CHAPTER 2 THE SCIENCE OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER INTRODUCTION
I. The scientific method A. The scientific method is a 4-step process. 1. Conceptualize a problem 2. Collect information (data) 3. Analyze data 4. Draw conclusions B. In step 1, researchers use theory and hypotheses. 1. A theory is a coherent set of ideas that helps explain data and make predictions. There is not one perfect theory. Different theories explain different aspects of development. 2. Hypotheses are specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested. II. Theories of development A. Psychoanalytic Theory 1. Psychoanalytic theory views development as unconscious and affected by emotion. 2. The psychoanalytic theory was developed by Sigmund Freud (18561939) in Vienna, Austria. Much of his theory was derived from the study of mentally ill patients. 3. According to Freuds theory, the personality is comprised of three structures. They are id, ego, and superego. a) The id houses the instincts and contains the persons reservoir of psychic energy. It operates on the pleasure principle, and it is unconscious, i.e., has no contact with reality. Moreover, it knows no morality. b) The ego deals with reality, is called the executive branch, makes rational decisions, and has no morality. The ego resolves conflict between the id and the superego through defense mechanisms. c) c) The superego is the moral branch of the personality, i.e., it houses the conscience, which considers right and wrong. 4. Freuds theory delineates five stages of psychosexual development. At each stage pleasure is derived from a particular erogenous zone. a) Stage 1: Oral (018 months): The mouth is the major pleasure center. Chewing, sucking, and biting reduce tension. b) Stage 2: Anal (183 years): Anus or eliminative functions provide pleasure and reduce tension. c) Stage 3: Phallic (36 years): Self-manipulation of genitals (masturbation) provides pleasure and reduces tension. The Oedipus complex occurs in this stage. The Oedipus complex refers to the desire to replace same-sex parent and enjoy the affections of the opposite-sex parent. At 5 or 6 years, children recognize that same-sex parent might punish them for incestuous wishes. So, child identifies with same-sex parent and strives to be like him/her. d) Stage 4: Latency (6 yearspuberty): The child represses any interest in sexuality and focuses on developing social and intellectual skills. e) Stage 5: Genital (from puberty on): There is a sexual reawakening that is a source of sexual pleasure in someone outside of family. 5. Some theorists revised Freuds theory to put more emphasis on cultural experiences. B. Neo-Psychoanalytic Theory

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1. Erik H. Erikson (19021994) developed a neo-psychoanalytic theory that focused more on social relationships than individual personality and sexual feelings. It is called the psychosocial theory. In this theory, life span development is important, compared to Freud who believed experiences in first five years shape personality. 2. Eriksons theory is comprised of eight stages. They are: a) Trust vs. Mistrust: Infancy (01 year): Requires physical comfort and low anxiety. Believes world is basically a trustworthy place. Virtue is hope. b) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (13 years): In this stage, the child asserts independence or autonomy and realizes the will. If restrained too much or punished too harshly, the child may develop a sense of shame and doubt. c) Initiative vs. Guilt: (Preschool years): This stage notes the development of purposeful behavior; including responsibility for ones own body, behavior, toys, and pets. A sense of responsibility is acquired. The child who does not develop responsibility, or is made to feel anxious, is likely to develop a sense of guilt. d) Industry vs. Inferiority: (Elementary school years): The child in this stage masters basic knowledge needed to live productively in society (build, fish, read, write, compute, cook). Failure to do so leads to feelings of inferiority, feeling incompetent and unproductive. Successful development of industry leads to a sense of competence. e) Identity vs. Identity Confusion: (Adolescence): The adolescent is confronted with new roles and adult statuses. If the adolescent does not explore roles and has no plans for the future, identity confusion results. This is a time to explore vocational, romantic, political, and religious roles before making a commitment. f) Intimacy vs. Isolation: (Early adulthood): The young adult has the task of forming intimate relationships with others. If no close relationships are formed, isolation results. g) Generativity vs. Stagnation: (Middle adulthood): People in middle adulthood assist younger generation in developing useful lives. Doing nothing to help leads to stagnation. a) Integrity vs. Despair: (Late adulthood): People in late adulthood look back over life and evaluate what they have done. If they see a life well spent, have sense of satisfaction, then integrity. If earlier stages were not resolved satisfactorily, then despair or gloom. C. Evaluating psychoanalytic theory 1. Contributions (early experience as important, family relationships as central, personality is developmental, unconscious aspect of mind are important, change continues to occur in adulthood) 2. Criticisms (difficult to test, data might not be accurate due to recall methods, sexuality given too much importance, negative image of humans, culture and gender bias) D. Cognitive theories 1. 1. Piagets Theory II Jean Piaget (1896-1980) lived and worked in Switzerland. a) The main idea in Piagets theory is that children construct or create knowledge by gradually adapting what they already know in order to reach a higher level of understanding. Adaptation involves two complementary processes: (1) Assimilation (2) Accommodation b) Piaget described four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, pre-Operational, concrete, and formal. (1) Sensorimotor: (birth2 years): Coordinate sensory experiences with motor actions (2) Preoperational: (27 years): Represent world with symbols (words, props, images, drawings)

