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technical book

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steam

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Garioni Navals technical notebooks have been studied to offer a useful tool for the technical offices and for the users of steam, pressurized water and thermal oil. We obviously do not have the presumption to want to teach how things should be done. We just want to put at disposal of those people that wish to increase their knowledge in this sector, or find new information, our experience matured in many years of study and hard work. We warmly hope that what is written in these "technical books" will allow every reader to be able to work with ease and serenity and to avoid, where possible, to fall in errors that others, previously, have unintentionally committed in order to arrive to a certain knowledge level of the Termotecnics sector. This series of notebooks will be published in two editions, one in Italian and the other in English. We thought, with the purpose to avoid any possible confusion, that it was more practical and technically more appropriate, not to mix the two languages. The collection is dedicated to all those people whom have contributed, and that are still contributing, to GARIONI NAVALS development and growth. If you are interested to receive all the issues, please apply compiling in each part the enclosed form, by Internet through our web site www.garioninaval.com or by e-mail at GARIONINAVAL@compuserve.com

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Steam, a traditional but at the same time modern and efficient instrument, is practically irreplaceable regarding petrochemical, chemical, paper, dyeing, pharmaceutical, food, canning, rubber and plastic industries etc. It is also indispensable in the civil sector for sterilising in hospitals and clinics, it is used as a preference in canteens and laundries and in air conditioning plants (on industrial level, where it is often used for heating). Again it has a wide and irreplaceable use in generating power using turbines, pumps and alternators in large heating plants and onboard ships. Wherever there is a need to produce, pump and utilise both thermal energy and pressure, steam is the ideal solution. What advantages does it have and which are the reasons for this? Above all, steam can be produced fairly easily and comes from water which, at least in relation to the present or near future global production needs of steam, is luckily still available in large quantities and at economically advantageous conditions, apart from the fact that in steam plants continuos recycling is applied and recovery can be almost one hundred per cent. Steam has a very high ponderal heat content which means tubes and user units having to support a light load, which also means movable equipment with excellent exchange coefficient, compact and economic. Steam circulates naturally without requiring accelerators, temperatures can be high at quite low pressures which means a relatively safe means and fairly easy to deal with. Temperature or pressure regulations can be carried out using simple twoway valves; above all it has the advantage of being extremely flexible meaning that it adapts well to later variations and changes, not like other fluids such as water, superheated water, diathermic oil, etc.. Of course the above mentioned becomes more valid concerning steam plants which have been rationally designed and constructed, above all regarding recovering energy. This automatically leads to the fact that trained technicians with a good knowledge of the subject should be called in because, although steam is not so complex as other fluids, a good theoretical preparation and practical know-how are required.

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C ONVERSION TABLE FROM T RADITIONAL N EW I NTERNATIONAL S YSTEM U NITS Pressure

Unity Measurement
Pascal Bar Atmosphere=kgf/m2 Millimetres of Hg kilograms per m2 Pounds per in2 Pounds per ft2 Inches of w.c. Inches of Mercury Feet of w.c.

TO

Symbol
Pa bar at mm Hg kgf/m2 psi lbf/ft2 in w. in Hg ft w.

Pa
1 105 98070

bar
10-5 1 0,9807

at
1,0197x10-5 1,0197 1

mm Hg
0,0075 750,07 735,56 1 0,0735 51,719 0,7183 1,868 25,4 22,42

kgf/m2

psi

bf/ft2

in w.

in Hg

ft w.

0,10197 0,145x10-3 0,02088 10197 10000 13,595 1 703,07 4,8824 25,4 345,34 304,8 14,505 14,223 0,0193 0,00142 1 0,00694 0,03614 0,4912 0,4334 2088 2048,16 1,392 0,205 144 1 5,203 70,731 62,43

0,00401 0,295x10-3 0,335x10-3 401,46 393,71 0,5353 0,0394 27,683 0,1922 1 13,595 12 29,530 28,960 0,0394 0,0029 2,0362 0,01414 0,07355 1 0,8827 33,456 32,808 0,0446 0,0033 2,3069 0,01602 0,0833 1,1329 1

133,32 1,332x10-3 1,3595x10-3 9,807 6894,14 9,807x10-5 0,06894 10-4 0,0703

47,876 4,7876x10-4 4,8824x10-4 249,09 3386,36 2989 0,00249 0,03386 0,02989 0,00254 0,03453 0,03048

Energy
Unity Measurement
Joule Kilogrammeter Kilocalorie Watt-hour Horsepower hour Pound Foot Btu (Ist)

