Sei sulla pagina 1di 20

INDUCTIVETEACHINGSTRATEGIES

1. Introduction

Approachesarelearningtheorieswhichwillbeappliedwhendelivering subjectmatter.Methodsareasetofteacherssystemicactiontoreach learningobjectivesinalimitedtimeframe;itincludesproceduresbased on approaches. Techniques are the manipulation of the method to optimizelearning,forexample,exercisesinclasspertainingtoasubject matter. A teacher, therefore, is free to construct a teaching method basedonanapproach.Therelationshipbetweenapproaches,methods andtechniquesdeliversmodel.Modelswillexplicateteachingmethods and strategies, which are in turn based on teaching approaches (Kamaruddin,1993). The number of emerging models and the ones that have emerged is uncountable.Eachemergingnewmodeleitherexploresanewapproach or attempts a modification of the conventional ones as to cater the uniqueness of individuals. Most importantly, any teaching model should optimizelearningexperiencestotheneedsofeachlearnerbycarefully exploringthelearningproblemsandofferingtailoredassistance. Inductiveteachingmodelsareamongoneoftheinfluentialmodelsthat have emerged and influenced the foundations of modern curriculum theories(Krull,n.d.).Therearemanyversionsofinductiveteachingand learningstrategies;however,thefocusofthispaperisontheinductive teachingandlearningstrategieswhicharegroundedonthe constructivist viewoflearning.Thisisaviewwhichweightsonlearnersselfconstructive comprehension of the lesson, and teachers active and constructive guidance of the learners. In brief, the procedures of teaching and learningofthisviewaremodifiedtosuitstyle,circumstance,contentand learningactivities. This paper, therefore, aims at describing three different models of

inductiveteaching withthefocusonteachersrole,content typesand examplesoflessonplan.Abriefexplanationonwhatistheconstructivist theoryisalsonecessary. 2. ConstructivistTheory Learnersareencouragedtodiscoverfactsandrelationshipsfor themselves. Bruner,2001 Amajorthemeinthetheoreticalframeworkoftheconstructivisttheoryis an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their own knowledge. Constructivists emphasize on the importance of learners reliance on cognitive structures to select and transform information, construct hypotheses and make decisions. Cognitivestructuressuchasschema,mentalmodels,attitudesandscripts, which are related to behaviour, provide meaning and organization to experiencesandallowtheindividualtogobeyondtheinformationgiven. However, this relationship is often complex, thus, making it difficult to generalize result across tasks and domain differences (Kearsley, 2003; Huitt, 1999). Consequently, the constructivists suggest a behaviorally orientedcurriculum(Huitt,1999)inwhichknowledgeandskillsaretaught inductively in a constructivisticallyoriented classroom (Huitt, 1999) that requirelearnerstocarryouttasksimplementingcriticalthinking. According to the constructivists, as far as instruction is concerned, teachersshouldencouragestudentstodiscoverprinciplesbythemselves. Theteacherandlearnersshouldengageinanactivedialogue.Thetaskof the teacher is to translate information to be learnt into a format appropriate to the learners current state of understanding; therefore, lesson plan should be organized in a manner in which students could continuallybuilduponwhattheyhavealreadylearnt. One of the prominent founders of constructivist theory, James Bruner

providesthefollowingprinciplesofconstructivisticlearning: 1.Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness). 2.Instructionmustbestructuredsothatitcanbeeasilygrasped bythestudent(spiralorganization). 3.Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and/orfillinthegaps(goingbeyondtheinformationgiven). (Kearsley,2002;Huitt,1999) Thus, this shows that there should be an adequacy between learners acquisitionofknowledgeandskills,andthedevelopmentoftheirthinking skill. The constructivists propose three teaching models, namely the Inductive Model, the Concept Attainment Model and the Integrative Model. 3.TheInductiveModel The focal point of this model is the emphasis on learners active involvement in the classroom activities and learners development of criticalthinking.Oneofthestrategiestodevelopsuchenvironmentisthe utilizationofrealexamplesthatrepresentthecontentofthelessonplan. Students,then,havetohypothesizeonthetheorybasedonthepresented examples.Theeffectivenessofthismodeldependsontheactiveroleof the teacher in assisting students to process and hypothesize the informationfromtheexamplesandtheactiveroleoflearnerstodevelop theircriticalthinking.