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(3) Concrete Operational: (711 years): Perform operations (reversible actions carried out in thought); logical reasoning, but need to be able to apply reasoning to specific concrete examples. Can classify/categorize objects. Can conserve. Cannot think hypothetically. (4) Formal Operational: (1115): More abstract; think of ideal; think of possibilities; systematic problem solving; generate and test hypotheses. 2. Lev Vygotsky (1806-1934), a Russian developmentalist, created a sociocultural cognitive theory. a) Vygotskys theory stimulated the view that knowledge is collaborative. b) Social interaction with more skilled adults and peers advances cognitive development. E. Information-Processing Approach 1. The information-processing approach attends to how children manipulate, monitor, and strategize about information. 2. Information is processed in the following way: a) Information enters the mind. b) It is stored and transformed. c) It is retrieved for use in problem solving and reasoning. 3. Robert Siegler, a leading expert on childrens information processing, delineates these thinking processes: perceiving, encoding, representing, storing, and retrieving information. F. Evaluating cognitive theories 1. Contributions a) Positive view b) Emphasizes construction of knowledge c) Focus on development in childrens thinking d) Information-processing approach offers detailed descriptions of processes. 2. Criticisms a) Piagets stages might not be pure. b) Lack of attention to individual variations c) Information-processing approach is not adequate for describing development of cognition. d) Might not give enough credit to unconscious thought G. Behavioral and Social Learning 1. Behaviorists concern themselves only with what can be directly observed and measured. 2. The pioneers of classical conditioning were Ivan Pavlov and John Watson. 3. 3. Definition of classical conditioning: A learning process in which a neutral stimulus acquires ability to produce a response originally produced by another stimulus. The unlearned part of classical conditioning is based on reflexes (automatic stimulus-response connections). a) b) c) d) e) 2. 4. Operant Conditioning is defined as follows: A form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in likelihood of the behavior occurring. Rewards increase the likelihood of recurrence of a behavior, while punishments decrease the likelihood of behavior reoccurring. 5. The pioneer of operant conditioning was B. F. Skinner. 1.
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2. 3. 6. Social Cognitive Theory a) Social cognitive theory is the view of psychologists who emphasize behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development. b) The pioneers in social cognitive theory were Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel. (1) Banduras early work focused on observational learning or imitation. (2) A major principle of Banduras social cognitive theory is that behavioral, personal/cognitive, and environmental factors influence each other reciprocally H. Ethological Theory 1. Ethology stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods. 2. The pioneer in ethological theory was Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989). 3. Components of ethological theory: a) Imprinting: Rapid, innate learning within a critical period of time that involves attachment to the first moving object seen (Lorenzs geese became attached to him) b) Critical Period: A fixed time period early in development during which certain behaviors optimally emerge 4. John Bowlby used ethological theory to study attachment to caregivers. I. Ecological Theory 1. Ecological Theory is Bronfenbrenners framework, which consists of five environmental systems: a) Microsystem: Setting in which an individual lives (family, peers, school, neighborhood) b) Mesosystem: Relationships between microsystems or connections between contexts c) Exosystem: This system is involved when experiences in a social setting in which an individual does not have an active role influence what the person experiences in an immediate context (e.g., mothers work may influence relationship with child) d) Macrosystem: Culture in which individuals live e) Chronosystem: Patterning of environmental events and transitions over life-course and sociohistorical circumstances 2. Bronfenbrenner has more recently added biological systems to the framework, which is now called the bioecological model, though the focus remains on environmental factors. G. Eclectic Approach: 1. This orientation does not follow any one theory. It selects whatever is best in all theories. II. Research in Child Development A. Types of research 1. Descriptive research is conducted by observing and recording behavior in laboratory or other settings. 2. Naturalistic observation involves observing in real-world settings. 3. Surveys and interviews employ a standard set of questions to learn about peoples attitudes or beliefs. 4. Standardized tests are carried out using uniform procedures for administration and coding. 5. Case studies provide in-depth looks at one person. 6. Correlational research describes the strength of a relationship between two variables. The correlation coefficient is a number ranging from +1.00 to 1.00 with +1.00 representing a 1 to- 1 relationship between two variables. 7. Experimental research is conducted by manipulating the variable that is thought to influence the behavior of interest. Experimental research can be used to infer cause-effect relationships.
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a) Types of experimental variables (1) An independent variable is the factor that is manipulated in order to observe the effect. (2) A dependent variable is the factor that can change as a result of the independent variable. b) Types of groups (1) Experimental group is one whose experience is manipulated (2) Control group members comprise a comparison group that is the baseline against which the manipulated condition can be compared. B. Time span of research 1. The cross sectional approach is one in which children of different ages are compared. 2. In longitudinal studies subjects are studied over a long period of time. C. Research journals III. Research challenges A. Ethics guidelines 1. Informed consent 2. Confidentiality 3. Debriefing 4. Deception B. Minimizing bias 1. Gender bias 2. Cultural and ethnic bias

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SUGGESTIONS FOR LECTURE TOPICS