Symbol
J kgf/m Cal ( kcal) Wh CVh ft.lbf Btu

J
1 9,807 4186,80 3600 2647,8x103 1,356 1055,06

kgf/m
0,10197 1 426,92 367,08 269,91x103 0,1383 107,58

Cal (kcal)
0,2388x10-3 2,342x10-3 1 0,8605 632,53 0,3238x10-3 0,2520

Wh
0,2778x10-3 2,724x10-3 1,163 1 735,5 0,3767x10-3 0,2930

CVh
0,378x10-6 0,370x10-5 1,581x10-3 1,360x10-3 1 0,512x10-6 0,398x10-3

ft.lbf
0,7375 7,233 3087,6 2654,87 1952,92x103 1 778,03

Btu
0,9478x10-3 9,295x10-3 3,9683 3,413 2512,2 1,2853x10-3 1

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basic references to heat theory

Temperature and heat
The temperature of a body is the degree of heat it possesses, that is to say the thermal state of that same body in a specific moment. Temperature is measured by thermometers. Calorie (Kcal) is the amount of heat a body possesses. A calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 Kg of water by 1C (to be exact from 14C to 15C). Difference between temperature and heat We can say that the two tanks have reached the same temperature of 80C but one required 3500 Kcal and the other 7000 Kcal. There fore, in order to bring the two tanks at the same temperature of 80C, we must consider that one requires 5 times more calories than the other (350007000=5).

Specific heat
The specific heat of a mass is the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 Kg of said mass by 1C. The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a certain weight of a mass by 1C is not the same for all masses.
SPECIFIC HEAT OF SOME SOLID AND LIQUID ELEMENTS

water heavy oil olive oil Lets suppose we have to heat the water in two tanks of 80C. One tank contains 500 l of water, that is 500 Kg. The other contains 100 l of water, that is 100 Kg. Each tank reaches the same temperature of 80C. Bearing in mind the definition of calorie and taking for granted that the water at the beginning was 10C, in order to increase 1 Kg of this water from 10C to 80C we must administer: 80 10 = 70 calories. As in order to increase from 10C to 80C 500 Kg of water we must administer: 80 10 = 70 70 x 500 = 35000 Kcalories The other tank contained 100 Kg of water, in order to increase it from 10C to 80C it necessitates: 80 10 = 70 70 x 100= 7000 Kcalories bricks wood iron lead copper

Kcal/Kg

1,00 0,50 0,45 0,20 0,57 0,11 0,03 0,09

Example: raise the temperature of 500 Kg of water from 20 C to 70C. Specific heat of water = 1 70-20 = 50C 50 x 1 x 500 =25000 Kcal Example: raise the temperature of 500 Kg of heavy oil from 20 C to 70C. Specific heat = 0.5 70-20 = 50C 50 x 0.5 x 500 =12500 Kcal

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Sensible heat
The heat which produces a temperature increase when it penetrates into a body is called sensible heat. Regarding boilers, this means that the heat which passes from the furnace to the water heating is always sensible heat. The complete name is: sensible heat of water.

Total heat of steam

Therefore, at atmospheric pressure a total of 640 Kcal is needed to transform 1 Kg of water into steam.

To bring it to the boiling point it requires :100 to transform it into steam it requires :540 the total heat of 1 Kg of steam will be :640

Kcal + Kcal = Kcal

The temperature of water and steam remaines at 100C. We have already seen that the steam generated in our open pot contains two types of calories. There is the waters sensible heat, to which is added its latent heat that was needed to convert the water into steam. The total heat contained in the steam is therefore made up of sensible and latent heat. It can be seen that the quantity of latent heat is much higher than the quantity of sensible heat. In each Kg of steam at 100C there are roughly 100 cal of sensible heat and 540 cal of latent heat with a total heat of 640 cal. Whatever is the quantity of steam the proportions remain the same. For example, if instead of 1 Kg of steam we had 100 Kg and we examined these findings, all we need to do is to multiply what we said previously by 100.

By heating 1 Kg of water in an open pot reach a temperature of 100C its heat content is 100 Kcal/Kg. We will have: Temperature of water = 100C Heat content or sensible heat of water = 100 Kcal/kg

Latent heat
If we continue to add heat to the water, its heat content and temperature will not increase further but the water will begin to boil: it has reached its boiling point at 100C. By adding further heat to the water a change of state takes place: from a liquid to a gaseous state. Boiling water forms steam, water vapour this means that the extra heat added to the water after it started to boil and which consequently caused its transformation into steam is latent heat (the complete name is heat of water vaporisation). The quantity of latent heat is measured in calories.

