extrusion die to form the foam. These foams are strong and lightweight and are designed to maximize efficiency and minimize weight. IMPAXX foams are mainly used for automotive applications. Their function is to absorb the impact energy in the event of a crash and the foams are for instance installed within bumpers or doors [9]. For the compression tests, three different IMPAXX foams were used: IMPAXX 300, IMPAXX 500 and IMPAXX 700, all with different densities. This foam has a closed-cell structure, which has been validated with some scans with a SEM. Figures of this scan can be seen in figures 2.1a and 2.1b.

Figure 2.1a - Side view of closed-cell strucure of IMPAXX (with SEM, TU/e)

Figure 2.1.b - Top view of closed-cell strucure of IMPAXX (with SEM, TU/e)

From DOW Automotive, some technical data are available for IMPAXX 300 and 500 [7][8]. These are listed in table 2.1. This is just a short guideline to check whether the test results are in the same range.

IMPAXX is also said to have a small temperature dependence, so all tests will be executed at room temperature, which is about 21C. Table 2.1 - Technical data IMPAXX foams IMPAXX * [kg/m3] Compression strength (23 C) at 10% [MPa] 300 35 0.345 500 43 0.512

Compression strength (23 C) at 25% [MPa] 0.375 0.544

Compression strength (23 C) at 50% [MPa] 0.434 0.612

2.1.2 - Johnson Controls Foams

This foam is used for the seating interior i of vehicles. There are specimens delivered by Johnson Controls Inc. with 4 different (relative) densities. These foams will be indicated with JC80, JC90, JC100 and JC120. This foam has an open-cell open cell structure which is validated with a SEM, see figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 - Microscopic view of open-cell open structure of JC80 foam, made with SEM (TU/e)

The material of the solid cell walls of JC foams is polyurethane p (PU) and the material behaviour of the JC foams is supposed to be similar to elastomeric foams. . This will be validated with a material recovery analysis in 2.2.2.1. A PU is any polymer consisting of a chain of organic units joined by urethane links. It is formed through step-growth polymerization by reacting a monomer monomer, that contains at least two isocyanate functional groups, groups, with another monomer containing at least two hydroxyl groups in the presence of a catalyst. . PU polymers can be built of many different components, and they cover a wide range of stiffness, hardness, and densities [6][10].

10

From Johnson Controls Inc., some technical data are available for the different polyurethane foams. These are listed in table 2.2. In here, el* represents the elastic collapse stress of the JC foam (is explained later). Again, this is just a short guideline to check whether the test results are in the same range. Table 2.2 - Technical data Johnson Controls foams JC [kg/m3] 80 58 90 60 100 60 120 62

el* [MPa] 6 8 10 13

2.2 - experimental set-up

2.2.1 - Set-up for IMPAXX foams
In order to determine material parameters of the IMPAXX foams (Youngs modulus, Plateau modulus and plastic collapse stress) as function of test parameters (diameter of specimens and strain rate), a great number of compression tests has to be done. The forces and displacements are measured on cylindrical specimens with a constant height and with three different diameters (25, 50 and 75 mm). Specimens are cut to the appropriate dimensions using a cavity drilling apparatus with different diameters. From each dimension, 20 specimens (corresponding to one density) will be tested at 5 different strain rates: 10, 100, 10-1, 10-2 and 10-3 s-1. The loading is therefore displacement controlled. At each strain rate, 4 identical set-ups are used to validate the results. The compression tests are carried out on an MTS 810 Elastomer Test System with a 25 kN load cell. The specimens will be compressed between two cylindrical platens. All specimens are loaded to an engineering strain of approximately 80%, well beyond the densification strain. Before starting up a measurement, the force has to be set to zero (without the specimens on the plates). Then a specimen is placed on the machine and a small load is set on the specimen (approximately 5N). After this (only) the displacement must be set zero and then the experiment is ready to start. After each measurement following up after the first one, only the displacement has to be set zero again. The compressive stress-strain responses are obtained by dividing the applied load by the original specimen area (engineering stress), and by dividing the specimen displacement by the original specimen height (engineering strain). In this case, the engineering stress is approximately identical to true stress, because the Poisons ratio is almost zero so no notable changes in cross-sectional area will occur. To identify the Youngs modulus, the plastic collapse stress and the Plateau modulus, Matlab is used. The Youngs modulus can be E* found by fitting a line through the elastic region of the stress-strain response and determining the slope of that line. This elastic region has to meet some conditions to pl* Epl get an appropriate value without disturbances due to noise. Afterwards, the Plateau modulus is found equivalently by a line through the plateau area. The plastic collapse stress is approximated by the intersection point of these two lines. This is illustrated in Strain 0 figure 2.3. For elastomeric foams, this Figure 2.3 - Determination of Youngs modulus, Plateau modulus intersection point is called the elastic and collapse stress. collapse stress.

Stress

11

Because the experiments will be performed in series consisting of 4 tests with identical circumstances, the found parameters (Youngs modulus, Plateau modulus and plastic collapse stress of the foam) are averaged and a standard deviation is assessed. These deviations will also be plotted in the figures.

2.2.2 - Set-up for Johnson Controls foams

Because the Johnson Controls (JC) foams are supposed to be elastomeric, the idea is to measure one specimen more than once because no (or not much) plastic deformation will occur and not much specimens are available for testing this material. In order to set up a proper experiment, first the material will be analysed in order to check the recovery of the material. Therefore, first a material recovery analysis is done at one specimen. Afterwards, the test set-up for this material is formulated.