1. Eriksons Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development: Thinking Around the Boxes Erik H. Eriksons eight-stage theory of psychosocial development is described in Chapter 2 of the Santrock text. The issues inherent in each stage are described in Figure 2.2: Eriksons Eight Life Span Stages. This figure illustrates the stair-step fashion in which new issues emerge at particular ages, when cultures typically socialize the young to develop specific competencies. In introductory psychology and child development courses, students are almost always asked to learn the eight stages and the eight ages in which they occur. Challenge students to more fully understand Eriksons theory by asking them to reflect on the idea that all of the psychosocial issues are present in some form at all ages. In Childhood and Society (1950/1963), Erikson presented the epigenetic stages in the form of a table with eight rows and eight columns. The eight rows represented the eight biological ages in terms of corresponding biological developments or approximate time periods within the life span. The eight ages are I. Oral-Sensory; II. Muscular-Anal; III. Locomotor-Genital; IV. Latency; V. Puberty and Adolescence; VI. Young Adulthood; VII. Adulthood; and VII. Maturity. The eight psychosocial issues (Basic Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Same and Doubt, etc.) are represented by a column in the table, beginning with Trust on the left. Erikson explained that the diagram should be viewed with the totality of the issues in mind at all ages. Each issue has as its generation or creation ( genesis) at a prime time (epic or epi); thus, the term, epigenesis characterizes Eriksons theoretical framework. What is less often recognized, even among developmental psychologists, is that all of the psychosocial issues are experienced in some form at all ages. Each issue has some pre-emergent form prior to taking center stage. Moreover, each issue is never completely resolved and must be renegotiated on a continuous basis throughout the life span. An example of a pre-emergent psychosocial behavior is seen in infants who express autonomy by resisting restraint in automobile safety devices. Likewise, long before adolescents reach the Stage V Identity crisis, they learn as infants to recognize the sound of their names; toddlers learn self-recognition (see Chapter 12 on the self and identity); preschoolers learn their gender group; and schoolchildren begin to use labels that describe their competencies. They can name the ethnic group/s to which they belong, and they attach trait labels to identify individuals as nice or mean, kind or selfish. Erikson invited the readers of Childhood and Society to think about the empty boxes outside the diagonal in his diagram. He left the question open for child development researchers and students to describe what issues might look like outside of its primetime epic. How might integrity look in toddlerhood? How is trust vs. mistrust experienced by newlyweds? What form does generativity take in college students who volunteer for social service agencies? What issues of autonomy are experienced by aging persons who can no longer drive at night? Or what issues related to autonomy vs. shame, industry vs. inferiority, and integrity vs. despair are called into play for the adolescent who loses some physical ability as the result of an accident? Source: Erikson, E. (1950/1963), Childhood and Society. New York: Norton. 2. Learning Concepts Applied Do a basic lecture (or pair of lectures) in which you define the fundamental concepts of classical and operant conditioning. Spice your treatment liberally with sample applications of the concepts to daily life and invite the class to generate its own examples. Point out how various features of behavioral control are operating even as you speak (the students are sitting in chairs, oriented to the front of the room, writing down what you have presented on overheads all examples of stimulus control).
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Although the treatment of these concepts seems straightforward, remember that some of the concepts are usually misunderstood. In particular, students usually want to define negative reinforcement as punishment. Take care to differentiate these terms. This lecture is most effective if you use several demonstrations or other student involvers. 3. Subjects' Biases [Note: To have a demonstration of the biasing effect of a seemingly random number, give half of the class one set of these two problems and the other half the remaining set. Set A: 1. Without figuring the answer out (answering within five seconds), how much is 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1? 2. Given that there are 1,000 annual cases of electrocution, how many people do you think die from fireworks each year? Set B: 1. Without figuring the answer out (answering within five seconds), how much is 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8? 2. Given that there are 50,000 annual deaths from car accidents, how many people do you think die from fireworks each year?] Research subjects have biases that affect their responses to surveys and other psychological research. The better-than-average bias is the tendency of people to believe that they are better than average. For example, in a study of 829,000 high school seniors asked to rate their ability to get along with others, not one person gave a self-rating of below average. In fact, 60 % ranked their abilities in the top 10 % and 25 % ranked themselves in the top 1 % (Myers, 1980). The self-serving bias is the tendency to take credit for one's successes and to explain one's failures as externally caused. Of course, to complicate matters, some people do not take credit for their successes and may overblame failures on lack of effort or ability. The "false consensus effect'' is the tendency to use an egocentric bias in perception and to overbelieve that one's own view is held by the majority. For example, subjects were asked if they would give a dollar to someone who had not eaten in two days, and they were also asked to estimate the percentage of other people who would give a dollar. Subjects who indicated that they would give a dollar thought that a majority of people would also give a dollar; similarly, subjects who said they would not give a dollar believed that most people would not give a dollar (Ross et al., 1977). Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in the 1970s spun a wheel of numbers and then asked subjects to estimate the percentage of African countries that were in the United Nations. When the wheel was on 10, the average estimate was 25 %, but when the wheel was on 65, the average estimate was 45 %. What this research study demonstrated was the blasting effect of a seemingly random number (Rubin, 1990). This can be a very strong effect. For example, people were asked how many persons die from fireworks each year. If they were told that 50,000 people died in car accidents, the average guess was 331; but, if they were told that there were 1,000 cases of electrocution annually, the average guess was 77 (the actual answer was 6). Persons asked to multiply 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 gave bigger answers than those asked to multiply 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8 (the right answer is 40,320). In a study by Daniel Cervone, students were asked how many of 20 puzzles they could solve. They estimated better performance if they were first asked whether the number was above or below 18 than if they were first asked whether the number was above or below 4. Not only that, those who gave higher estimates tried to solve the puzzles longer and did get higher numbers correct. Sources: Myers, D. G. (1980). The inflated self. New York: Seabury Press; Ross, L., Greene, D., & House, P. 1977. The false consensus effect: An egocentric bias in social perception and attributional processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 279-301; Wood, G. 1984. Research methodology: A decision-making perspective. Humans as biased information processors. In A. M. Rogers & C. J. Scheirer, Eds. The G. Stanley Hall Lecture Series, Vol. 4, Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; Rubin, J. (1990, June). Weighing anchors. Omni, 20, 95.
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3. An Early Experiment British adventurer James Lancaster, on a return voyage from the East Indies in 1594, noticed that his crew was cured of scurvy, and Lancaster hypothesized that it was lemons that had treated scurvy, a disease of bleeding, pain, and anemia. In 1601, he gave his flagship crew citrus juice each day, while sailors in the other ships did not get the citrus juice. Otherwise the diets were similar from ship to ship. Only the sailors who received citrus juice returned home without scurvy. Lancaster ran a "modern-type'' experiment: randomly assigned experimental and control groups, single-blinded experiment, and all other variables held constant. Source: Dobkin, B. (1990, May). A testing time. Discover, 86-90. 4. Dynamic Systems Theory A new approach to explain developmental changes in children is dynamic systems theory. It is part of a paradigm shift involving the acceptance of chaos and complexity as theoretical frameworks in physics, biology, chemistry, engineering, ecology, and psychology. It originated as a qualitative mathematical theory, but its concepts can be applied to any systems that change over time. There are several principles of dynamic systems theory that apply to development. These include: Systems are self-organizing and nonlinear; Behavior is the product of multiple, contributing systems, each of which itself has a history; Self-organization can be coupled with changes in the brain; Systems can be understood only with the context of the larger whole.