Production of steam under pressure

The atmosphere exerts a pressure on everything that exists on the earths surface and this pressure is exerted in all directions: about 1.033 Kg for every centimetre of surface. If we now go back to the steam which was starting to come out of the pot we can see that it is submitted to atmospheric pressure, that is by this pressure which surrounds it; a pressure of 1.033 Kg/cm2. The temperature of the steam at this atmospheric pressure is the same as the boiling water, also at atmospheric pressure and that is 100C. As long as the pot remains open and the steam can exit freely, everything remains at atmospheric pressure and at the specific corresponding temperature.

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Sensible heat at atmospheric pressure Sensible heat at a pressure of 10 atm

:100 Kcal/Kg :186 Kcal/Kg Difference : +86 Kcal/Kg

Latent heat at atmospheric pressure Latent heat at a pressure of 10 atm In order to clarity here following are the values again:
internal

:540 Kcal/Kg :478 Kcal/Kg Difference : -62 Kcal/Kg

and external pressure of the pot steam pressure temperature of water in pot temperature of steam

:1.033 Kg/ cm2 :1.033 Kg/ cm2 :100C :100C

Water temperature at atmospheric pressure Water temperature at a pressure of 10 atm

:100 C :184 C Difference : +84C

Now, lets cover and seal the pot. By continuing to administer heat, steam is produced; the more steam is produced inside this container the more it is subjected to compression in order to find room and, as it is compressed it attempts to move in all directions, exerting pressure on everything around it. In this way, besides exerting pressure on the internal surfaces of the pot, the steam creates pressure on the surface of the water. Increasing the pressure on the surface of the water causes an increase in the boiling temperature. Whereas at atmospheric pressure (1.033 Kg/ cm2.) water boils when it has reached a temperature of 100C, we find that, for example, at a pressure of 10 Kg/ cm2. The boiling temperature increases to 184C. It can be immediately seen that in order to keep the water boiling and consequently to produce steam at this higher temperature, a higher quantity of sensible heat has to be supplied. On the other hand at these higher temperatures and pressures, the quantity of latent heat necessary to transform the boiling water into steam is less. In reference to the two examples given above we will have:

If we compare the two situations we will see that: the total heat has increased but only slightly ( +24 Kcal/Kg), the sensible heat has increased a lot (+86 Kcal/Kg) but the latent heat has decreased (-62 Kcal/Kg). In conclusion, when steam pressure increases more total heat but not much, (and the increase becomes less and less as the pressure increases), more sensible heat is available but there is less latent heat. When steam pressures decrease less total heat, but only slightly less, less sensible heat will be available, but there will be more latent heat. Steam pressures are expressed in Kg/ cm2 or bar and are divided into relative and absolute pressures. In the technical field the one usually referred to is relative pressure. If relative pressure has to be changed into absolute pressure, the level of relative pressure of atmospheric pressure has to be increased. (+1). The relative pressures are the pressures indicated by normal manometers installed in every boiler.

Total heat at atmospheric pressure Total heat at a pressure of 10 atm

:640 Kcal/Kg :664 Kcal/Kg Difference : +24 Kcal/Kg

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Space occupied by steam

(specific volume)

- At the relative pressure of 1Kg/cm2 steam occupies 0.177 m3. In both cases we started with exactly the same amount of water and in both cases we transformed the water into exactly the same weight of steam. But as pressure increases we find that the steam occupies less and less space and that it gradually gets compressed as the pressure increases.

The space occupied by a certain weight of steam will depend on its pressure. If we have 1 Kg of water and we transform it all into steam, we will have exactly 1 Kg of steam. - At the relative pressure of 1Kg/cm2 dry saturated steam occupies 0.881 m3.

P HYSICAL
PRESSURE relative bar kg/cm2 assolute bar kg/cm2

CHARACTERISTICS OF SATURATED STEAM

TEMPERATURE k C SPECIFIC HEAT SENSITIVE VOLUME OF WATER m3/kg LATENT HEAT TOTAL HEAT

kJ/kg kcal/kg kJ/kg kcal/kg kJ/kg kcal/kg

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P HYSICAL
PRESSURE relative bar kg/cm2 assolute bar kg/cm2

CHARACTERISTICS OF SATURATED STEAM

TEMPERATURE k C

SPECIFIC HEAT SENSITIVE VOLUME OF WATER m3/kg

LATENT HEAT

TOTAL HEAT

kJ/kg kcal/kg kJ/kg kcal/kg kJ/kg kcal/kg

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ENTHALPY

OF SUPERHEATED STEAM

SPECIFIC

HEAT OF SUPERHEATED STEAM

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reverse flame fire tube steam boiler

