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1. Introduction
Approachesarelearningtheorieswhichwillbeappliedwhendelivering subjectmatter.Methodsareasetofteacherssystemicactiontoreach learningobjectivesinalimitedtimeframe;itincludesproceduresbased on approaches. Techniques are the manipulation of the method to optimizelearning,forexample,exercisesinclasspertainingtoasubject matter. A teacher, therefore, is free to construct a teaching method basedonanapproach.Therelationshipbetweenapproaches,methods andtechniquesdeliversmodel.Modelswillexplicateteachingmethods and strategies, which are in turn based on teaching approaches (Kamaruddin,1993). The number of emerging models and the ones that have emerged is uncountable.Eachemergingnewmodeleitherexploresanewapproach or attempts a modification of the conventional ones as to cater the uniqueness of individuals. Most importantly, any teaching model should optimizelearningexperiencestotheneedsofeachlearnerbycarefully exploringthelearningproblemsandofferingtailoredassistance. Inductiveteachingmodelsareamongoneoftheinfluentialmodelsthat have emerged and influenced the foundations of modern curriculum theories(Krull,n.d.).Therearemanyversionsofinductiveteachingand learningstrategies;however,thefocusofthispaperisontheinductive teachingandlearningstrategieswhicharegroundedonthe constructivist viewoflearning.Thisisaviewwhichweightsonlearnersselfconstructive comprehension of the lesson, and teachers active and constructive guidance of the learners. In brief, the procedures of teaching and learningofthisviewaremodifiedtosuitstyle,circumstance,contentand learningactivities. This paper, therefore, aims at describing three different models of
inductiveteaching withthefocusonteachersrole,content typesand examplesoflessonplan.Abriefexplanationonwhatistheconstructivist theoryisalsonecessary. 2. ConstructivistTheory Learnersareencouragedtodiscoverfactsandrelationshipsfor themselves. Bruner,2001 Amajorthemeinthetheoreticalframeworkoftheconstructivisttheoryis an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their own knowledge. Constructivists emphasize on the importance of learners reliance on cognitive structures to select and transform information, construct hypotheses and make decisions. Cognitivestructuressuchasschema,mentalmodels,attitudesandscripts, which are related to behaviour, provide meaning and organization to experiencesandallowtheindividualtogobeyondtheinformationgiven. However, this relationship is often complex, thus, making it difficult to generalize result across tasks and domain differences (Kearsley, 2003; Huitt, 1999). Consequently, the constructivists suggest a behaviorally orientedcurriculum(Huitt,1999)inwhichknowledgeandskillsaretaught inductively in a constructivisticallyoriented classroom (Huitt, 1999) that requirelearnerstocarryouttasksimplementingcriticalthinking. According to the constructivists, as far as instruction is concerned, teachersshouldencouragestudentstodiscoverprinciplesbythemselves. Theteacherandlearnersshouldengageinanactivedialogue.Thetaskof the teacher is to translate information to be learnt into a format appropriate to the learners current state of understanding; therefore, lesson plan should be organized in a manner in which students could continuallybuilduponwhattheyhavealreadylearnt. One of the prominent founders of constructivist theory, James Bruner
providesthefollowingprinciplesofconstructivisticlearning: 1.Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness). 2.Instructionmustbestructuredsothatitcanbeeasilygrasped bythestudent(spiralorganization). 3.Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and/orfillinthegaps(goingbeyondtheinformationgiven). (Kearsley,2002;Huitt,1999) Thus, this shows that there should be an adequacy between learners acquisitionofknowledgeandskills,andthedevelopmentoftheirthinking skill. The constructivists propose three teaching models, namely the Inductive Model, the Concept Attainment Model and the Integrative Model. 3.TheInductiveModel The focal point of this model is the emphasis on learners active involvement in the classroom activities and learners development of criticalthinking.Oneofthestrategiestodevelopsuchenvironmentisthe utilizationofrealexamplesthatrepresentthecontentofthelessonplan. Students,then,havetohypothesizeonthetheorybasedonthepresented examples.Theeffectivenessofthismodeldependsontheactiveroleof the teacher in assisting students to process and hypothesize the informationfromtheexamplesandtheactiveroleoflearnerstodevelop theircriticalthinking.