2.2.2.1 - Material recovery analysis In order to test the recovery of the JC foams (fully elastic deformation), ten compression tests with JC80 foam have been performed at the MTS 810 Elastomer Test System. For the first three experiments the stress-strain responses are given in figure 2.4. Between all experiments, the material was given two minutes to recover. For these tests, the strain rate was 10-2 s-1 but for other strain rates the same results were found.The legend indicates the the number of the experiment. As can be seen, theres a significant difference between the stress-strain response of the first test and that of the second and third experiment. This implicates some plastic deformation at the first compression test. After the first test, the quality of the foam remains approximately constant and test data will be reproducible although the stresses in the successive experiments are lying just below each other. This aspect should therefore be considered in the test set-up. As can also been concluded from this stress-strain responses, the macroscopic constitutive behaviour of JC foams is similar to that of elastomeric foam which is described in 1.2 and visualised in figure 1.1.

Figure 2.4 - Stress-strain responses for 3 successive compression test performed at one specimen of JC80 foam

12

2.2.2.2 - Test set-up With this information, a test set-up is formulated, equivalent to the test set-up for IMPAXX foams. The set-up is based on 4 available specimens of each of the 4 different types of Johnson Controls foams. The forces and displacements are measured on square specimens with a constant height. First, a set of experiments will be executed on blocks with a length of approximately 50 mm and a height of approximately 30 mm. After executing tests on these specimens, the blocks will be cut to lengths of 25 mm and height of 30 mm. To reduce the influence of the plastic deformation in the first tests, first three experiments will be performed on a specimen to get more corresponding results afterwards. These first tests are done at a strain rate of 10-2 s-1 and the maximum strain in this test is 60%, well before the densification strain so less plastic deformation occurs. Between all tests the material is given two minutes to recover. After this kind of initialisation, from each material, 4 specimens will be tested successively at 4 different strain rates: 10, 100, 10-1 and 10-2 s-1. The order in which this strain rates are applied is different for each of the 4 specimens so theres less dependency of the times a specimen is used. Between all tests, the same recovery time (two minutes) is used. For each material and each strain rate, 4 data files will be created this way. The loading is again done in displacement control and the test system is identical to the system for IMPAXX foams (see also 2.2.1). All specimens are similarly to the initialisation tests - loaded to an engineering strain of approximately 60%, well before the densification strain. After testing the specimens with lengths of 50 mm, specimens with lengths of 25 mm will be created. These specimens are tested the same way, but only 1 initialisation test will be done, because theres less influence of plastic deformation due to the tests done before. Initialising forces and displacements is done the same way described before, but in here the prestressing force is much less and approximately 0.1 to 1.0 N. Identifying the Youngs modulus, Plateau modulus and the elastic collapse stress of the foam is done similarly to the way described in section 2.2.1, with help of Matlab.

13

3 - Results
In this chapter the most important results of the experiments will be given. As indicated before, the results are processed with help of Matlab. First of all, the IMPAXX foams will be analysed and afterwards the results of the JC foams will be shown. For each material, first a short view will be taken on the stress-strain response to uni-axial compression. After that, test data will be analysed and the found material parameters will be checked in relation with variable sample rates, specimen sizes and relative densities. In addition, it will be validated whether the analytical expressions to predict specific foam properties, see chapter 1, hold or not. Besides that, some additional phenomena will be analysed, e.g. the influence of air flow in opencell foams on the macroscopic constitutive behaviour of the foam.

3.1 - IMPAXX
3.1.1 - Stress-strain behaviour
For IMPAXX, typical stress-strain responses are shown in figure 3.1. The three lines represents the three foams with different densities. In here, a strain rate of 10-1 s-1 is applied on specimens with a diameter of 50 mm. The responses are similar to the schematic compressive stress-strain response for elasto-plastic foams, see also figure 1.2. The region of linear elasticity is followed (at a strain of approximately 1,5 to 2,0%) by a long collapse plateau at which the stress only slightly rises. At a strain of approximately 70% densification starts. The plastic collapse can clearly be seen during compression because the failure is localized in a band transverse to the loading direction. This band propagates throughout the foam with increasing strain. There is no expansion of the foam during compression, so in the analysis, a Poissons ratio of zero can be assumed.

Figure 3.1 - Stress-strain responses for IMPAXX with different densities (300, 500 or 700) at a constant strain rate of 10-1 s-1 and a constant specimen diameter of 50 mm.

14

In the stress-strain response, three remarkable points must be concerned. The first point can be found at the transition between the elastic region and the plateau. In here, sometimes a drop in stress can be found, especially for IMPAXX 500 at low strain rates (of 10-1, 10-2 and 10-3). An explanation for this behaviour is that the high pressure in the cells is removed due to plastic collapse of cells in the upper layer of the foam. As a consequence, the stiffness of the foam decreases and the stress becomes temporarily lower until the next band of cells is reached. For lower strain rates, the time scale is larger, resulting in a larger stress drop. The second point that must be concerned is the second transition area, between the plateau region and the point at which densification starts. At this point, the stress regularly drops before densification starts. This occurs mainly for IMPAXX 500 and IMPAXX 700. This indicates that the loss of stiffness at this point may have something to do with the relative density of the foam. A full explanation for the material behaviour at this point is not gathered yet and is beyond the scope of this project. The last remarkable point can be noticed at the final point of deformation, where the stress drops vertical. This is due to stress relaxation (at a constant strain level).