Operating Principale
The combustion products flow through the boiler is furnace, then, as the furnace is the closed bottom type, they return in the opposite direction along the circumference on the external wall and reach the front inversion chamber housed in the refractory material of the door. The fire return tubes are arranged in groups around the boiler furnace is exit from the front inversion chamber and connected into the rear fumes chamber from where they are introduced into the stack. Inserted inside the fire return tubes are high temperature resistant stainless steel helicoidal bars. The aim of these, so called turbulence bars, is to increase the turbulence of the fumes and therefore increase the heat exchange between themselves and the water circulating around them. The presence of impellers and the particular direction the fumes have to take, makes natural draft through the boiler with the furnace off almost nil. The loss in yield, due to intermittence, is therefore very restricted. For the same reason the size of the boiler must be calculated so that, when operating the fan, it supplies sufficient pressure to win the losses in load of the boiler notwithstanding the natural draft. Regarding the water/steam side, the boiler has a top steam chamber kept at a certain level, which aim is to create sufficient evaporation surface to produce heat.

Cross section of: reverse flame fire tube steam boiler.

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three passes wet back steam boiler

Operating Principale
The boiler is always of the return tube type, but instead of being equipped with a return furnace it is equipped with a front fume return chamber placed at the exit of the furnace. This return chamber, called stove, is, in the more modern models, completely washed with water to decrease the loss through irradiation and to avoid excessive overheating of the walls. In the stove, the fumes enter the tube nest and return along the front wall of the boiler where they enter the second return chamber housed in the refractory coating of the front door, where they enter the second tube nest and connect up to the rear fume chamber and from here exit through the stack. The furnace, in these type of boilers, is often corrugated to absorb heat dilations. These generators are normally used to produce over 4/5 tons/h of steam when the increase in length of the furnace makes correct distribution of the heat produced inside the furnace itself more difficult. It is clear that in these cases, as it is a through furnace, the only exit for the fumes is in the top section and therefore there is a better exploitation of the walls. Usually the exchange surfaces of these generators are, power being equal, better than those with fire return tubes.

Cross section of: three passes wet back steam boiler.

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two passes dry back steam boiler

Operating Principale
The boiler is of the fire tube passes type, but the reversing flame chamber, covered with refractory suitable for high temperatures, conveys the gasses that have completely passed through the furnace, in the tubes of the second and last pass, before being expelled from the chimmey in the front fume chamber. Due to the furnaces length, where are exchanged 60/70% of the heat produced by combustion, these generators are normally used for steam productions up to 5 ton/h. Anyhow, the passing furnace allows to exploit all the exchange surface of the furnace apart from the load that the generator is submitted to. Therefore, you can obtain an excellent efficiency also at low loads.

Cross section of: two passes dry back steam boiler.

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water tube boiler

Operating Principale
With the increase in power, and in particular operating pressures, the use of a water tube boiler becomes problematic since the high pressures require the walls of the tube nest to be thicker making the construction of such boilers uneconomic. In these cases, water-tube steam generators are preferable where the water and steam, instead of being contained by the cover, are confined within the tubes, therefore allowing much higher operating pressures. The boiler is constructed using the classic form of two cylindrical bodies, a prismatic combustion chamber made up of tubes placed at a tangent to each other with water flowing through them. The combustion develops in this combustion chamber which exchanges heat by irradiation. The other section of the boiler is made up of the two horizontal cylindrical bodies, placed one above the other. The function of the top cylinder is to collect the water/steam mixture coming from the boiler tubes and to separate the steam from the water. The bottom one, on the other hand, collects the water for the tube nest tubes and furnace chamber. The two cylindrical bodies are connected to each other as follows: 1) by a nest of vertical tubes which form the convection heat exchange zone; 2) by a group of tubes at a tangent forming a D, welded together and inserted into the cylinder bodies along a generator forming a part of the combustion chamber for heat exchange by irradiation. 3) By walls of welded vertical tubes at a tangent and connected to two manifolds to form the front and rear closure of the combustion chamber. The opening for the housing of the burner is made in the front wall.

Water side
The water reaches the top cylindrical body and is distributed internally through a tube with carefully positioned holes to ensure uniform distribution along all the body; The heat flow in the combustion chamber and tube nest draws in the water which is then distributed through all the tubes according to their role in the exchange. The water/steam mixture, formed in the tubes, reaches the top cylindrical body where the steam is separated and removed, whereas the water is recycled.

Gasses
Combustion which takes place in the D shaped chamber is the pressurized type. The hear exchange takes place in this chamber though irradiation due to the high temperature of the flames and their brightness. The combustion products exit the chamber through the special outlet leading into the tube nest. The turbulence caused by the hot fumes moving between the tubes creates convection heat exchange with the water-steam mixture circulating inside the tubes; this lowers the temperature of the fumes exiting the generator. These generators are usually used either when the operating pressure required is more than 15 bar or when the production of steam exceeds 10/12 Tonn/h.