With these principles in mind, choose a developmental change observed in children, for example, learning to walk. Discuss how these principles can be applied to explain this phenomenon. Source: Thelen, E., & Smith, L. B. (1994). A Dynamic Systems Approach to the Development of Cognition and Action. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. This suggested lecture topic was contributed by Jane L. Abraham, Ph. D., Department of Teaching and Learning, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA. 5. Csikszentmihaylis Flow Theory The theory of flow, developed by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi is a theory of development of personhood in which successful development proceeds toward complex organization. This theory is typically not included in introductory human development texts, but it is relatively easy to understand, has received substantial confirmation in research, and it has wide applicability in a variety of careers. Moreover, it is focused on the goal of attaining happiness, rather than eradicating negative behaviors. Prepare a lecture describing the basic concepts in the theory of flow and encourage students to generate hypotheses for research projects to test the theory.
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Flow theory emerged from Csikszentmihaylis interviews with adults who enjoyed life and/or work. For example, he interviewed persons with diverse interests such as rock climbers, surgeons, and artists. He also studied teenagers in and out of school and had them rate their experiences in daily life. He learned that when people were engaged in activities that were slightly challenging, but not overwhelmingly difficult, they were more likely to enjoy them. Hence, two of the key concepts in Csikszentmihalyis theory concern the level of difficulty of a learning task and the level of skill possessed by the learner. When skills and challenges are matched, flow is more likely to occur. However, if the task is too challenging, the learner might be anxious and if the task is not challenging enough, the learner might become bored or even apathetic. Those individuals described the flow experience as a state experienced when concentrating intensely on pursuing a goal for which there was immediate feedback. After many years of interviewing persons of a variety of ages, Csikszentmihayli described the flow experience as a state characterized by the following features: Clear goals and feedback. To achieve flow, the developing person must have a clear goal, whether it is taking those first steps, learning to ride a bike, or mastering a difficult piece of music. Clear feedback is provided in the situation because the infant realizes success immediately or the violinist hears an undesirable sound. When there is no clear feedback on progress toward the goal, flow is unlikely to occur. For example, when students do not learn for a week which spelling words were correct, the immediate feedback is not present. Intense concentration and focused attention. For example, Kim who is learning to ride a bike, is likely to focus intently on the process and pay little attention to the surroundings. Merging of action and awareness. Kim is actively engaged with the whole selfphysically, mentally, and emotionally. Loss of a sense of time. Kim is totally absorbed in biking and forgets about a favorite TV show. Intrinsic motivation. No external rewards are needed for Kim to be motivated to learn to bike. Success itself is the reward, hence the rewards are internal to the activity or intrinsic. Loss of a sense of self-consciousness. When we are totally engaging our energy in achieving a higher level of skill, whether it be in chess, skiing, or working crossword puzzles, for example, we lose a consciousness of self. This means that we are not focused on how someone might evaluate us or even how we might evaluate ourselves. We are being in the moment. Hence, Kim is not worried about how what others think. Feeling of a sense of control. Kim feels totally in control and does not have to worry about getting a good grade on biking (this is also part of intrinsic motivation). The freedom to adjust the level of difficulty contributes to the sense of control.

Sources: Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Finding flow: The psychology of engagement with everyday life. New York: Basic Books; Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975). Beyond boredom and anxiety. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper & Row; Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Csikszentmihalyi, I. S. (Eds.). (1988). Optimal experience: Psychological studies of flow in consciousness. New York: Cambridge University Press; Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Rathude, K. (1998) The development of the person: An experiential perspective on the ontogenesis of psychological complexity. In W. Damon (Series Editor), R. M.

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Lerner (Volume Ed.), Handbook of Child Psychology (5TH Ed) Volume 1: Theoretical models of human development (pp.625-683). New York: John Wiley.

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TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE

Use the following annotated outline to determine how to best use the Total Teaching Package, including the text features and ancillary materials, provided to you by McGraw-Hill to accompany Santrocks Child Development, 10th Edition.

Lecture Outline Chapter 2: The Science of Child Development

Resources Reference
PPT: PowerPoint Presentation #2 CTQ: 3: Quotes

I. The scientific method A. The scientific method is a 4-step CAD: 2: Cooperative group activity process. 1. Conceptualize a problem CAD: 3: Sampling bias 2. Collect information (data) 3. Analyze data 4. Draw conclusions 5. II. Scientific Research Approach A. Characteristics CTQ: 4: Design a study 1. Systematic 2. Testable B. Theory 1. Definition: Coherent set of ideas to explain and predict. 2. Hypotheses III. Overview of Major Theories A. Psychoanalytic 1. Major themes of psychoanalytic theories a) Development is primarily unconscious b) Early experience is important 2. Freud's theory a) Three structures: id, ego, superego b) Conflicting demands of structures produces anxiety c) Children's thoughts are primarily unconscious d) Early experience affects later development e) Five psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital f) Oedipus conflict occurs during phallic stage OHT: 19: The two most common ways to obtain data

CAD: 5: Draw on the Arts

CAD: 6: Fairy Tales: Bettelheims Psychoanalytic View

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B. Neopsychoanalytic 1. Erik H. Erikson (1902-1994) 2. Psychosocial theory: Focuses on social relationships more than sexual relationships. 3. Life-span development is important, compared to Freud who believed that experiences in first five years shape personality 4. Eight stages a) Trust vs. mistrust b) Autonomy vs. shame and doubt c) Initiative vs. guilt d) Industry vs. inferiority e) Identity vs. identity confusion f) Intimacy vs. isolation g) Generativity vs. stagnation h) Integrity vs. despair C. Evaluating psychoanalytic theories 1. Contributions a) Emphasis on early experience b) Unconscious c) Changes in adulthood (Erikson) 2. Criticisms a) Lack of scientific support b) Data based on distant past c) Overemphasizes sexuality d) Too much power given to unconscious e) Negative image of human development f) Culture- and gender-biases