3.1

TeachersRole

Indevelopingstudentscriticalthinkingandmotivation,teacherneedsto playanactiveroleinencouragingstudentstointerpretandexplainthe information learned in the class, and teachers can focus this through questioning.Theimportanceofquestioningistoensurethatstudentskeep theirfocusonthetask,toincreasestudentsmotivation,andtoestablish studentspositiveexpectationonthelesson.Ontheotherhand,thequality of examples that teachers use and their ability to guide students to analyzetheinformationintheexamplesarealsoessentialtodetermine thesuccessofthelesson.Furthermore,intheInductiveModel,theteacher doesnotsolelydisplayorexplaintheinformationtothestudents,rather theteacherguidesthemthroughquestioning. 3.2 ContentType

The focus of the Inductive Model is to assist students to build deep understanding of specific topics or ideas. These specific topics as promotedbythemodelcanbecategorizedasfollows:

ContentTypes

Concepts

RelationshipsamongConcepts

Principles

Generalizations

AcademicRule

AdoptedfromEggen&Kauchak(1996).p.69

3.2.1 Concepts Conceptsareclassesorcategoriesofideaswithcommoncharacteristics. Concepts can be found in various areas of studies, such as language, socialsciences,scienceandmathematics.Assuch,theInductiveModel can be utilized in art classes as well as science classes, as long as the contentofthelessonfocusesonconcepts.Anessentialcharacteristicof concepts is its defining features. Concepts are also best described through its characteristics, related concepts, examples and definition. Therefore,theteachershouldensurethattheexamplesprovidedcontain essential characteristics of the concept; and the success of the lesson dependsonhowstudentsareabletoidentifythecharacteristicsinthe examples(Eggen&Kauchak,1996;Newby,2003).Examplesofconcepts are adjective, direct object and protagonist in language arts, and democracyandsocialnorminsocialsciences.

3.2.2 RelationshipsamongConcepts Tounderstandorformideasaboutconcepts,wecanalsogeneralizeits common characteristics. This is because concepts possess common patterns among its characteristics, which we tend to generalize. The broad patterns can be categorized as principles, generalizations, and academicrules(Eggen&Kauchak,1996). a) Principles Aprincipleofaconceptisanyrelationshipamongconceptsthat canbeacceptedastrueorvalidforallknowncases.Principlesare mostlyfoundinthesciences. Examplesofprinciplesare: Changeisinevitable.

Likemagneticpolesrepelandunlikepolesattract. Thegreatertheunbalancedforceonanobject,thegreaterits acceleration. b) Generalizations Generalizationsofaconceptarerelationshipsbetweenconcepts thatdescribepatternsthathaveexceptions. Examplesofgeneralizationsare: Peopleimmigrateforeconomicreasons. Adiethighinsaturatedfatraisesapersonscholesterollevel. Teachersincreaseachievementbycallingonallstudents equally. c) AcademicRules Academicrulesarerelationshipsbetweenconceptsarbitrarily derivedbypeople. Examplesofacademicrulesare: Apronounmustagreewithitsantecedentinnumberand gender. InEnglish,anadjectiveprecedesthenounitmodifies. Inroundingoffanumber,ifthelastdigitis5ormore,youround up,andifitis4orless,yourounddown.

3.3

PlanningtheLesson

There are three stages in implementing the Inductive Model, which includetheplanningstage,theimplementingstageandtheevaluating stage. 3.3.1 ThePlanningStage Theplanningprocessinvolvesthreeessentialsteps,whichareidentifying thetopic,identifyingthepreciseobjectiveandselectingtheexamples.