Controlled Circulation type

For small capacities, up to 8 tonn/h are used generators in which the water circulation in the tubes is granted by a pump and the evaporation is carried out, during its crossing, in the same tubes. These are water tube controlled circulation steam.

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Cross section of a controlled circulation water tube steam generator.

Cross section of a natural circulation steam generator.

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steam boilers: general thermo-technical data

Characteristic elements of steam generators
Production capacity: This is the quantity of steam produced in 1 hour and it is measured in Kg/h. It is of course necessary to indicate the physical state of the steam (pressure, temperature). In this case, with the thermal content of a Kg of produced steam known, it could be more conveniently expressed as a power unit kW or Kcal/h. Specific power: This is the ratio between the kilograms of steam produced per hour and the heating surfaces. It represents the kilograms of steam produced in one hour for every square meter of heated surface; it is measured in Kg/m2/h. Tag pressure: This is the maximum rated pressure the generator can operate. The measuring unit is the bar or Kg/ cm2 (ate). The rate pressure can be obtained from the logbook of the equipment and from the stamp in the centre of the plate. Operating pressure: This is the pressure, lower or equal to the tag pressure, at which the generator operates. Heating surface: This is the sq. meters of area of the surface in contact, on one side with the fumes and on the other by the water; it is measured on the part in contact with the fumes. Production of steam on the basis of the heating surface
TYPE OF BOILER STEAM PRODUCTION Kg/h per m2 SUP BOILERS CORNISH WITH FIRE RETURN 18 20 25 20 8

BOILERS CORNISH BOILERS BOILERS

BOILERS HORIZONTAL SE MI-FIXED VERTICAL SE MI-FIXED MARINE TYPE1

PRESSURIZED BOILERS. Pressure from 1 to 5 ATE from 29-31.000 Kcal/m2/h equal to: PRESSURIZED BOILERS. Pressure from 8 to 15 ATE from 29-31.000 Kcal/m2/h equal to: 48-50 53-58

Thermal volumetric load of the combustion chamber This is the ratio between the quantity of heat developed from combustion in the unit of time and the volume of the combustion chamber. It is measured in Kcal/m3/h.
TVL= (G x Pci) : V TVL= Thermal volumetric load (Kcal/m3/h) G= combustion capacity (Kg/h m3/h)

LCV= lower calorific value of fuel (Kcal/Kg Kcal/ m3) V= Volume of furnace (m3)

The heating surface is the sum of the Surfaces of the combustion chamber and the surfaces of the tubes in the nest. The internal surface of the tubes must be taken into consideration.

Example: Boiler with natural gas burner gauged for a capacity of 258 m3/h Lower calorific value of natural gas : 8500 Kcal/m3 Volume of combustion chamber : 2 m3 TVL ( 258 x 8500) : 2 = 1,096,500 Kcal/ m3/h

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THERMAL VOLUMETRIC LOAD OF THE COMBUSTION CHAMBER. PRESSURIZED BOILERS RATED PRESSURE 1 ate

Vaporisation index
Kg/cal m3/h 800.000 from 1.000.000 to 1.800.000 from 800.000 to 1.200.000

FIRE-TUBE BOILERS

WATER-TUBE BOILERS

Surface thermal load of combustion chamber: This is the ratio between the quantity of heat developed in the combustion chamber in the unit of time and the heating surfaces of the combustion chamber; it is measured in Kg/m2/h.
SURFACE THERMAL LOAD OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER BOILERS BOILERS BOILERS CORNISH AND MARINE VERTICAL FIRE-TUBE HORIZONTAL SE MI-FIXED

This is the ratio between the mass of steam produced and the quantity of fuel burned in the same moment. It represents the kilograms of steam which can be obtained from burning 1 Kg of fuel. For pressurized boilers this can be defined fairly accurately as: 1 Kg of heavy oil (9600 cal) can produce 12-14 Kg steam 1 Kg of diesel fuel (10200) can produce 1 Nm3 of natural gas (8500) can produce 13-15 Kg steam 10-11 Kg steam