3.1.2 - Linear elasticity

3.1.2.1 - Prediction of Youngs modulus In order to validate test results, one may want to relate test data to analytical expressions. Therefore, measured properties of the IMPAXX foams will be related to material properties of the solid polymer, which is in here assumed to be pure polystyrene (PS). For IMPAXX foams its known that PS has been formulated with blowing agents and some additive components [9], but because no further information about solid properties is given by DOW, the properties that will be used for the analytical expressions are stated in table 3.1 [5].
Table 3.1 - Data PS s [kg/m3] 1051

Es [MPa] 3300

By measuring the length and the weight of the specimens, the densities (on average) and relative densities of the different IMPAXX foams are found. These are listed in table 3.2. Also the standard deviation of the measured densities is given. Besides that, also the densities given by DOW are stated. Note that these are not the same as the measured densities. This can be due to different measurement methods. Table 3.2 - Measured densities for IMPAXX IMPAXX *measured [kg/m3] 300 38,46 500 40,39 700 44,70 std [kg/m3] 0,33 0,44 0,58 *DOW [kg/m3] [7][8] 35 43 N.A.

R [-] 0,0366 0,0384 0,0425

Assuming a Poissons ratio of zero, the Youngs modulus of the polymer foam can be estimated with equation 1.3. Reasonable values for are 0,6 and 0,8 [4], and the initial pressure in the cells is assumed to be atmospheric. The results are listed in table 3.3. In here, also the standard deviation is given for the measured modulus. It must be noted that the modulus listed in here represents the average modulus over all measurements, with different specimen diameters and different strain rates. Table 3.3 - Predicted Youngs modulus for different IMPAXX foams IMPAXX E*predicted [MPa] E*predicted [MPa] E*measured [MPa] = 0,6 = 0,8 300 50,00 27,09 21,64 500 52,59 28,59 30,87 700 58,39 32,00 42,49

std [MPa] 2,58 4,42 6,34 15

From this, it can be concluded that the predictions of the Youngs modulus are of the same order of magnitude as the measured moduli, especially for a of 0,8, although the prediction is not very accurate. As listed in table 3.3, the Youngs modulus is dependent on the density of the foam. Using equation 1.3, the relationship between Youngs modulus and foam density should primarily be linear for closed-cell structures, since the relative densities are small (< 0,05) for IMPAXX foams and the contribution of the initial pressure (last term) in the cells to stiffness is small. Therefore, equation 1.3 could be simplified to a linear relation

E* = (1 ) R Es
* E300

(3.1)

With this formula, the Youngs modulus of the different IMPAXX foams can be related to each other, because

* 300

= C6

with C6 =

Es (1 )

(3.2)

Therefore, assuming that fraction of solid in the cell faces is equal for the different IMPAXX densities, the Youngs moduli of the different IMPAXX foams are coupled with
* E300 * 300

* E500 * 500

* E700 * 700

(3.3)

In table 3.4, this relation has been checked. The relationship doesnt seem to hold in this case. This could be attributed to the used model, but it may be more convenient to attribute this difference to variable values of for the different foam densities. For each IMPAXX density, the value of is therefore determined with equation 3.2 and stated in table 3.4. With these new, analytically determined values of , new predictions of the Youngs modulus are made using equation 1.3. Now it appears that the prediction of the Youngs modulus is more realistic. However, some simplifications have been made and the determination of is complex. The latter could also be done with an accurate analysis of the microstructure. Besides that - based on the relative densities - one would expect the solid fraction in the cell edges to increase for larger densities. In here, the fraction decreases, probably originating from simplifications or microstructure of the foam. Table 3.4 - Relation between Youngs moduli IMPAXX E*

0,821 0,757 0,697

E*predicted [MPa] 24,70 33,69 45,50

*
300 500 700 0,563 106 0,764 106 0,951 106

3.1.2.2 - Analysis of Youngs modulus Different tests have been executed with IMPAXX foams of three different densities, at five different strain rates and for three different specimen diameters. Therefore its useful to check whether material parameters, like the Youngs modulus, depend on these variables. Besides the relative density of the foam and/or its complex microstructure, an other phenomenon that could influence the Youngs modulus of the foam is the specimen diameter. In order to investigate this, the modulus can be plotted as function of the three different densities (given as 300, 500 and 700) for different specimen diameters at a constant strain rate of 10-1 s-1. At other strain rates, equivalent plots will show up. This is illustrated in figure 3.2. From this, it can be concluded that the

16

influence of specimen diameter on the Youngs modulus of the foam is small. No clear link exists between the modulus and the diameter. The same can be done to investigate the influence of strain rate. This is plotted in figure 3.3. In here, the Youngs modulus is given at a constant diameter of 50 mm. This will be equivalent for other diameters. From this, it can be concluded that also the influence of strain rate on the Youngs modulus of the IMPAXX foam is small. Therefore, it can be concluded that the Youngs modulus for this closed-cell foam is mainly determined by the relative density of the foam and by the complex microstructure.

Figure 3.2 - Youngs modulus as function of IMPAXX-density (300, 500 or 700) for different specimen diameters at a constant strain rate of 10-1 s-1.

Figure 3.3 - Youngs modulus as function of IMPAXX-density (300, 500 or 700) for different strain rates at a constant specimen diameter of 50 mm.

