Essay 64 Cell Communication

4/22/13 Period 3

http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/public/repository/ap-sf-bio-cell-to-cell-communication.pdf (A) Neuron communication: Communication between neurons is the cellular basis for many bodily functions. While there are thousands of different types of neuron cells, generally speaking, the three main types are: motor neurons (for conveying motor information), sensory neurons (for conveying sensory information), and interneurons (which convey information between different types of neurons). Neurons are nerve cells with a particular shape: their body is called the soma, and they have projections on both sides called the axon and the dendrites. An axon is a long and slender projection of a neuron that conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron's cell body. Dendrites are the branched projections of a neuron that act to conduct the electrochemical signal received from other neural cells to the cell body. A neuron may have many thousands of dendrites, but it will have only one axon. Also, the axon of one neuron is in contact with the dendrites of other neurons. These contacts are termed synapses. Each neuron forms thousands of synapses with other neurons. Neurons communicate by sending electric signals along their axons. When a signal reaches a synapse, it activates the release of neurotransmitters, which are small molecules that diffuse in the intercellular space and activate receptors on the surface of the other cell forming the synapse. The axon terminals are the structures that contain the neurotransmitters. Sequentially, activated receptors generate electric signals of variable intensity. The signals coming from every synapses of a neuron passively converge to the base of its axon and are summed up. If the resulting signal is intense enough, the axon will actively propagate the signal further; otherwise, the signal will stop there. The neuron cells are all connected through gap junctions, which permit changes in the electrical properties of one neuron to effect the other. At the gap junctions are synapses. The part of the synapse that belongs to the initiating neuron is called the presynaptic membrane; the part of the synapse that belongs to the receiving neuron is called the postsynaptic membrane. More specifically, first, the action potential signal arrives at the axon terminal. Then, local depolarization causes Ca2+ channels to open; Ca2+ enters the presynaptic cell because its concentration is greater outside the cell than inside. After, the calcium ions cause vesicles filled with neurotransmitter to migrate towards the presynaptic membrane. Next, the vesicle merges with the presynaptic membrane and forms a continuous membrane, so that the neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft. This process is done by exocytosis. The neurotransmitter diffuses through the synaptic cleft and binds with receptor channel membranes that are located in both presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes. Furthermore, there are two types of binding to postsynaptic receptors. First is direct, in which the receptor channel allows ions to pass through the membrane. The neurotransmitter acts like a key which opens the ion channel; this is the fastest kind of channel. Second is indirect, which is the binding of neurotransmitter to the receptor channel, causing the release of a molecule, called a secondary messenger, that indirectly activates nearby ion channels. This electric signal is created by action potential with the sodium-potassium pump, which pumps out three sodium ions (Na+) for each two potassium ions (K+) pumped into the neuron. Ions move across the membrane through ion channels that open and close due to the presence of neurotransmitters. The resting potential of a neuron is about -70 millivolts. When a nerve impulse stimulates a neuron, it causes Na+ gates to open, allowing Na+ to rush in. This results in depolarization

Essay 64 Cell Communication

4/22/13 Period 3

of the membrane in the area where the stimulation occurred. As the impulse passes, the potassium gates open, allowing positively charged K+ ions to flow out. When the inside of the axon resumes a negative charge, this is known as repolarization. The depolarization and repolarization of a neuron membrane is called an action potential. (B) Plant cell communication: Communication between cells is through junctions known as plasmodesmata, which are channels which traverse the cell walls of plant cells. There are thousands of plasmodesmata between adjacent cells, and they are known to transport things such as transport proteins, transcription factors, short interfering RNA, messenger RNA and viral genomes from cell to cell. Plant hormones (also known as phytohormones) are chemicals that regulate plant growth. Because plants lack the hormone-producing glands that animals have, instead, each cell is capable of producing hormones. Many plant hormones actually act in combination, thus producing more varied responses than if acting individually. Moreover, plant hormones are produced in very low concentrations, but a small amount can still have profound effects. This is because signal transduction pathways amplify the signal. Phytohormones play a role in growth and plant development by altering gene expression or enzymatic activity. Also, hormonal responses away and towards stimuli are called tropism; if the environmental stimulus is light, then it is known as phototropism. There are five main classes to plant hormones: auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, ethylene, and abscisic acid. Auxins play a major role in controlling plant growth, cytokinins play a role in cell division, gibberellins plays a role in stem elongation, ethylene is mainly responsible for fruit ripening, and abscisic acids principle effect is inhibition of cell growth and dormancy. These plant hormones may travel in vessels but more often travel from cell to cell or move through air by diffusion. Water in plant cells can travel through plasmodesmata, but also through other pathways. First, the vacuolar pathway is where water molecules enter the cytoplasm through the plasma membrane, and travel across the cytoplasm, and through the vacuole, back through some cytoplasm, and onto the next vacuole. Second, the symplast pathway is where water travels only through adjoining cells by their cytoplasm via plasmodesmata. Lastly is the apoplast pathway. The cellulose cell walls have many waterfilled spaces between them which water can travel across. In this pathway, the water molecules do not cross any plasma membranes, meaning that dissolved mineral ions and salts can be carried with it. Water moving by the apoplast pathway is forced to travel through the cytoplasm of the endodermis, because the endodermis cells have a waterproof layer in their cell walls called suberin. This is organized in bands called casparian strips. (C) Immune system cell communication: Cells of the immune system communicate by cell to cell contact and through the production of soluble factors that bind cognate receptors expressed at the surface of target cells. The blood and tissues of the body have certain cells and proteins that constantly patrol for infection and damage. Once these factors respond at the site of infection/injury, they start a cascade of further biochemical events that constitute the signal for help and attract other cells and proteins.