Kg/m2/h. 10.000 11.000 15-20.000 27-35.000 29-31.000

Characteristics of steam boilers feed water pump

PRESSURIZED BOILERS. RATED 1 to 5 ate PRESSURIZED BOILERS. RATED FROM 8 to 15 ate

Generator yield: This is the ratio between the heat transmitted to the fluid and the heat developed by combustion. Example: Steam boiler, rated pressure: 12 ate. Capacity burned at burner: 1.150.000 Kcal/h Capacity yielded to water: 1.000.000 Kcal/h Yield: 1.000.000 = 0.869 = 86.9% 1.150.000
steam prod. TYPE OF BOILER CORNISH FIRE-TUBE CORNISH MARINE TYPE STEEL BOILERS: SEMI-FIXED HORIZONTAL SEMI-FIXED VERTICAL MULTI-TUBULAR WATER TUBES PRESSURIZED FORCED CIRCULATION YIELD % 68-72 76-80 70-75 77-82 68-72 84-87 84-87 90 Kg/h. in Kcal/h=Kg/h x 600 Kcal/h. in Kw/h = Kcal/h x 0.001161 Kw/h. in Hp/h = Kw/h x 1.341 Ex. Kg/h 1000 x 600 = 600,000Kcal/h Ex. Kcal/h 600,000 x 0.001161 = 697 Kw/h Ex. Kw/h 697 x 1.341 = 935 Hp/h Kg/h 125 300 550 750 1,000 2,000 3,000 capacity Kcal/h 75,000 180,000 330,000 450,000 600,000 1,200,000 1,800,000 capacity Kw/h 87 209 383 523 697 1,393 2,090 steam prod. Hp/h 116.6 280 514 701 935 1,868 2,802

P = Pump operating pressure = 1,2 x rated boiler pressure Q = Pump operating capacity = 2 x maximum delivery (Kg/h) boiler steam production

Conversions tables of power units

Interpretation of concepts Kcal/h Kw/h Hp/h

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Inverse Process Hp/h in Kw/h. = Hp/h x 1.341 Hp/h. in Kcal/h = Kcal/h: 0.001558 Kw/h. in Kcal/h = Kw/h: 0.001161 Ex. Hp/h 935: 1.341 = 697 Kw Ex. Hp/h 935: 0.001558 = 600,000 Kcal/h Ex. Kw/h 697: 0.001161 = 600,000 Kcal/h

Increasing of gas temperature in relation to soot thickness

fume losses in % at 13% of CO2 thickness of the soot deposit fume temperature increase

Diagram for calculating roughly the yield of steam generator

GENERATORS OUTLET (TF)

Rapid calculation of fuel consumption for steam producing boilers

Q = Quantity of fuel consumed. In Nm3/h H = Enthalpy of steam at the corresponding pressure (Kcal/Kg steam) TAC = Boiler feed water temperature (C) L.H.C = Low heat capacity of natural gas (Kcal/ Nm3/h (8000-8500) = Boiler yield P = Quantity of steam produced (Kg/h) Q= H-TAC xP L.H.C x

Example: Boiler with 1000 Kg/h steam production Yield = 0.88 Steam pressure: 12 ate. Feed water temperature: 65C. Enthalpy or total steam heat at 12 ate = 666 Kcal/Kg Q = 666-16 x1000=92 Nm 3 /h 8000 x 8000

Example: FT = 230C AT = 30C CO2 = 12% SHL = 10% On finding the temperature of fumes on exit from boiler (FT), the ambient temperature (AT) and the amount of CO2 in the stack, the loss in percentage of sensible heat (SHL) can be calculated by following the example given in the diagram. 2% being taken as the percentage of the average loss of heat for various reasons (HLP), the overall heat yield will be calculated from:
= 100 SHL HLP = 100 10 2 = 88 (88%)

Example: The same boiler as above but fed with heavy oil fuel will give: L.H.C. = Low heat capacity of heavy oil (9800 Kcal/Kg) Q = 666-16 x1000=70 kg/h 9800 x 0,88

Example: The same boiler as above but fed with heavy oil fuel will give: L.H.C. = Low heat capacity of heavy oil (9800 Kcal/Kg)

Q =

666-16 x1000=68 kg/h 10000 x 0,88

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Diagram for calculating roughly the yield of steam generator

Fuel heat capacity The heat capacity is the quantity of heat expressed in calories which is developed by burning 1 Kg of solid or liquid fuel or 1 m3 of gaseous fuel High heat capacity All fuel is never completely dry, but they contain a certain amount of water under the form of humidity; furthermore in burning the hydrogen content more water is formed. This water, in boiler furnaces and tubes, is steam. If the fumes, on the exiting stack, had a temperature lower than 100C this steam would condense and lose the steam calories which would be used, in this way all the heat content in the fuel would be utilized and this would result in high heat capacity. Low heat capacity If on the other hand, as happens in the boilers, the fumes exit the stack at a temperature of over 100C the humidity is under the form of steam and the condensation heat is lost in the atmosphere. Consequently, the amount of heat which can be used is less, therefore is we have low heat capacity. The following page indicates the thermo-technical characteristics of the main fuels.
FUEL DIESEL FLUID OIL NATURAL GAS GPL HIGH HEAT CAPACITY 10900 Kcal/Kg 10450 Kcal/Kg 9400KCAL/Nm
3 3