Process IdentificationofTopic

Identificationofprecise objectives Selectionofexamples

Objective Todeterminewhichmodeltouse To decide exactly what students should knowaboutthetopic Toteachdirectlytowardtheobjectives To guide teachers to select appropriate examples To determine necessary characteristics of conceptswithintheexamples To determine a successful delivery of the content

Inlearningconcepts,principles,andgeneralizations,examplesarecritical teaching aids. Without examples, learning is often reduced to mere memorization. Therefore, it is important to choose good examples becausegoodexamplescontainalloftheinformationthatthestudents needtounderstand.Theexamplescouldbeinanyform,aslongasthey containallthenecessarycharacteristicsoftheconcepts. However,itis noteworthy that the examples selected could visualize the concepts. Among the forms of examples that can be used are realia, pictures, models,casestudies,simulationandroleplay. 3.3.2 TheImplementingStage Implementing a lesson using the Inductive Model combines five interrelatedphases.Thephasesincludethelessonintroduction,theopen ended phase, the convergent phase, the closure and the application phase.

Thesefivephasescanbesummarizedintothefollowingchart.
Teacherintroduces thelesson
Intr od uct ion

Phase1 Lesson Introduction

Teacherpresents theexamples

Studentsobserve,describe andcomparetheexamples (lookforpatternsand differences).

Studentsanalyze respondingtoopenended questionsfromtheteacher.

An aly zin g ex am ple s

Phase2 OpenEnded Phase

Teachernarrowsdown rangeofstudents'answers.

Teacherleadsstudentsto verballyidentifythe relationshipinthecharacteristics.

Co nstr uct ing me ani ng

Phase3 Convergent Phase

Studentsidentifythe characteristicsoftheconcept.

Studentsareabletostatethe meaningandcharacteristics oftheconcept.

Ide ntif yin g co nc ep t

Phase4 Closure

Studentsapplytorealistic context

Ass ess me nt

Phase5 Application Phase

3.4

AssessingStudentLearning

Throughtheapplicationphase,studentscanbeassessedeitherthrougha seatworkassignmentorhomeworkassignment.Theassignmentscanbe doneinavarietyofwaysdependingontheteacher'screativity.

4.

TheConceptAttainmentModel

CloselylinkedtotheInductiveModel,theConceptAttainmentModelalso suggeststhatlearnersconstructtheirowncomprehensionofthelesson. Thismodelisdesignedtohelpstudentsreinforcetheirunderstandingof concepts and practice hypothesis testing. However, if Inductive Model solelyrelyonthepositiveexamplesthatrepresenttheconcept,thismodel utilizes both the examples and nonexamples to illustrate the concepts. Since hypothesis testing is particularly common to describe scientific method;therefore,itisusefulinthesciences. 4.1 TeachersRole

Virtually, to create an environment where students can think and

hypothesizefreely,theteacheractsasthemainrolebyguidingstudents throughout the process of learning. The model suggests, that first, the teacherneedstoencouragestudentstostatetheirthinkingintheformof hypothesis. Since hypotheses can be argued, and later accepted, rejected or modified; therefore, the teacher needs to direct students thinkingtocomeupwiththerationaletotheirhypotheses.Inessence,the teacherisnotonlymotivatingstudentstoparticipatebutalsotoguide studentstowardshypothesizingtheirthoughts.

4.2

ContentTypes

ThefocusoftheConceptAttainmentModelinwhattypesofcontentto bedeliveredissimilartotheInductiveModelbutwithminordifference. Therearetwoimportantdifferencesbetweenthetwomodels. First,theInductiveModelisdesignedtoteachconcepts,principles, generalizations, or academic rules; however, the Concept AttainmentModelfocusesexclusivelyonconcepts . Second,whilethestudentsoftheInductiveModelcanhavezero knowledge of the content, the Concept Attainment Model requires that the students have some background knowlledge withtheconcept. ThesedifferencesareassuchbecauseintheConceptAttainmentModel, studentsneedtohypothesize,andinordertohypothesize,background knowledgeisneeded. 4.3 PlanningtheLesson

Similarly to the Inductive Model, the Concept Attainment Model also involvesthreestagesindescribingitslessonplan.Thestagesincludethe planningstage,theimplementingstageandtheevaluatingstage.

4.3.1 ThePlanningStage The planning process of the model also involves three essential stages. Basically, the three stages are similar with the previous model, yet individual differences have made them a little bit different from each other.Thestagesareidentifyingthetopic,identifyingthecleargoalsand selectingtheexamples.