SLT: 1: Eriksons Eight Stages: Thinking Around the Boxes CTW: 5 CAD: 7: Video: Everybody Rides the Carousel CTQ: 5: Review of Article on Eriksons Theory

D. Cognitive theories 1. Piaget a) Children active construct knowledge b) Four stages (1) Sensorimotor (2) Preoperational (3) Concrete operational (4) Formal operational 2. Vygotsky's ideas a) Cognition is developmental b) Language mediates cognition c) Cognition originates in social relations and culture 3. Information processing a) How humans process information (manipulate,

FVR: Piaget vs. Vygotsky CTQ: 7 Jarvis: 7C: Infant Cognition Tasks Jarvis 7F: Object Permanence Jarvis 7G: Sensorimotor Development OHT/IG: 58: Four stages of cognitive development

OHT/IG: 116: Model of information processing Jarvis: 7B: Infant Attention and Habituation

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monitor, strategize) b) Processes described by Siegler (1) perceive (2) encode (3) represent (4) store (5) retrieve 4. Evaluating cognitive theories a) Contributions (1) Positive view (2) Emphasis on active construction of knowledge (3) Developmental perspective on thinking (Piaget and Vygotsky) (4) Cognitive processes described in detail b) Criticisms (1) Piaget's stages not pure (2) Little attention to individual differences (3) Information processing lacks information on developmental changes (4) Unconscious thought not acknowledged E. Behavioral and social cognitive theories 1. These theories emphasize observable behavior and experience 2. Classical conditioning emphasized by Pavlov 3. Skinner's behaviorism: a) Development is observed behavior b) Development is determined by rewards and punishments 4. Social cognitive theory (Bandura): a) Environment and cognition determine behavior b) Reciprocal interactions between environment, cognition, and behavior 5. Evaluating behavioral and social cognitive theories a) Contributions (1) Scientific (2) Recognizes multiple factors b) Criticisms (1) Cognition downplayed (2) Environment overemphasized (3) Lack of attention on

CTQ: 7: Improving Education

SLT: 2: Learning Concepts Applied Jarvis: 9B. Extrinsic Rewards and Learning OHT/IG: 20: Classical conditioning OHT/IG: 21: Operant, or instrumental conditioning OHT/IG: 117: Banduras model of the reciprocal influences of behavior CT: 2 IFG: 3: Modeling/Imitating Parenting Practices CTQ: 7: Improving Education

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development (4) Mechanical F. Ethological theory 1. Overview a) Pioneer: Lorenz b) Key concepts: (1) Imprinting (2) Critical periods 2. Evaluating ethological theory a) Contributions (1) Focus on biology and evolution (2) Careful observation in naturalistic settings b) Attention to sensitive periods G. Ecological Theory 1. Major contributor: Urie Bronfenbrenner 2. Major themes a) Examination of macro and micro dimensions of environmental systems b) Consideration of sociohistorical influences c) Recent revision is called bioecological 3. Criticism: Inadequate attention to biological and cognitive factors H. Eclectic theoretical orientation 1. Basic concepts a) No single theory is adequate b) Each theory is helpful 2. Local theories or mini-models may also be used IV. Research Methods A. Types of research 1. Descriptive 2. Correlational 3. Experimental B. Research settings for observations 1. Laboratory 2. Naturalistic settings C. Other descriptive research methods 1. Surveys and interviews 2. Standardized tests 3. Case studies D. Time span of research 1. Cross-sectional 2. Longitudinal V. Research Journals

IFG: 1: Ties That Stress OHT/IB: 16: Influences on context: an ecological approach CTQ: 6: Making the World a Better Place

CTQ: 3 SLT: 5 Dynamic Systems Theory IFG: 2: Parenting Application

CAD: 2 SLT: 3: Subjects Biases CAD: 3 OHT/IB: 14: Possible explanations of correlational data SLT: 4: An Early Experiment SRP: 3: Event Sampling Method Jarvis: 3G: Conduct a Cross-Sectional Interview on Web Experiences

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A. Parts of a research article B. Being a wise consumer of information

AFM: Reading and Analyzing Reports SRP: 1: Journal Article Critique SRP: 2: Using the Internet as a Source Jarvis: 3D: Reviewing Research in Developmental Psychology Jarvis: 3F: Review Three Articles from a Lifespan Journal CAD: 4: Ethics of using unethical research Jarvis: 4B: Ethics

VI. Research Challenges A. Ethics B. s B. Minimizing bias 1. Gender bias 2. Culture and ethnic bias

Suggested AssignmentsReview of Chapter 2: The Science of Child Development Review the Learning Goals for Chapter 2. Review and Reflect exercises for Chapter 2. TTN: Consult the on-line learning center for links to Web sites that provide additional information on topics presented in Chapter 2.

Suggested AssignmentsPreparation for Chapter 3: Biological Beginnings Preview the Learning Goals for Chapter 3.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES OR DEMONSTRATIONS

1. Discuss the students' research projects as suggested below. 2. Cooperative group activity. Divide the class into small discussion groups (4 students) to consider the following questions: How does one's theoretical view of development affect the kinds of behaviors one notices? What behaviors would be observed by Freud, Piaget, an information-processing theorist, Skinner, Bandura, and Bronfenbrenner when watching two adolescents interact in a mall?