Essay 64 Cell Communication

4/22/13 Period 3

Most of the cells involved in this process are white blood cells (leukocytes). They circulate through the body between the organs and nodes via the lymphatic system. Most however are stored in the lymphoid organs until needed. There are two types of leukocytes. First are the phagocytes, which eat invading microorganism. A phagocyte called macrophages also release a substance called pyrogen, which signals the body to raise its temperature to "cook" the virus or bacteria (fever). Second are lymphocytes, which are immune cells that have receptors that remember and recognize previous invaders. B lymphocyte cells (B cell) and the T lymphocyte cells (T cell) are the main types of lymphocytes. The main role of B cells is to produce antibodies. These are proteins that tag the antigen, allowing them to be destroyed by T cells. The T cells have surface receptors allowing them to recognize the antibodies. Other cells involved in this process include phagocytes and dendritic cells. Monocytes and macrophages are phagocytes. They use surface receptors to identify bacteria and engulf them by phagocytosis. Dendritic cells are antigen-presenting cells with a unique ability to induce primary immune responses. They capture and transfer information from the outside world to the cells of the adaptive immune system, such as T and B cells. One of the most important molecules for cell communication within the immune system is cytokines. These proteins are secreted by immune cells and act on other cells to coordinate appropriate immune responses. Cytokines include lymphokines, produced by lymphocytes, and monokines, made by monocytes and macrophages. These chemical signals work but regulating the activity of immune cells. For example, interleukin (a cytokine) triggers the immune system to produce T cells. One important cytokine are interferons. They interfere with viral replication, activate immune cells such as natural killer cells and macrophages, they increase recognition of infection or tumor cells, and they increase the ability of uninfected host cells to resist new infection by virus. Also, chemokines often play a key role in inflammation. Another component involved in inflammation is mast cells, for they make and contain histamine. Histamine increases the permeability of the capillaries to white blood cells and some proteins, to allow them to engage pathogens in the infected tissues. (D) Endocrine system cell communication: Most hormones circulate in blood, coming into contact with essentially all cells. However, a given hormone usually affects only a limited number of cells, which are called target cells. A target cell responds to a hormone because it bears receptors for the hormone. There are two types of hormones: lipid based and protein based. Steroid hormones are lipidsoluble and can dissolve easily into the cell membrane of the target cell to connect with receptors. Protein hormones are water-soluble and connect with receptors at the membrane because it can't diffuse through the membrane. There are six main steps to hormone signaling. First is the biosynthesis of a particular hormone in a particular tissue. Second is the storage and secretion of the hormone; next is the transport of the hormone to the target cell(s). Fourth is recognition of the hormone by an associated cell membrane or intracellular receptor protein. Fifth is relay and amplification of the received hormonal signal via a signal transduction process. This then leads to a cellular response. The reaction of the target cells may then be

Essay 64 Cell Communication

4/22/13 Period 3

recognized by the original hormone-producing cells, leading to a down-regulation in hormone production. This is an example of a homeostatic negative feedback loop that is maintenance of hormone levels within a particular appropriate physiological range. Lastly is degradation of the hormone.

For example, the hormone, insulin, follows the six steps mentioned above. Insulin is first produced by the pancreas, and then secreted to be able to travel through the blood. The molecule binds to a variety of cells found in muscle, liver, and fat tissue. These cells all have the corresponding a tyrosine kinase receptor. The binding of insulin to the TK receptor activates a cascade of phosphorylation/ dephosphorylation events. The response to this hormone signaling pathway include: glucose storage and uptake, protein synthesis, regulation of lipid synthesis, and mitogenic responses.