3.1
TeachersRole
Indevelopingstudentscriticalthinkingandmotivation,teacherneedsto playanactiveroleinencouragingstudentstointerpretandexplainthe information learned in the class, and teachers can focus this through questioning.Theimportanceofquestioningistoensurethatstudentskeep theirfocusonthetask,toincreasestudentsmotivation,andtoestablish studentspositiveexpectationonthelesson.Ontheotherhand,thequality of examples that teachers use and their ability to guide students to analyzetheinformationintheexamplesarealsoessentialtodetermine thesuccessofthelesson.Furthermore,intheInductiveModel,theteacher doesnotsolelydisplayorexplaintheinformationtothestudents,rather theteacherguidesthemthroughquestioning. 3.2 ContentType
The focus of the Inductive Model is to assist students to build deep understanding of specific topics or ideas. These specific topics as promotedbythemodelcanbecategorizedasfollows:
ContentTypes
Concepts
RelationshipsamongConcepts
Principles
Generalizations
AcademicRule
AdoptedfromEggen&Kauchak(1996).p.69
3.2.1 Concepts Conceptsareclassesorcategoriesofideaswithcommoncharacteristics. Concepts can be found in various areas of studies, such as language, socialsciences,scienceandmathematics.Assuch,theInductiveModel can be utilized in art classes as well as science classes, as long as the contentofthelessonfocusesonconcepts.Anessentialcharacteristicof concepts is its defining features. Concepts are also best described through its characteristics, related concepts, examples and definition. Therefore,theteachershouldensurethattheexamplesprovidedcontain essential characteristics of the concept; and the success of the lesson dependsonhowstudentsareabletoidentifythecharacteristicsinthe examples(Eggen&Kauchak,1996;Newby,2003).Examplesofconcepts are adjective, direct object and protagonist in language arts, and democracyandsocialnorminsocialsciences.
3.2.2 RelationshipsamongConcepts Tounderstandorformideasaboutconcepts,wecanalsogeneralizeits common characteristics. This is because concepts possess common patterns among its characteristics, which we tend to generalize. The broad patterns can be categorized as principles, generalizations, and academicrules(Eggen&Kauchak,1996). a) Principles Aprincipleofaconceptisanyrelationshipamongconceptsthat canbeacceptedastrueorvalidforallknowncases.Principlesare mostlyfoundinthesciences. Examplesofprinciplesare: Changeisinevitable.
Likemagneticpolesrepelandunlikepolesattract. Thegreatertheunbalancedforceonanobject,thegreaterits acceleration. b) Generalizations Generalizationsofaconceptarerelationshipsbetweenconcepts thatdescribepatternsthathaveexceptions. Examplesofgeneralizationsare: Peopleimmigrateforeconomicreasons. Adiethighinsaturatedfatraisesapersonscholesterollevel. Teachersincreaseachievementbycallingonallstudents equally. c) AcademicRules Academicrulesarerelationshipsbetweenconceptsarbitrarily derivedbypeople. Examplesofacademicrulesare: Apronounmustagreewithitsantecedentinnumberand gender. InEnglish,anadjectiveprecedesthenounitmodifies. Inroundingoffanumber,ifthelastdigitis5ormore,youround up,andifitis4orless,yourounddown.
3.3
PlanningtheLesson
There are three stages in implementing the Inductive Model, which includetheplanningstage,theimplementingstageandtheevaluating stage. 3.3.1 ThePlanningStage Theplanningprocessinvolvesthreeessentialsteps,whichareidentifying thetopic,identifyingthepreciseobjectiveandselectingtheexamples.
Process IdentificationofTopic
Objective Todeterminewhichmodeltouse To decide exactly what students should knowaboutthetopic Toteachdirectlytowardtheobjectives To guide teachers to select appropriate examples To determine necessary characteristics of conceptswithintheexamples To determine a successful delivery of the content
Inlearningconcepts,principles,andgeneralizations,examplesarecritical teaching aids. Without examples, learning is often reduced to mere memorization. Therefore, it is important to choose good examples becausegoodexamplescontainalloftheinformationthatthestudents needtounderstand.Theexamplescouldbeinanyform,aslongasthey containallthenecessarycharacteristicsoftheconcepts. However,itis noteworthy that the examples selected could visualize the concepts. Among the forms of examples that can be used are realia, pictures, models,casestudies,simulationandroleplay. 3.3.2 TheImplementingStage Implementing a lesson using the Inductive Model combines five interrelatedphases.Thephasesincludethelessonintroduction,theopen ended phase, the convergent phase, the closure and the application phase.