Thermo-technical gaseous fuel

MARKET DEFINITION DENSITY at air 15

characteristics
AIR m3/m3

of
DEW POINT C

EXPLOSIVE LOW HEAT HIGH HEAT MIXTURE CAPACITY CAPACITY IN AIR % Kcal/Kg Kcal/Kg

METHANE CH4 PROPANE C3H8 BUTANE C4H10 LPG PROPANED AIR TOWN GAS BIOGAS

0,55 1,55 2,09 1,68 1,14 0,39 0,89

5-15 2,4 -9,3 2-7,6 2,1-9,5 7,5-36 5-30 7,8-32

8500 22200 29500 24000 5900 4200 5400

9400 24000 32000 26000 6400 4700 6000

9,56 24,3 32,3 26,3 5,75 4,33 6,12

58 54 53 54 54 62 57

Sizing diesel oil burner feed pipes

H = Difference in levels (m) L = Length of tubes including vertical section (m) The return tube must reach the same height as the bottom valve otherwise there is the risk of the intake tube becoming disconnected.
DELIVERY DIESEL Kg/h H (m) from 2 from 15 from 30 from 45 from 70 to 20 to 30 to 60 to 100 to 140 10x1 12x1 12x1 14x1 16x1 from 100 to 200 _ Lm _ Lm from 150 to 300 _ Lm _ Lm

LOW HEAT CAPACITY 10200 Kcal/Kg 9800 Kcal/Kg 8500 KCAL/Nm

3 3

26000 KCAL/Nm

24000 KCAL/Nm

Thermo-technical characteristics of liquid fuel

MARKET DEFINITION DENSITY 15 LOW HEAT HIGH HEAT VISCOSITY CAPACITY CAPACITY at 50CE Kcal/Kg Kcal/Kg

Lm

Lm

Lm

Lm

Lm

0
AIR m3/m3 PREHEAT. FOR FUEL

35 30 25 20 15 8 6

70 62 55 48 40 25 10

40 36 32 28 24 15 10

45 40 35 27 20 10 /

70 60 50 40 30 15 7

25 20 15 10 5 / /

50 40 30 20 10 5 /

25 20 15 10 5 / /

50 40 30 20 10 5 /

0,5 1

OIL (KEROSENE) DIESEL HEAVY DIESEL OIL LIGHT OIL 0,92 MEDIUM LIGHT OIL HEAVY OIL HSC (high sulfur content) HEAVY OIL LSC (Low sulfur content)

0,81 0,84 0,87 3-5 0,94 0,97

/ / / 9800 5-7 >7

10300 10200 / 10450 / 9600

11050 10900 / 10,7 / 10200

11,33 14,24 / 100-110C / 10,5

NO NO 70-80C

1,5 2 3 3,5

/ 120-140C

0,97

>7

9600

10200

120-140C

Example: boiler with capacity of 40 Kg/h diesel. The H value is 1.5 m and L is 20 m 12 x 1 copper tubing is chosen (with this data the maximum acceptable measurement for L is 28 m)

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Sizing diesel oil burner feed pipes

Example : boiler with capacity of 65 Kg/h diesel. The H value is 1.5 m and L is 30 m 14 x 1 copper tubing is chosen (with this data the maximum acceptable measurement for L is 40 m)

DELIVERY DIESEL Kg/h H (m)

from 2 from 15 from 30 from 45 from 70 to 20 to 30 to 60 to 100 to 140 10x1 12x1 12x1 14x1 14x1 Lm Lm Lm Lm Lm

from 100 to 200 _ Lm _ Lm

from 150 to 200 _ Lm _ Lm

0,5 1

30 25 20 15 8 6

90 80 70 58 36 25

90 80 70 58 36 25

60 50 40 30 15 7

60 50 40 30 15 7

20 15 12 10 5 /

40 30 25 20 10 5

20 15 12 10 5 /

40 30 25 20 10 5

H= Difference in levels (m) L = Length of tubes including vertical section (m) The length of P should not exceed 4 m to not to overload the sealing device of the pump.