Process IdentificationofTopic Identificationof cleargoals

Selectionofexamples

Objective Todeterminewhichmodeltouse Toachievetheobjectivesofthemodel To determine development of students' analyticalthinkingwithinthelessonplan To ensure students' comprehension of the concept To determine necessary illustration of characteristics of the concept within the examples To determine a successful delivery of the content

The third step in the planning process is the selection of examples. This modelutilizesboththepositiveandnegativeexamplesindemonstrating thecharacteristicsoftheconcept.Thus,theselectedpositiveexamples should contain and reflect the combination of the essential characteristics,andnoneofthenonexamplesshouldcontainthesame combination. The examples could be in any form as long as the characteristicsarereflectiveintheexamples.Moreover,itisvitalthatthe formisthesameforboththepositiveandnegativeexamples. Having selected the examples and nonexamples, the final task in this stageistoputtheexamplesinsequence.Itdependsontheteacheron howtoarrangethesequenceoftheexamples,butteachershavetobear inmindthegoalofdevelopingstudentscriticalthinking.Thesequence

should provide opportunities for students to develop their analytical thinking. Thus, the organization of the examples should depend on the goalofthelessonindevelopingstudents'analyticalthinking.

4.3.2 TheImplementingStage TheimplementationphaseoftheConceptsAttainmentModelisflexible andcanbefunforboththeteacherandthestudents.Theprocesscan bepresentedasatypeofgameinwhichthestudentstrytoidentifythe concepttheteacherhasinmind.Thismodeloccursinfourphases.The phasesincludethepresentationofexamples,theanalysisofhypotheses, theclosureandtheapplicationphase. Thesefourphasescanbeillustratedinthefollowingchart.


Teacherintroduces thelesson Teacherpresentsanexample andanonexample
Intr od uct ion

Phase1 Lesson Introduction

Studentshypothesize

Studentsanalyze previoushypothesis

Teacherpresents moreexamples andnonexamples

Anal yzing exa mple s Maki ng Hypo thesis

Phase2 Analysisof Hypothesis

Studentshypothesize

Teacherleadsstudents tostatecharacteristics anddefineconcept

Studentsextendand generalizeconceptto additionalexamples

Ide ntif yin g co nc ep t

Phase3 Closure

Studentsprovidetheir ownexamplesofconcept

Ass ess me nt

Phase4 Application

During the second phase, the teacher encourages the students to analyzehypothesesfromthepositiveandnegativeexamples.Thisbegins a cyclical process of data presentation and hypothesis examination. In theprocess,itiswisetoaskthestudentstoexplainwhytheyacceptedor rejected the hypothesis. The purpose is twofold. First, it helps students developtheirthinkingskillbyhavingthemarticulatetheirownreasoning; and secondly, the explanation described out loudwill aid uniformityof understandingamongthestudents. 4.4 AssessingStudentLearning

There are many ways in which teachers can assess students understandingoftheconcept.Thismodelproposes,thatfirst,theteacher canaskstudentstoidentifynewexamplesoftheconcept.Asecondform of measurement is to ask students to identify characteristics of the concept,andthirdlyrelatethemtootherconcept.Finally,studentscan alsobemeasuredbyaskingtoprovidethedefinitionoftheconcept.

5.

TheIntegrativeModel

Similarlytothetwopreviousmodels,theIntegrativeModelalsoaimsat developingstudentscriticalthinkingandincreasingstudentsinvolvement in the activities. However, it is designed for a different content of understanding. It focuses on developing students understanding of organized bodies of knowledge. The Integrative Model is designed to