Ask each group to nominate someone to write down the results of the discussion. Allow some time for discussion and then ask the groups to report. The summary of each group's comments can be the basis for a general class discussion. Source: King, M.B., & Clark, D.E. (1990). Instructor's Manual to accompany Children. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers. 3. Present the following situations to your students and ask them to uncover any possible sampling biases: Teenage males at a local tavern, the beach, and the baseball park were surveyed about their driving records and habits. The results led researchers to some interesting conclusions about male adolescent driving abilities and habits. Parents at a PTA meeting were interviewed about the quality of the public school system.
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An Internet survey assessed a community's attitudes toward welfare recipients.

The elderly population of Palm Springs was sampled on the advantages and disadvantages of being old. Source: Simons, J. A., Irwin, D. B., & Drinnin, B. A. (1987 ). Instructor's Manual to accompany Psychology, the Search for Understanding. St. Paul: West Publishing. 4. Is it ethical to use the results of unethical research? During World War II, some Nazi doctors performed cruel, mutilating experiments on Jews, Gypsies, Poles, and other political prisoners. In one study, men were immersed in ice water for five hours while physicians recorded their body temperature, respiration rates, pulse rates, and urine and blood contents. Many of the subjects in this study died during the course of this highly unethical experiment. However, results from this particular study have since been used to better understand hypothermia and how long accident victims can survive in cold water. Does using this data allow something good to come from horrible experimentation? Or, does using this data condone the original studies? Source: Simons, J. A., Irwin, D. B., & Drinnin, B. A. 1987. Instructor's Manual to Accompany Psychology, the Search for Understanding, St. Paul: West Publishing, 56-57. 5. Draw on the arts The arts, broadly defined, include drawing, painting, sculpture, music, dance, poetry, and writing, to name but a few. Both art products and art processes can be used in university teaching in the following ways: Existing artistic products can be used to illustrate facts and ideas. The process of creating can be used to express feelings or reactions to information presented. Creative expression activities can be used to envision possible worlds, including possible research, possible public policies, possible human service projects, and possible changes in social institutions.

Suggestion for Art: Erik Eriksons wife and collaborator in the development of his theory wove a tapestry of a spectrum of colors that illustrated the epigenetic theory of psychosocial development. The yarns going in one direction illustrated the continuity of life from beginning to end and yarns going in the other direction represented the psychosocial issues (trust, autonomy, etc.). Therefore, the tapestry illustrated how all of the psychosocial issues are present in some form throughout life. Ask students to work in groups to create some work (drawing, sculpture, collage) that will illustrate the theories of Erikson, Freud, Bronfenbrenner, or others mentioned in Chapter 2 of the Santrock text. Suggestion for using music: Erikson described how older persons with integrity come to be able to relate to young children more playfully. The term life-cycle is sometimes used to describe development that comes full circle at the end. One piece of music that might be used to illustrate this concept is Harry Chapins Cats in the Cradle and Life is a Circle. Consider reviewing the music and lyrics and allowing students to discuss how Eriksons stages might be described as a circle. Suggestion for scavenger hunt: Ask students to search for creative works such as art, sculpture, music, literature, poetry, or drama to illustrate the various theories described in Santrocks Chapter 2. Assign different topics to different groups and give them class time to assemble and compare their artifacts before presenting them as a group to the whole class.

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6. Fairy Tales: Bettelheims Psychoanalytic View In preparation for this class activity, obtain from the library and read Bruno Bettelheims fascinating psychoanalysis of fairy tales in the book titled The Uses of Enchantment: The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales. Create overheads with some of the main points. Bettelheim postulated that young children benefit unconsciously and vicariously from hearing the stories. He believed, for example, that the mean old woman, the wicked witch, or the step mother provided an unconscious replacement of the real mother whom the female child would like to be rid of during the period of the Oedipal complex. Likewise, in Jack and the Beanstalk, was the giant an unconscious stand-in for the father that was so large and threatening to the young boy in the Oedipal phase? Was sleep for Snow White and Sleeping Beauty really latency (sexual sleep), which could only be broken by the kiss of a charming prince? For in-class use, find some childrens books containing nicely illustrated short versions of traditional fairy tales such as Jack and the Beanstalk, Sleeping Beauty, and Snow White. Take a few minutes to read the book aloud (or ask someone in the class to do this), pausing to show the illustrations. Then have a class discussion on the plausibility that Bettelheims insights reflect the unconscious sexual impulses present in the preschool years. Another variation on this activity would be to present Bettelheims hypotheses and then divide the class into groups with each group of four students analyzing a different book according to the psychoanalytic framework. Then ask them to suggest how the book might be analyzed if one were working from another theory such as behaviorism or social cognitive theory. What might be the cognitive value of tales like Goldilocks and the Three Bears (hint: seriation of size in Piagets theory)? Source: Bettelheim, B. (1976). The uses of enchantment: The meaning and importance of fairy tales. New York: Knopf. 7. Video: Everybody Rides the Carousel An outstanding video exists that depicts the eight stages of Eriksons theory and how these are manifest in daily life. The video, Everybody Rides the Carousel: A View of the Stages of Life , was created by John and Faith Hubley in collaboration with Kenneth Keniston and students of a film seminar at Yale University. This animated illustration of the theory not only depicts the major stages of Eriksons theory but also the fact that any of the psychosocial issues may be present at any age or stage of life. This is a concept that is usually not taught in introductory classes, but when students realize that all of the issues such as trust, autonomy, identity, etc. are relevant to their current lives as college students, they understand and appreciate the theory more completely. In the video, each psychosocial issue is represented by an animated symbol such as a warm fuzzy kitten for trust and a cold prickly cat for mistrust. The video makes use of symbolic colors, icons, music, and cultural symbols that are ingrained in Eriksons theory. Several viewings are likely to result in the viewer seeing anew each time psychological concepts that are embedded in this art project. Because the theory and the video contain multiple complex concepts, it might be good to show the entire program early in the course and then review segments related to later stages as the course proceeds. A viewing guide was developed at Virginia Tech so that first-time viewers are able to connect the visual images with the content. The guide is presented here for your use.
"Everybody Rides the Carousel" Video Viewing Guide 1. This videotape is based on Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. The eight stages of development are depicted as rides on a carousel.