Thesefivephasescanbesummarizedintothefollowingchart.
Teacherintroduces thelesson
Intr od uct ion
Teacherpresents theexamples
Teachernarrowsdown rangeofstudents'answers.
Studentsidentifythe characteristicsoftheconcept.
Phase4 Closure
Studentsapplytorealistic context
Ass ess me nt
3.4
AssessingStudentLearning
4.
TheConceptAttainmentModel
CloselylinkedtotheInductiveModel,theConceptAttainmentModelalso suggeststhatlearnersconstructtheirowncomprehensionofthelesson. Thismodelisdesignedtohelpstudentsreinforcetheirunderstandingof concepts and practice hypothesis testing. However, if Inductive Model solelyrelyonthepositiveexamplesthatrepresenttheconcept,thismodel utilizes both the examples and nonexamples to illustrate the concepts. Since hypothesis testing is particularly common to describe scientific method;therefore,itisusefulinthesciences. 4.1 TeachersRole
hypothesizefreely,theteacheractsasthemainrolebyguidingstudents throughout the process of learning. The model suggests, that first, the teacherneedstoencouragestudentstostatetheirthinkingintheformof hypothesis. Since hypotheses can be argued, and later accepted, rejected or modified; therefore, the teacher needs to direct students thinkingtocomeupwiththerationaletotheirhypotheses.Inessence,the teacherisnotonlymotivatingstudentstoparticipatebutalsotoguide studentstowardshypothesizingtheirthoughts.
4.2
ContentTypes
ThefocusoftheConceptAttainmentModelinwhattypesofcontentto bedeliveredissimilartotheInductiveModelbutwithminordifference. Therearetwoimportantdifferencesbetweenthetwomodels. First,theInductiveModelisdesignedtoteachconcepts,principles, generalizations, or academic rules; however, the Concept AttainmentModelfocusesexclusivelyonconcepts . Second,whilethestudentsoftheInductiveModelcanhavezero knowledge of the content, the Concept Attainment Model requires that the students have some background knowlledge withtheconcept. ThesedifferencesareassuchbecauseintheConceptAttainmentModel, studentsneedtohypothesize,andinordertohypothesize,background knowledgeisneeded. 4.3 PlanningtheLesson
Similarly to the Inductive Model, the Concept Attainment Model also involvesthreestagesindescribingitslessonplan.Thestagesincludethe planningstage,theimplementingstageandtheevaluatingstage.
4.3.1 ThePlanningStage The planning process of the model also involves three essential stages. Basically, the three stages are similar with the previous model, yet individual differences have made them a little bit different from each other.Thestagesareidentifyingthetopic,identifyingthecleargoalsand selectingtheexamples.
Selectionofexamples
Objective Todeterminewhichmodeltouse Toachievetheobjectivesofthemodel To determine development of students' analyticalthinkingwithinthelessonplan To ensure students' comprehension of the concept To determine necessary illustration of characteristics of the concept within the examples To determine a successful delivery of the content
The third step in the planning process is the selection of examples. This modelutilizesboththepositiveandnegativeexamplesindemonstrating thecharacteristicsoftheconcept.Thus,theselectedpositiveexamples should contain and reflect the combination of the essential characteristics,andnoneofthenonexamplesshouldcontainthesame combination. The examples could be in any form as long as the characteristicsarereflectiveintheexamples.Moreover,itisvitalthatthe formisthesameforboththepositiveandnegativeexamples. Having selected the examples and nonexamples, the final task in this stageistoputtheexamplesinsequence.Itdependsontheteacheron howtoarrangethesequenceoftheexamples,butteachershavetobear inmindthegoalofdevelopingstudentscriticalthinking.Thesequence
should provide opportunities for students to develop their analytical thinking. Thus, the organization of the examples should depend on the goalofthelessonindevelopingstudents'analyticalthinking.