17

3.1.3 - Plastic collapse

The second region in which some parameters can be found from experimental data, and can be related to analytic expressions, is the plateau region. In this paragraph, first the Plateau modulus Epl* of the foam will be determined and it will be validated if this modulus depends on test variables (strain rate, foam density and specimen diameter). After evaluating the Plateau modulus, the plastic collapse stress will be determined; analogous to the method described in 2.2.1. This material parameter is also checked on relations with test variables. Besides that, the found collapse stress is compared with analytical expressions from paragraph 1.2.

3.1.3.1 - Plateau modulus The Plateau modulus is small in comparison with the Youngs modulus. Typical values for the Plateau modulus of IMPAXX foams are between 0,10 and 0,50 MPa. This can be seen in figure 3.1 and table 3.5. As listed, the plateau modulus is the highest for IMPAXX 300 and the lowest for IMPAXX 500. For IMPAXX 700, the mean value of the Plateau modulus is between the values for IMPAXX 300 and 500. Thus, not a real dependency on foam density is found; it rather originates from the foams microstructure.
Table 3.5 - Plateau modulus of different IMPAXX foams IMPAXX Epl*[MPa] 300 0,350 500 0,160 700 0,289

std [MPa] 0.057 0.034 0.038

Also for the Plateau modulus, the relations with strain rate and specimen diameter have been determined. As can be seen in figure 3.4, in which the Plateau modulus is given as function of the IMPAXX density for different specimen diameters and at a constant strain rate of 10-1 s-1, the dependency of specimen diameter is small. This figure is equivalent for other strain rates. In figure 3.5, the Plateau modulus has been given as function of foam density for different strain rates (with a constant diameter of 25 mm). In here, for IMPAXX 300 and IMPAXX 500 the Plateau modulus will raise slightly as function of strain rate, except when the strain rate is raised from 1 to 10 s-1 as the modulus slightly drops. For the IMPAXX 700 foam, the Plateau modulus doesnt seem to depend on strain rate at all. So, in some cases a small dependency on strain rate is found, but no clear link exists. Thus, it can be concluded that also the Plateau modulus is mainly influenced by the complex microstructure of the foam. Only for IMPAXX 300 and 500, strain rate slightly influences the modulus.

18

Figure 3.4 - Plateau modulus as function of IMPAXX-density (300, 500 or 700) for different specimen diameters at a constant strain rate of 10-1 s-1.

Figure 3.5 - Plateau modulus as function of IMPAXX-density (300, 500 or 700) for different strain rates at a constant specimen diameter of 50 mm.

3.1.3.2 - Analysis of plastic collapse stress As found in the experiments and stated in 3.1.2.2 and 3.1.3.1, the Youngs modulus and the Plateau modulus of the IMPAXX foams both mainly seems to be determined by the relative density of the foam and/or the complex microstructure. There were no clear relations found between the material behaviour of the foams and test variables. But as can be gathered from figure 3.6, the plastic collapse stress is dependent on strain rate. Also the relation between plastic collapse stress and specimen diameter will be analysed.
19

Figure 3.6 - Stress-strain responses for IMPAXX 300 for different strain rates with constant specimen diameter of 75 mm.

In figure 3.7 the relationship between the plastic collapse stress and strain rate is shown for a constant specimen diameter of 50 mm. As could also be concluded from figure 3.6, the plastic collapse stress will increase for larger strain rates. In figure 3.8 the relationship for the plastic collapse stress with the specimen diameter is shown. In here, the strain rate has a constant value of 10-3 s-1, but results are comparable at other strain rates. As can be concluded from this figure, the plastic collapse stress is hardly influenced by the specimen diameter. For the lowest strain rate, the plastic collapse stress seems to increase slightly for larger specimen diameters - as can be seen in figure 3.8 - but at larger strain rates this effect vanishes and no clear relation is found. Overall, the influence of specimen diameter seems to be small.

Figure 3.7 - Plastic collapse stress as function of strain rate for different IMPAXX densities (300, 500 or 700) at a constant specimen diameter of 50 mm.

20

Figure 3.8 - Plastic collapse stresss as function of specimen diameter for different IMPAXX densities (300, 500 or 700) at a constant strain rate of 10-3 s-1.

As stated before in chapter 1.2.3, 1.2.4 and 1.2.5.2, the plastic collapse stress will be influenced by different phenomena, like pressure build-up in closed-cells and viscous behaviour of cell wall material. In chapter 1, also some equations were given in order to predict the plastic collapse stress and to estimate the added stress due to pressure in cells. These are used here in order to determine whether these analytical expressions can give a proper prediction of the plastic collapse stress. First of all, the stress addition due to pressure built up in closed cells will be analysed. For this, equation 1.21 was given. The strain at the point at which plastic collapse starts, pl*, is different for each IMPAXX density and each experiment, but the mean values (over all experiments) for each material are given in table 3.6. In here, also the contribution of stress due to pressure in the cells is given and compared to the mean plastic collapse stress of each IMPAXX density. From this, it can be concluded that the contribution of the pressure in the cells of the foam can be neglected at this strain level. Table 3.6 - Contribution of inner gas pressure in cells at = pl* IMPAXX mean pl* [MPa] mean pl* [-] g [kPa] 300 0,393 0,0167 1,793 500 0,578 0,0168 1,805 700 0,865 0,0185 1,996

g / mean pl* [-] 0,0046 0,0031 0,0023

Nevertheless, if the foam is compressed further, one may expect the contribution of pressure build-up in the cells may become of significant importance. Therefore, the same analysis is done at a strain of 50%. The stress level at this strain level is computed with * * (3.4) * =* pl + 0,5 pl E pl

From this, the results are placed in table 3.7.