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2.

Stage one: Trust vs. mistrust is symbolized by a soft kitten (good feelings) and a harsh, prickly cat (bad feelings). Trust is developed as baby is fed when hungry, and comforted when strangers appear. If at the end of the stage, good feelings dominate over bad ones, trust has probably developed. Stage two: Autonomy vs. shame: Record the symbols for this stage: ______________ List two examples of autonomous activities shown in the video. At first green rabbit appears only when parents scold or say "no, no." Notice that later the child seems to impose those feelings in the parents' absence. This is the beginning of self-monitoring and self-imposed shame. Stage three: Initiative vs. guilt. Big bird stands for_______________, which involves having ideas and carrying them out. The snake symbolizes feelings of_________________, or the idea that "I am a bad creepy child and I hate myself."

3. 4. 5.

6.

7. 8.

The child who thwarts Mom's efforts to get the child to perform routines (bath, bedtime) is demonstrating_________________. Note that ideas can be carried out in the imagination, e.g., the child fantasizes getting rid of Dad and flying away with Mom. After that idea, he self-imposes feelings of______________________. What Freudian conflict was carried out in the child's imagination? Notice how the symbols for various feelings are intertwined in the girl at bedtime. Why do you suppose they are?

9.

10. Stage four: Industry (learn skills of grownups) vs. inferiority (no good, I can't do it). __________symbolizes industry while __________ symbolizes inferiority. 11. In the reading scene, notice how the child compares his skills with his peers and imposes feelings of_______________. 12. Stage five: Identity vs. identity diffusion. _____________ refers to feeling realization of one's unique self (symbolized by the outline of a whole person). _____________refers to not knowing who you really are (symbolized by a puzzled person). 13. In developing identity, adolescents must act out various _________________ and take_________________. Notice the use of mirrors to symbolize looking to see who they are. Adolescents use peers as their mirrors because peers tell them who/what they are. Notice how they lose themselves and have to go out into the world to find their "selves." 14. Notice that after trying out various roles and then returning home, the family converses about her. What feelings do you suppose she is experiencing during the dinner meal? ____________________ 15. Stage six: Intimacy (love and friendship) vs. isolation. Intimacy is symbolized by figures joined together. Isolation is depicted by ______. Note that the couple in the boat is struggling with trust in regard to their relationship and also that they replay roles from earlier stages. 16. Notice that when discussing their future relationship both the black and white mask appear at the same time. What do you suppose that symbolizes?__________________________________ 17. Note the struggles (two figures dancing together, intertwining and then moving apart). There is a need for maintaining autonomy within an intimate relationship. 18. Stage seven: Generativity vs. stagnation. Generativity is caring for the next generation. ________________is stagnation. 36

Symbol: Generativity = Sun Stagnation = Fish

19. Note the old white snake on the woman's head when she is told to keep her child under control in the library. Does this mean she hasn't finished the stage of autonomy? _______________ 20. What feelings (green rabbit, big bird) prompted the library guard to offer help to the mother? _______________ 21. This section has some examples of a master trying to teach someone a specific craft. What appears to be happening in terms of generativity? _______________ 22. Stage eight: Ego integrity vs. despair Ghost symbolizes despair. Owl symbolizes wisdom.

23. Integrity involves a sense of life's ironies, a sense of a lifetime of experience distilled into a new way of being. 24. Despair: a longing for what might have been, brooding about what went wrong, and realizing that it is too late to start over. 25. A creative summing up of one's own life-cycle and the acceptance of death is involved in this stage. Notice how the feelings of earlier stages are present as the aging couple moves through the cafeteria line. Do you think they experienced more integrity or despair? Why? 26. Consider the aging couple that made owls and skeletons. The mysterious knock on the door is death. Why does death appear and then retreat? 27. The dancing people of all ages symbolize the interactions of the multiple age groups, including the feelings associated with each level. All of those feelings may be present at the same time by the end of life. 28. Have you discovered anything about your self as you viewed this videotape?

Source: Hubley, J. (Producer) and Hubley, F. (Co-producer). (1975). Everybody Rides the Carousel [videorecording]. Santa Monica, CA: Pyramid Media (Distributor).

RESEARCH PROJECTS
RESEARCH PROJECT 1: JOURNAL ARTICLE CRITIQUE Part of conducting psychological research is reviewing and understanding published research studies. In this research project, you will choose one of the topics that will be covered in this course (e.g., play, gender roles, moral development, effects of television) and find a research report in a journal (e.g., Adolescence, Child Development, Developmental Psychology, Early Childhood Research Quarterly, Family Therapy, Journal of Marriage and the Family) on the chosen topic. Read the article and write a report about it. Enclose a copy of the first page of the research article (include the abstract that briefly summarizes the entire research study) with your report. In addition to including the main points of the study, give your personal reactions to the research findings.