Studentshypothesize
Studentsanalyze previoushypothesis
Studentshypothesize
Phase3 Closure
Studentsprovidetheir ownexamplesofconcept
Ass ess me nt
Phase4 Application
During the second phase, the teacher encourages the students to analyzehypothesesfromthepositiveandnegativeexamples.Thisbegins a cyclical process of data presentation and hypothesis examination. In theprocess,itiswisetoaskthestudentstoexplainwhytheyacceptedor rejected the hypothesis. The purpose is twofold. First, it helps students developtheirthinkingskillbyhavingthemarticulatetheirownreasoning; and secondly, the explanation described out loudwill aid uniformityof understandingamongthestudents. 4.4 AssessingStudentLearning
There are many ways in which teachers can assess students understandingoftheconcept.Thismodelproposes,thatfirst,theteacher canaskstudentstoidentifynewexamplesoftheconcept.Asecondform of measurement is to ask students to identify characteristics of the concept,andthirdlyrelatethemtootherconcept.Finally,studentscan alsobemeasuredbyaskingtoprovidethedefinitionoftheconcept.
5.
TheIntegrativeModel
Similarlytothetwopreviousmodels,theIntegrativeModelalsoaimsat developingstudentscriticalthinkingandincreasingstudentsinvolvement in the activities. However, it is designed for a different content of understanding. It focuses on developing students understanding of organized bodies of knowledge. The Integrative Model is designed to
teach the combination of specific forms of concepts in large, i.e., organizedbodiesofinformation. 5.1 TheTeachersRole Essentially,theteachersroleintheIntegrativeModelistohelpcreatean environment in which students could participate freely. However, the biggesttaskfortheteacheristomaintaintheflowofthediscussionruns smoothly, and the success of the lesson depends on thequality of the representationstheteachersuse,andtheirabilitytoguidethestudents analysisoftheinformation. 5.2ContentTypes ThefocusoftheIntegrativeModelistodevelopstudentsunderstanding ontheorganizedbodiesofknowledge,whicharetopicsthatcombine facts,concepts,generalizations,andtherelationshipsamongthem.Inthe lesson, the goals of the model are to look for patterns in the facts, concepts,andgeneralizations,todescribecauseandeffectrelationships among them, to hypothesize additional possibilities, and to form broad generalizationsthatencompassedalloftheinformation.Itdoesnotaimto teachasingleconceptorgeneralizationbuttherelationshipsamongthe concepts. Examples of topics that are organized bodies of knowledge includethefollowing: Acomparisonofdifferentbiomes,andthelifeformsand attributesofeachlifescience. Acomparisonofwellbalancedandpoorlybalancedmealsand theincorporationofthedifferentfoodgroupsintoeach. Acomparisonofartformsindifferenthistoricalperiods. Eachofthesetopicscombinesfacts,concepts,andgeneralizations,and theteacherwouldwantstudentstoidentifyandunderstandrelationships
amongthemineachother. 5.3PlanningtheLesson The Integrative Models lesson plan involves three stages. The stages includetheplanningstage,theimplementingstageandtheevaluating stage.
5.3.1ThePlanningStage Theplanningprocessinvolvesthreebasicstages.