21

Table 3.7 - Contribution of inner gas pressure in cells at = 0,5 IMPAXX * [MPa] g* [MPa] 300 0,562 0,1093 500 0,655 0,1098 700 1,004 0,1107

g* / mean pl* [-] 0,194 0,168 0,110

From this, it can be concluded that the stress build-up in the closed cells will give a significant stress addition. The stress increase in the plateau region is mainly determined by the pressure build-up in the closed cells. However, if cell walls are thin, they could fail at a low pressure levels and the contribution of the pressure build-up in the closed-cells to the strength of the foam decreases.

3.1.3.3 - Strain-rate dependency of plastic collapse stress As stated in section 3.1.3.2, the collapse stress of IMPAXX foams depends on strain rate, originating from the intrinsic material behaviour of the solid polymeric cell walls. Assuming this dependency on solid material properties, it can be validated if the behaviour of the plastic collapse stress of the foam is related to the behaviour of the yield stress of PS. For a double logarithmic scale, the plastic collapse stress as function of strain rate for different IMPAXX foams is given in figure 3.9. The figure corresponds with a specimen diameter of 50 mm, but the figure is equivalent for specimens with diameters of 25 and 75 mm. As can be seen, there are drawn straight parallel lines through the measured data. These fitted lines can be formed analogous to equation 3.6. 10 10 ) + b with constants a and b (3.6) log * log ( pl = a

( )

Figure 3.9 - Double logarithmic figure with the plastic collapse stress as function of strain rate for different IMPAXX densities (300, 500 or 700) at a constant specimen diameter of 50 mm.

When these constants are known, the slope of the lines can be compared to that of polystyrene [5]. In figure 3.10, the yield stress of polystyrene as function of strain rate is given on a double logarithmic scale.

22

Figure 3.10 - Double logarithmic figure with the yield stress of PS as function of strain rate. [5]

The slope of the fitted line through the data for PS (assuming room temperature) is determined and compared with that of the IMPAXX foam. These data is listed in table 3.8. Table 3.8 - Slope of polyfit lines through data of PS and IMPAXX Material PS IMPAXX 300 IMPAXX 500 IMPAXX 700 Specimen 25 50 75 25 50 75 25 50 75 diameter [mm] Slope of 0.054 0.0348 0.0319 0.0221 0.0338 0.0358 0.0279 0.0383 0.0253 0.0224 line (a) It can be concluded from table 3.8 that the slope of the line becomes smaller with increasing specimen diameter but is approximately the same for the different IMPAXX foams. To illustrate this, the mean values (for all different densities of IMPAXX foams) of the gradients for the different specimen diameters are shown in table 3.9. This implies that for larger specimens, the strain rate dependency for the plastic collapse stress becomes less important. Table 3.9 - Mean slopes for different specimen diameters Specimen diameter [mm] 25 50 Mean Gradient 0.0356 0.0310

75 0.0241

Besides that, the gradient of the PS is above all gradients of the plastic collapse stress of IMPAXX. A reason for this can be found by the choice for the solid cell wall material in this survey. On top of that, a scale factor, owing to the complex microstructure of the foam, should be used to relate the properties of the solid material to that of the foam.

23

3.2 - Johnson Controls foams

3.2.1 - Stress-strain behaviour
For the Johnson Controls Foams (JC foams), typical stress-strain responses are shown in figure 3.11. The four lines represent the four open-cell foams with different densities. In here, a strain rate of 10 s-1 is applied on specimens with an average length scale of 50 mm. The responses are similar to the schematic compressive stress-strain response for elastomeric foams, see also figure 1.1. The region of elasticity is initially linear, but after a strain of approximately 4%, its concave downwards, till it is followed (at a strain of approximately 10%) by a long elastic collapse plateau. At a strain of approximately 60% densification starts. After compression, the foam specimen will (almost) fully return to its original shape, so the deformation is fully elastic. This was exposed in paragraph 2.2.2.1. Further on, the stress-strain response clearly shows a material dependent behaviour. Especially the Youngs modulus and the elastic collapse stress will significantly differ for the various densities of JC foams, as is obvious from figure 3.11. There is (almost) no expansion of the foam during compression, so in the analysis, a Poissons ratio of zero can be assumed. Again, at the end of deformation (at a strain of 60%), the stress relaxation can be seen.

Figure 3.11 - Stress-strain responses for JC foams with different densities (80, 90, 100 or 120) at a constant strain rate of 10 s-1 and a constant specimen length of 50 mm.