teach the combination of specific forms of concepts in large, i.e., organizedbodiesofinformation. 5.1 TheTeachersRole Essentially,theteachersroleintheIntegrativeModelistohelpcreatean environment in which students could participate freely. However, the biggesttaskfortheteacheristomaintaintheflowofthediscussionruns smoothly, and the success of the lesson depends on thequality of the representationstheteachersuse,andtheirabilitytoguidethestudents analysisoftheinformation. 5.2ContentTypes ThefocusoftheIntegrativeModelistodevelopstudentsunderstanding ontheorganizedbodiesofknowledge,whicharetopicsthatcombine facts,concepts,generalizations,andtherelationshipsamongthem.Inthe lesson, the goals of the model are to look for patterns in the facts, concepts,andgeneralizations,todescribecauseandeffectrelationships among them, to hypothesize additional possibilities, and to form broad generalizationsthatencompassedalloftheinformation.Itdoesnotaimto teachasingleconceptorgeneralizationbuttherelationshipsamongthe concepts. Examples of topics that are organized bodies of knowledge includethefollowing: Acomparisonofdifferentbiomes,andthelifeformsand attributesofeachlifescience. Acomparisonofwellbalancedandpoorlybalancedmealsand theincorporationofthedifferentfoodgroupsintoeach. Acomparisonofartformsindifferenthistoricalperiods. Eachofthesetopicscombinesfacts,concepts,andgeneralizations,and theteacherwouldwantstudentstoidentifyandunderstandrelationships

amongthemineachother. 5.3PlanningtheLesson The Integrative Models lesson plan involves three stages. The stages includetheplanningstage,theimplementingstageandtheevaluating stage.

5.3.1ThePlanningStage Theplanningprocessinvolvesthreebasicstages.

Process IdentificationofTopic SpecificationofGoals Preparationof Representations

Objective Todeterminewhichmodeltouse Todecideexactlywhatstudentsshouldknow aboutthetopic Todeterminetheteachinggoals To guide teachers to select appropriate representations To prepare the matrix for the content of lesson

In the third phase, to present the information in a way that will allow students to process, the data can be organized in the form of a matrix/table.Sincethetopicsofteninvolveacomparison,thenumberof ideasbeingcompareddependsonthedevelopmentalconsiderationas wellastheteachersgoal. Oncetheideasanddimensionshavebeenidentified,thenextstepisto gather the data that will appear in the matrix. Here, teachers have at leastthreeoptions. Assignindividualorteamsofstudentstogatherthedatathatwill appearineachofthecellsofthematrix. Havethestudentsgathersomeofthedata,andaddsome

additionaldatayourself. Preparetheentirematrixthemselves. In presenting and displaying the data that has been gathered, two importantfactors shouldbeconsidered.Firstly,itisimportanttodisplay theinformationinasfactualmanneraspossible.Thiswillprovideoptimal opportunitiesforstudentstoprocessinformationandpracticeanalytical and thinking skills. Secondly, an effective matrix should include enough information,sothatstudentscanusedatafromonepartofthematrixas evidenceforaconclusionaboutanotherpart. 5.3.2 TheImplementingStage TheIntegrativeModelisimplementedinfourcloselyrelatedphases. Phase1marksthepointwherestudentsbegintoanalyzetheinformation inthematrix,andtheteacherrecordstheanalysisontheboard.Writing students'hypothesesontheboardprovidesapublicrecordoftheprocess andreferencepointsforstudents.Thesecondphaseisthepointwhere the students are immersed in the process of critical thinking. Once studentswarmtothetask,theiranalysiscanbecomequiteadvanced. Thequestioning processinPhase2shouldbemoredemanding.Asking studentstoexplainwhyacertainsimilarityordifferenceexistsnotesthe shiftfromPhase1toPhase2,andthethinkingprocessonthepartofthe studentsissignificantlyadvanced. Phase3oftenevolvesdirectlyfromPhase2.Theprocessofhypothesizing continuesuntilopportunitiesforanalysishavebeenexhausted.Thelesson issummarizedandcomestoaclosurewhenstudentsderiveoneormore generalizations that serve to summarize the content. Students will not automaticallybegoodatmakingsummarizingstatements,therefore,the teachermayinitiallyhavetodoaconsiderableamountofprompting.