Objective Todeterminewhichmodeltouse Todecideexactlywhatstudentsshouldknow aboutthetopic Todeterminetheteachinggoals To guide teachers to select appropriate representations To prepare the matrix for the content of lesson
In the third phase, to present the information in a way that will allow students to process, the data can be organized in the form of a matrix/table.Sincethetopicsofteninvolveacomparison,thenumberof ideasbeingcompareddependsonthedevelopmentalconsiderationas wellastheteachersgoal. Oncetheideasanddimensionshavebeenidentified,thenextstepisto gather the data that will appear in the matrix. Here, teachers have at leastthreeoptions. Assignindividualorteamsofstudentstogatherthedatathatwill appearineachofthecellsofthematrix. Havethestudentsgathersomeofthedata,andaddsome
additionaldatayourself. Preparetheentirematrixthemselves. In presenting and displaying the data that has been gathered, two importantfactors shouldbeconsidered.Firstly,itisimportanttodisplay theinformationinasfactualmanneraspossible.Thiswillprovideoptimal opportunitiesforstudentstoprocessinformationandpracticeanalytical and thinking skills. Secondly, an effective matrix should include enough information,sothatstudentscanusedatafromonepartofthematrixas evidenceforaconclusionaboutanotherpart. 5.3.2 TheImplementingStage TheIntegrativeModelisimplementedinfourcloselyrelatedphases. Phase1marksthepointwherestudentsbegintoanalyzetheinformation inthematrix,andtheteacherrecordstheanalysisontheboard.Writing students'hypothesesontheboardprovidesapublicrecordoftheprocess andreferencepointsforstudents.Thesecondphaseisthepointwhere the students are immersed in the process of critical thinking. Once studentswarmtothetask,theiranalysiscanbecomequiteadvanced. Thequestioning processinPhase2shouldbemoredemanding.Asking studentstoexplainwhyacertainsimilarityordifferenceexistsnotesthe shiftfromPhase1toPhase2,andthethinkingprocessonthepartofthe studentsissignificantlyadvanced. Phase3oftenevolvesdirectlyfromPhase2.Theprocessofhypothesizing continuesuntilopportunitiesforanalysishavebeenexhausted.Thelesson issummarizedandcomestoaclosurewhenstudentsderiveoneormore generalizations that serve to summarize the content. Students will not automaticallybegoodatmakingsummarizingstatements,therefore,the teachermayinitiallyhavetodoaconsiderableamountofprompting.
Thesefourphasescanbeillustratedinthefollowingchart.
Teacherintroduces thelesson
Intr o
Phase1
Desc ribing , Com parin g and Sear chin gfor Patte rns Expla ining Simil aritie s and Differ ence s
Teacherpresents thematrix
Teacherquestions
Studentshypothesizeandanalyze forsimilaritiesanddifferences
Teacherrecordsstudents' hypothesisontheboard
Phase2
Studentsanalyzetherecord andteacherquestions
Studentshypothesizeformore hypothesisandprovidereasons
Hypo thesiz ing Outc ome for Differ ent Con ditio ns Gen eralizi ngto form Relat ionshi p
Teacherrecords,students analyzerecordandteacherquestions
Phase3
Studentshypothesizethematrixand recordforoutcome
Teacherrecords,students analyzerecordandteacherquestions
Phase4
5.4AssessingStudentLearning
Studentsderivegeneralization andsummarizecontentofanalysis
The Integrative Model proposes that a simple and effective way of measuring students comprehension is through the pencilandpaper descriptionofthetopicsstudied.Itcouldeitherbeintheformofatestor anassignment. Ontheotherhand,studentthinkingcanbemeasuredattwolevels.Firstly, byreferringtothechartormatrix,studentscanprovideconclusionsthat aredevelopedduringthelesson;thiscanbedoneorallyorasawritten assignment.Atanotherlevel,theteachercouldprepareitemssimilarto the illustration presented in the class, and therefore, students need to analyzethem.
6.Conclusion Inductivereasoningisabranchoflogic.Inavalidinductiveargument,the conclusionisbelievedtobetrueonthebasisofmodifying,rejectingand accepting hypotheses. One of the influential constructivists curriculum developers,HildaTaba,believesthatstudentsmakegeneralizationsonly after data are organized and exemplified (Hannah, n.d.). She believes thatstudentscanbeledtowardmakinggeneralizationsthroughconcept development and concept attainment strategies, and describes generalizinghypothesisactivelyasahigherorderofthinking.HildaTaba (inHannah,n.d.)furtherutilizesthreemainassumptionsindevelopingher teachingmodel. 1.Thinkingcanbetaught. 2.Thinkingisanactivetransactionbetweentheindividualanddata. 3.Processesofthoughtevolvebyasequencethatislawful. Inshort,theinductiveteachingstrategiesarepowerfultoolsthatcanbe utilizedandmanipulatedbyteachersintheirclasses.Sincethesemodels covercontentsthatrangefromconcept,relationshipbetweenconcepts
toorganizedbodiesofknowledge,theseteachingstrategiescanbeused in pure sciences, social sciences and even art classes. It focuses on developing students selfconstructive of the understanding, critical thinkingandactiveparticipationinclassaswellasteachersroleasan activeguidance.
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