3.2.2 - Linear elasticity

3.2.2.1 - Prediction of Youngs modulus In here, again the measured properties of the foam will be related to the solid polymer, which is in here polyurethane (PU). As stated in 2.1.2, PU polymers can be made in many different ways, so they cover a wide range of specific material properties. In here, the parameter values for (flexible) PU that will be used are listed in table 3.10 [4]
Table 3.10 - Data PU s [kg/m3] Es [MPa] 1200 45

24

After measuring specimens of the different JC foams, mean densities (over all specimens) are found which are listed in table 3.11. Also the relative densities of the foams and the standard deviations of the measured densities are given. Besides that, also the densities given by Johnson Controls Inc. are stated. Note that these are approximately the same as the measured densities. Table 3.11 - Measured densities for JC foams JC * [kg/m3] R [-] 80 58,08 0,0484 90 58,85 0,0490 100 60,39 0,0503 120 62,21 0,0518 std [kg/m3] 0,62 0,39 0,86 1,08 *JC Inc. [kg/m3] 58 58 60 62

The Youngs modulus of this open-cell polymer foam can be estimated with equation 1.2. The results are listed in table 3.12. Also the Youngs modulus of the foam, determined in the experiments, is stated and the standard deviation is given. It must be noted that the modulus listed in here represents the average modulus over all measurements, so with different specimen diameters and different strain rates. Table 3.12 - Youngs modulus for different JC foams JC E*predicted [MPa] E*measured [MPa] 80 90 100 120 0,1054 0,1082 0,1140 0,1210 0,0909 0,0985 0,1553 0,2029

std [MPa] 0,0142 0,0163 0,0192 0,0253

Again, it can be concluded that the given analytical expression to determine the foams Youngs modulus does give the right order of magnitude but is not very accurate for all JC foams. For JC 100 and JC 120, the predicted value is not accurate.

3.2.2.2 - Analysis of Youngs modulus Similar to the experiments with IMPAXX foams a large number of experiments have been executed, with different test set-ups. Foams of four different densities, four different strain rates and two different specimen length scales were used. Therefore its, again, useful to check whether material parameters, like the Youngs modulus, depend on these variables. As listed in table 3.12, the Youngs modulus is clearly dependent on the density of the foam.
A phenomenon that also could influence the Youngs modulus is the specimen length. To investigate this, the modulus is plotted as function of the four different densities and for different specimen lengths at a constant strain rate of 10-1 s-1. At other strain rates, equivalent plots will show up. This is illustrated in figure 3.12. From this, it can be concluded that there is an influence of specimen length on the Youngs modulus. The modulus seems to rise for larger specimen sizes. It should be noted that the decrease of Youngs modulus for smaller length scales of the specimens can partially be due to the fact that smaller specimens have been cut out of the larger specimens and are tested subsequently. But the effect could also originate from size effects. One could also relate the specimen size dependency of the Youngs modulus to the air flow phenomenon, but, as will be evaluated in 3.2.3.2, this is unlikely because of the small effects of air flow for JC foams. A similar evaluation can be done to investigate the influence of strain rate. This is plotted in figure 3.13. In here, the Youngs modulus is given at a constant length of 50 mm, but for a specimen length of 25 mm this will be equivalent. From this, it can be concluded that the strain rate clearly influences the Youngs modulus for this open-cell foam, originating from the intrinsic material behaviour of the polymeric cell wall material.

25

Thus, it can be concluded that the Youngs modulus is determined by material parameters of the solid cell walls and by the complex microstructure of the foam as well as by the specimen size and the applied strain rate. Therefore, the region of linear elasticity should actually be called the viscoelastic region.

Figure 3.12 - Youngs modulus as function of JC density (80, 90, 100 or 120) for different specimen lengths at a constant strain rate of 10-1 s-1.

Figure 3.13 - Youngs modulus as function of JC density (80, 90, 100 or 120) for different strain rates at a constant specimen length of 50 mm.

26

3.2.3 - Elastic collapse

The second region in which some parameters can be found from experimental data, and can be related to analytic expressions, is the plateau region. In this part, first the Plateau modulus Epl* of the foam will be determined and itll be checked whether this modulus depends on test variables (strain rate, foam density and specimen diameter). After evaluating the Plateau modulus, the elastic collapse stress will be determined; analogous to the method described in 2.2.1.This is also checked on relations with test variables. Besides that, the found collapse stress is compared with analytical expressions from paragraph 1.2 and also the air flow phenomena will be analysed.

3.2.3.1 - Plateau modulus The Plateau modulus is small in comparison with the Youngs modulus (< 10%). Typical values for the Plateau modulus of JC foams are between 5 and 15 kPa. This modulus is dependent on the foam density. This can be seen in table 3.13. The plateau modulus will slightly increase as function of foam density.
Table 3.13 - Plateau modulus of different JC foams JC Epl*[kPa] 80 6,4 90 8,9 100 8,6 120 11,6

std [kPa] 2,5 3,4 2,3 4,0

In figure 3.14, the Plateau modulus is given as function of the JC foam density for different specimen lengths at a constant strain rate of 1 s-1. The dependency of the Plateau modulus on specimen size is small, i.e. differences between the two lines are in the range of the standard deviations. This figure is equivalent for other strain rates.

Figure 3.14 - Plateau modulus as function of JC density (80, 90, 100 or 120) for different specimen lengths at a constant strain rate of 1 s-1.

27

In figure 3.15, the Plateau modulus has been given as function of foam density for different strain rates (with a constant length of 50 mm). For a specimen length of 25 mm, an equivalent figure can be shown, but larger standard deviations occur due to larger (relative) measurement errors. As can be concluded from this figure, the Plateau modulus will rise as function of sample rate. Thus, it can be concluded that the Plateau modulus of the JC foams is mainly influenced by the material itself and by the strain rate at which the polymer foam is compressed.

Figure 3.15 - Plateau modulus as function of JC density (80, 90, 100 or 120) for different strain rates at a constant specimen length of 50 mm.