Thesefourphasescanbeillustratedinthefollowingchart.
Teacherintroduces thelesson
Intr o

Phase1
Desc ribing , Com parin g and Sear chin gfor Patte rns Expla ining Simil aritie s and Differ ence s

Teacherpresents thematrix

Teacherquestions

Studentshypothesizeandanalyze forsimilaritiesanddifferences

Teacherrecordsstudents' hypothesisontheboard

Phase2

Studentsanalyzetherecord andteacherquestions

Studentshypothesizeformore hypothesisandprovidereasons
Hypo thesiz ing Outc ome for Differ ent Con ditio ns Gen eralizi ngto form Relat ionshi p

Teacherrecords,students analyzerecordandteacherquestions

Phase3

Studentshypothesizethematrixand recordforoutcome

Teacherrecords,students analyzerecordandteacherquestions

Phase4

5.4AssessingStudentLearning

Studentsderivegeneralization andsummarizecontentofanalysis

The Integrative Model proposes that a simple and effective way of measuring students comprehension is through the pencilandpaper descriptionofthetopicsstudied.Itcouldeitherbeintheformofatestor anassignment. Ontheotherhand,studentthinkingcanbemeasuredattwolevels.Firstly, byreferringtothechartormatrix,studentscanprovideconclusionsthat aredevelopedduringthelesson;thiscanbedoneorallyorasawritten assignment.Atanotherlevel,theteachercouldprepareitemssimilarto the illustration presented in the class, and therefore, students need to analyzethem.

6.Conclusion Inductivereasoningisabranchoflogic.Inavalidinductiveargument,the conclusionisbelievedtobetrueonthebasisofmodifying,rejectingand accepting hypotheses. One of the influential constructivists curriculum developers,HildaTaba,believesthatstudentsmakegeneralizationsonly after data are organized and exemplified (Hannah, n.d.). She believes thatstudentscanbeledtowardmakinggeneralizationsthroughconcept development and concept attainment strategies, and describes generalizinghypothesisactivelyasahigherorderofthinking.HildaTaba (inHannah,n.d.)furtherutilizesthreemainassumptionsindevelopingher teachingmodel. 1.Thinkingcanbetaught. 2.Thinkingisanactivetransactionbetweentheindividualanddata. 3.Processesofthoughtevolvebyasequencethatislawful. Inshort,theinductiveteachingstrategiesarepowerfultoolsthatcanbe utilizedandmanipulatedbyteachersintheirclasses.Sincethesemodels covercontentsthatrangefromconcept,relationshipbetweenconcepts

toorganizedbodiesofknowledge,theseteachingstrategiescanbeused in pure sciences, social sciences and even art classes. It focuses on developing students selfconstructive of the understanding, critical thinkingandactiveparticipationinclassaswellasteachersroleasan activeguidance.

REFERENCE Armstrong,T.(1998).HildaTaba:InductiveThinking.[Online]. Available: http://ivc.uidaho.edu/mod/models/taba/index.html.

[2002,September12]. Bruner,J.(2001).ThePSCCaf.[Online].Available: http://www.psy.pdx.edu/PsiCafe/KeyTheorists/Bruner.htm. [2003, June8]. Eggen,P.D.&Kauchak,D.P.(1996).StrategiesforTeachers TeachingContentandThinkingSkills.Boston:AllynandBacon. Hannah,L.(n.d.).HildaTaba:TheInductiveModel.[Online]. Available: http://imet.csus.edu/fundamentals/inductive/. [2003, June8]. Huitt,W.(1999).Constructivism.[Online].Available: http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/construct.html. [2003,June8]. KamaruddinHj.Husin.(1993).PerkaedahanMengajar:Siri PendidikanPerguruan.Selangor:PenerbitKumpulanBudimanSdn. Bhd. Kearsley,G.(2003).ExplorationinLearningandInstruction:the Theory into Practice Database. [Online]. Available: http://tip.psychology.org/bruner.html.[2003,June8]. Krull,E.(n.d.).HildaTaba.[Online].Available: http://www.ut.ee/curriculum/Sisu/artiklid/krull.ppt.[2003,June8]. Newby,D.(2003).StrategiesofDevelopingConcepts.[Online]. Available: [2003,June8]. http://www.ehhs.cmich.edu/~dnewby/conceptformation.htm.

Potrebbero piacerti anche