1,5 2 3 3,5

Sizing heavy oil burners pipes

KCAL MAX rendered

P Pump Ql/h

B A 3-5 E VISCOSITY 7-9 E 15-20 E 3-5 E

B VISCOSITY 7-9 E 15-20 E

Fino a Fino a Fino a Fino a Fino a

400.000 1.000.000 2.000.000 4.000.000 6.000.000

300 600 600 1000 1500

1 11/4 11/2 2 2

1 11/4 11/4 11/2 2

1 11/4 11/2 2 2

11/4 11/2 11/2 2 21/2

1 11/4 11/4 11/2 11/2

1 11/4 11/4 11/2 11/2

1 11/4 11/4 11/2 11/2

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NOZZLES CAPACITY
NOZZLE CAPACITY G.P.H.
0,85 1 1,5 1,75 2 2,25 2,5 3 4 5 6 6,50 7

FOR

HEAVY OIL BURNERS

NOZZLE CAPACITY G.P.H.
7,50 8,30 9,50 10,50 12,00 13,80 15,30 17,50 19,50 21,50 24 28 30

PUMP PRESSURE
19 bar Kg/h 20 bar Kg/h 21 bar Kg/h

PUMP PRESSURE
19 bar Kg/h 20 bar Kg/h 21 bar Kg/h

4,9 5,7 8,6 10 11,5 12,9 14,3 17,2 23 28,7 34,4 37,3 40,2

5 5,9 8,8 10,3 11,8 13,2 14,7 17,7 23,5 29,4 35,3 38,3 41,2

5,1 6 9 10,6 12,1 13,6 15,1 18,1 24,1 30,2 36,2 39,2 42,2

43 47,6 54,5 60,2 68,9 79,2 87,8 100,4 111,9 123,4 137,7 160,7 172,1

44,1 48,9 55,9 61,8 70,6 81,2 90,1 103 114,8 126,6 141,3 164,8 176,6

45,2 50,1 57,3 63,3 72,4 83,2 92,3 105,6 117,6 129,7 144,8 168,9 181

NAME FAMILY NAME COMPANY ADDRESS TELEPHONE FAX E-MAIL Signature I wish to receive the next issue of GARIONI NAVAL TECHNICAL BOOK

Consent to the processing of personal data. In pursuance of art. 11, 20, 22, 24, and 28 of italian law no. 675 of 31 December 1996. I consent to the processing of my personal data by GARIONI NAVAL S.r.l. for the forwarding of information. I am also aware that, as per art. 13 of law 675/96, I can at any time access my personal data, request their modofication or cancellation.

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VISCOSITY
OF
pumping limit
Curve1 - diesel oil 2 - extra fluid 3 - fluid 3/5 4 - fluid 5/7 5 - heavy fuel 8 6 - heavy fuel 15-20 7 - heavy fuel viscosity 24 engler at 50C 8 - heavy fuel viscosity 35 engler at 50C 9 - heavy fuel viscosity 50 engler at 50C 10 - heavy fuel viscosity 85 engler at 50C

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index
TO

CONVERSION TABLE FROM TRADITIONAL NEW INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM UNITS

pag.

4 4 5 5 6 6 6 6 8 8/9 10 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 14 14 14 16 16 17 17 18 18 18 19 19 19 19/20 20 22

PRESSURE / ENERGY

BASIC REFERENCES TO HEAT THEORY

TEMPERATURE AND HEAT SENSIBLE HEAT LATENT HEAT TOTAL HEAT OF STEAM PRODUCTION OF STEAM UNDER PRESSURE SPACE OCCUPIED BY STEAM (SPECIFIC VOLUME) PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SATURATED STEAM ENTHALPHY OF SUPERHEATED SATURATED STEAM SPECIFIC HEAT OF SUPERHEATED STEAM

REVERSE FLAME FIRE TUBE STEAM BOILER

OPERATING PRINCIPALE

THREE PASSES WET BACK STEAM BOILER

OPERATING PRINCIPALE

TWO PASSES DRY BACK STEAM BOILER

OPERATING PRINCIPALE

WATER TUBE BOILER

OPERATING PRINCIPALE WATER SIDE GASSES CONTROLLED CIRCULATION

TYPE

STEAM BOILERS GENERAL : THERMO-TECHNICAL DATA

CHARACTERISTIC ELEMENTS OF STEAM GENERATORS CHARACTERISTICS OF STEAM BOILERS FEED WATER PUMP CONVERSIONS TABLES OF POWER UNITS DIAGRAM FOR ROUGHLY CALCULATING THE YIELD OK STEAM GENERATOR INCREASING OG GAS TEMPERATURE IN RELATION TO SOOT THICKNESS RAPID CALCULATION OF FUEL CONSUMPTION FOR STEAM PRODUCING BOILERS DIAGRAM FOR CALCULATING ROUGHLY THE YIELD OF STEAM GENERATOR THERMO-TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LIQUID FUEL THERMO-TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GASEOUS FUEL SIZING DIESEL OIL BURNER FEED PIPES SIZING HEAVY OIL BURNERS PIPES

VISCOSITY OF FUELS

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...well take care of the rest.

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