3.2.3.2 - Elastic collapse stress Now it is clear that the Youngs modulus is influenced by strain rate, specimen size and the material itself, i.e. the relative density, the solid polymeric material and the complex microstructure, and that the Plateau modulus is dependent on both the material and strain rate, it can be expected that also the elastic collapse stress will be influenced by both the material itself and test parameters too. In figure 3.16 the typical relationship between the elastic collapse stress and the strain rate is shown at a constant specimen length of 50 mm. The elastic collapse stress increases for larger strain rates. In figure 3.17 the relationship for the elastic collapse stress with the specimen length is shown. In here, the strain rate has a constant value of 10-2 s-1, but the results are comparable with other strain rates. As can be concluded from this figure, the elastic collapse stress is hardly influenced by the specimen diameter. In general, the elastic collapse will slightly grow for larger specimen diameters, but for higher strain rates this effect vanishes. So, no clear link is found between the collapse stress and strain rate. The latter effect was also seen for the plastic collapse stress of IMPAXX foams.

28

Figure 3.16 - Elastic collapse stress as function of strain rate for different JC densities (80, 90, 100 or 120) at a constant specimen length of 50 mm.

Figure 3.17 - Elastic collapse stress as function of specimen length for different JC densities (80, 90, 100 or 120) at a constant strain rate of 10-2 s-1.

Similar to the closed-cell IMPAXX foams, the collapse stress versus the strain rate shows linear parallel lines when depicted in a double logarithmic scale, as can be seen in figure 3.18. It is assumed that these curves can be related to the stress-strain response of the solid cell wall material PU, but this is not analysed in here.

29

Figure 3.18 - Double logarithmic figure with the elastic collapse stress as function of strain rate for different JC densities (80, 90, 100 or 120) at a constant specimen length of 50 mm.

As stated before in chapter 1.2.2, 1.2.4 and 1.2.5.1, the elastic collapse stress will be influenced by different phenomena, like air flow and viscous behaviour of cell wall material. With equations given in chapter 1, the elastic collapse stress can be predicted. Also the added stress due to air flow can be analysed. These equations are used here in order to determine if these analytical expressions can give a proper prediction of the elastic collapse stress. First of all, the elastic collapse stress can be predicted with the analytical expressions given by equation 1.6. In here, no strain rate dependency is taken into account. The measured elastic collapse stress is therefore averaged over all tests at different strain rates and different specimen lengths. This is stated in table 3.14. From this, it can be concluded that this analytical expression only gives an indication for the order of magnitude of the elastic collapse stress. Table 3.14 - Predicted elastic collapse stress JC mean el, measured* [kPa] 80 5,512 90 6,450 100 9,494 120 12,064

std [kPa] 0,586 0,811 1,209 1,587

el, predicted* [kPa] 5,271 5,402 5,693 6,037

Secondly, the stress addition due to (the resistance to) airflow in open-cell structures will be analysed. For this, equation 1.19 was given. In here, again some assumptions have to be made. It can be easily seen that for the highest strain rate and largest specimen length the effect of air flow will become more important. Therefore a strain rate of 10 s-1 and a specimen length of 50 mm will be used in this analysis. For the constant C5 in equation 1.19, a value of 1 is used. The air flow is analysed at a strain at which elastic collapse starts. This point, el* is different for each JC foam density and strain rate, and its average value is stated in table 3.15. The dynamic viscosity for air (at 20 C) equals 18,27 10-6 Ns/m2, and the average edge length is assumed to be 0.1 mm (estimated with the microscopic view of the JC foams, see figure 2.2). The stress contribution due to air flow is compared to the mean elastic collapse stress of each JC foam density.

30

From this, it can be concluded that the contribution of air flow in the cells of the open-cell foam is small at this strain level. In here, it must be remarked that a number of simplifications is used, e.g. the edge length will be smaller for foams with a higher density. Table 3.15 - Contribution of air flow at = el* with L = 50 mm and JC mean el* mean el* [-] mean Eel* [kPa] [kPa] 80 6,376 0,0589 7,838 90 7,839 0,0653 10,884 100 11,416 0,0625 11,468 120 14,623 0,0610 13,234

= 10 s-1
g* [Pa] 48,53 48,86 48,72 48,64 g */ el* [-] 0,0076 0,0062 0,0043 0,0033

Nevertheless, if the foam is compressed further, one may expect the contribution air flow may become of significant importance. Therefore, the same analysis is done at a strain of 50%. The stress level at this point is computed with * * * (3.7) * = el + 0, 5 el Eel

The stress addition due to air flow equals 91,35 [Pa], using equation 1.19. With this, the results are stated in table 3.16. Table 3.16 - Contribution of air flow at = 0,5 with L = 50 mm and JC * [kPa] 80 9,833 90 12,570 100 16,433 120 20,433

= 10 s-1
g / mean el* [-] 0,0093 0,0073 0,0056 0,0045

From this evaluation of the analytical expression (1.19), it can be concluded that the contribution of air flow in the cells of the open-cell foam is small, even at this high strain level and with relative high strain rates. In here, it must be remarked that a number of simplifications is used. Nevertheless, under certain circumstances, e.g. smaller pore sizes, higher strain rates and larger specimen lengths, the air flow can give a significant stress attribution.

31

Conclusions and discussion

As stated in the introduction, the macroscopic constitutive behaviour of polymer foams is determined by a subtle interplay of the intrinsic constitutive behaviour of the polymeric material and the complex microstructure. In this survey, an open-cell elastomeric foam and an elasto-plastic foam with closedcell structure have been tested in uni-axial compression tests, in order to determine the effect of phenomena, such as flow of air through cells in foams and the influence of intrinsic material behaviour. In order to give a clear overview of the main results and conclusions, the next part is separated in two parts for the two different foams. Afterwards, a short discussion is reported.

Closed-cell elasto-plastic foam: IMPAXX Energy Absorbing Foams Increasing the relative density raises the foams Youngs modulus and plastic collapse stress. The Youngs modulus is not significantly influenced by the specimen diameter or the applied strain rate, so this parameter is fully determined by the interplay of the intrinsic behaviour of the polymer and the microstructure (and thereby relative density). The Plateau modulus can slightly be influenced by strain rate, but is mainly dependent on the complex microstructure. The effect of air compression in closed cells attributes to the increasing stress level in the plateau region. It is supposed that the pressure build-up in closed-cells mainly determines the Plateau modulus. Air flow can be neglected for closed-cell foams, except when cell walls are thin and fail at low strains. The most interesting effects show up at the plastic collapse stress. This parameter is influenced by strain rate rather well, but it is assumed that this strain rate dependency originates from the intrinsic constitutive behaviour of the polymeric material, because the effect of air compression in closed-cells is small at this point. The specimen diameter doesnt influence the plastic collapse stress. The material dependent behaviour of the plastic collapse stress can be found in the double logarithmic plastic collapse stress-strain ratediagram, in which straight parallel lines can be drawn, equivalent to that of the solid cell wall material, see 3.1.3.3. Open-cell elastomeric foam: Johnson Controls foams. This foam was expected to exhibit both a strain rate and a specimen size dependent material behaviour, associated with the intrinsic constitutive behaviour of the polymeric material and the air flow phenomenon. From the executed tests, it was found that for this open-cell foam, the Youngs modulus increases for larger strain rates and larger specimen sizes. The influence of specimen size could be due to size effects, giving lower stress responses at smaller length scales. A larger foam density raises the Youngs modulus, Plateau modulus and elastic collapse stress. The Plateau modulus is also increased by raising the strain rate, but specimen size doesnt seem to affect this parameter. For the elastic collapse stress again no clear dependency on specimen size was found. This indicates that for the used specimen lengths, stress additions by air flow remain constant. Evaluating analytical expressions showed that air flow didnt contribute significantly to the stress level. This could originate from test parameters - specimen length and strain rate - or the complex microstructure. More dense packed open-cell foams (smaller pore sizes) or fluids with higher viscosity (than air) will raise the stress contribution instigated by fluid (air) flow. Above this, it must be noted that the air flow phenomenon is complex to analyse; knowledge of the complex microstructure is helpful. Further on, the elastic collapse stress is influenced by strain rate, originating from the intrinsic behaviour of the polymer. Again, the material dependent behaviour shows up in the double logarithmic diagram, see 3.2.3.2.
Finally, it must be remarked that the macroscopic constitutive behaviour of polymer foams can be described with use of a great number of experiments and varying foam density, strain rate and specimen size. With help of electron microscopy and computer tomography, it could be useful to analyse the complex microstructure before executing experiments. Analytical expressions in literature, stated in chapter 1, are useful to predict the material behaviour of the polymer foams - if properties of the polymeric material of which the solid cell walls are made, are known. With this, materials can be selected that are useful to describe the phenomenon that has to be studied. 32

Besides that, one should notice that in practice deformation of foams almost never will be fully uniaxial. For example, in a car crashes different deformation regimes act on the foam. To fully describe the material behaviour of foams, tests with other loading conditions have to be done. The material behaviour of foams will be different for other loading conditions. Shear and tensile tests can be done by gluing the specimen to the specimen fixing.

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References
[1] P.R. Onck, E.W. Andrews, L.J. Gibson. Size effects in ductile cellular solids. Part I: modeling. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 43, (2001) 681-699. [2] E.W. Andrews, G. Gioux, P. Onck, L.J. Gibson. Size effects in ductile cellular solids. Part II: experimental results. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 43, (2001) 700-713. [3] Nigel Mills, Polymer Foams Handbook Engineering and Biomechanics Applications and Design Guide. Butterworth-Heinemann (Elsevier); ISBN 978-0-7506-8069-1 (2007). [4] Lorna J. Gibson and Michael F. Ashby. Cellular solids - Structure and properties (second edition). Cambridge University Press, 2001; ISBN 0-521-49911-9. [5] Harold G.H. van Melick. Deformation and failure of polymer glasses (proefschrift). Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, 2002; ISBN 90-386-2923-0. [6] A.K. van der Vegt and L.E. Govaert. Polymeren - van keten tot kunststof, page 135-139. VSSD, vijfde druk 2003/2005; ISBN 90-71301-48-6 [7] Tech Data Sheet - IMPAXX TM 300 Energy Absorbing Foam, The Dow Chemical Company, can be found at http://automotive.dow.com/materials/products/impaxx/product.htm [8] Tech Data Sheet - IMPAXX TM 500 Energy Absorbing Foam, The Dow Chemical Company, can be found at http://automotive.dow.com/materials/products/impaxx/product.htm [9] Product Safety Assessment - IMPAXX TM Energy Absorbing Foam, The Dow Chemical Company, can be found at http://automotive.dow.com [10] Ian Clemitson, Castable Polyurethane Elastomers, CRC Press, ISBN 978142006576 (2008)

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