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Questions 1. Can you use the title of the study to identify the independent and dependent variables? (Many titles are in this format: "The effects of IV on the DV.'') 2. What did you learn from the introduction section? What is the historical background of the research topic? Which earlier research findings are given as most relevant to this study? What theoretical explanations are emphasized in this section? What is the hypothesis of the present study? 3. What did you learn from the methods section? Who were the subjects? What procedures (e.g., apparatus, directions, assessment tools) were used? 4. What did you learn from the results section? What kinds of statistical procedures were used? What did you learn from charts, frequency tables, and bar graphs? What results did the authors say were statistically significant? 5. What did you learn from the discussion section? How did the authors interpret their results? Did they provide alternative explanations? Did they talk about the limitations of the present research study? What future research studies were suggested? 6. What kinds of ideas did this article make you think about? Can you design a similar study on this topic? Use in Classroom Possible modifications of project: (1) Assign specific articles to students; (2) have students choose articles all on one topic; (3) have students choose articles from only one journal; (4) have students read two different articles on the same topic; or (5) have students read research articles that address a current social issue (e.g., abortion, teenage pregnancy, racial prejudice), and decide what the research findings would suggest for social policy. Have students compare journal reading to (1) textbook reading and (2) magazine reading. Which sections were difficult to understand? Which sections of their articles were comprehended? How did the article compare to their expectations? Were their articles based on basic or applied research? What did the students see as the value of their articles? RESEARCH PROJECT 2: USING THE INTERNET AS A SOURCE OF INFORMATION Have students conduct informal research using the Internet to locate information on one or more of the topics presented in Chapter 1. Several Web sites exist for the various theorists discussed in Chapter 2. However, they vary in how reliable the information is. To be wise consumers of information students should use the guide provided in the last section of this manual to evaluate Web sites. Students need to record the urls where information was found and learn to evaluate the credibility of the sources of information. One suggestion is to have them compare the credibility of information presented at sites ending with .org, .com, .gov, and .edu. Divide the class into groups and let different groups search for different topics. Alternatively, let the whole class take the same topic and have different groups search selectively at sites representing organizations, commercial enterprises, government agencies, and educational institutions. Compare and contrast the nature of the information given and the credibility of the sources.

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Students can do informal research by joining a chat group and recording the types of questions and comments made by participants. What were the major themes of the discussions? How many unfounded statements were made? Did participants back up statements by referring to scholarly research or other authoritative resources? RESEARCH PROJECT 3: EVENT SAMPLING METHOD An interesting research method developed by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi is called the Event Sampling Method. Participants carry a pager which the researchers beep at randomly selected times. When subjects are beeped, they stop momentarily to complete a brief form about their activity and their feelings. Students might enjoy practicing this sampling method using class members as subjects and cell phones as pagers. Divide the class into two groups to conduct a simple phenomenological survey of type and quality of experiences in daily life. Have students determine a time period during which to collect information on participants activities (under participants control of not?) and the general mood at the time of being signaled. You might need to restrict data collection to weekends so as not to interfere with other classes. Of course, the sampling bias caused by restricted times must be discussed as a limitation to the research. Alternatively, if sufficient students can set their cell phones to vibrate rather then ring aloud, they might be able to complete a simple questionnaire even during classes or at events where cell phone usage would be inappropriate. Have students work in groups to construct a simple questionnaire to be completed by participants upon being signaled at randomly selected hours. The questionnaire should take no more than 1 minute to complete. Sample questions might include: (1) What is the present time? (2) What activity are you engaged in at this time? (3) Is the activity something you choose freely to do or is it something you are required to do? (4) What is your mood? (Very happy, happy, not happy, very unhappy). Group A might be the researchers for one day, while members of Group B serve as participants and get signaled by cell phone to complete their questionnaires. Reverse the role for the second day of data collection. Have groups meet in class to summarize results and report results. What research challenges were encountered? What biases might have affected the results? Was Csikszentmihalyis concept of flow supported?

ESSAY QUESTIONS
Comprehension and Application Essay Questions We recommend that you provide students with our guidelines for Answering Essay and Critical Thinking Questions when you have them respond to these questions. Their answers to these kinds of questions demonstrate an ability to comprehend and apply ideas discussed in the text.
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1. Define theory. Identify the roles of the various theories in research on child development. 2. What is science? How does a scientific understanding of child development differ from an understanding produced by everyday experiences with people of various ages? 3. Compare and contrast the psychoanalytic theories of Freud and Erikson. Also explain whether Erikson changed psychoanalytic theory in a fundamental way. 4. Identify significant culture- and gender-based criticisms of Freuds theories. Are these criticisms important? Why? 5. What are Piagets four stages of cognitive development? Discuss how a childs cognition and thinking is qualitatively different in one stage compared with another. 6. Compare and contrast the Piagetian and information-processing approaches to cognitive development. Which approach appears to be more "developmental"? Defend your answer using the themes of development outlined in Chapter 1. 7. Think about your life during the past 24 hours from the perspective of behavioral and social learning theories. Provide at least two examples of how (a) rewards, (b) punishments, and (c) observational learning have influenced your behavior during this time frame. 8. Indicate and explain how social cognitive theory differs from Skinners behaviorism. 9. Explain and evaluate ethological theory by indicating its strengths, limitations, and what is missing from this approach to child development. 10. Define and distinguish the five systems in Bronfenbrenners ecological theory. Also provide at least two examples of each system by citing aspects from your own personal life. 11. Review the various theories described in this chapter. Can you suggest anything about human development that cannot be explained by any of the theories presented? 12. Explain the meaning of an eclectic theoretical orientation to child development. Also evaluate the pros and cons of such an approach before you explain which approach is most and least agreeable to you personally. 13. Compare and contrast any two major approaches to child development in terms of the positions each take on the nature of development as outlined in Chapter 1 of Child Development. 14. Identify your specific interest in child development (peer relationships, intelligence, language development, parent-child interactions, achievement, attachment, etc.). Also, select a research method (i.e., controlled observation in a laboratory, naturalistic observation, interviews and questionnaires, case studies, standardized tests, cross-cultural studies, life history records, physiological research, research with animals, or multimeasure, multisource, and multicontext approach) that you would like to use for data collection of your study. Discuss what factors influence your selection of the method. 15. Compare and contrast correlational and experimental strategies for research in child development. What do you gain and lose by using a correlational rather than experimental strategy in research? 16. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches to research? In what ways do cross-sectional and longitudinal designs differ from experimental strategies? What kinds of conclusions can you draw from each? 17. Discuss how research journals can help your learning about child development. Indicate what kind of information you can find in journal articles and how the information may help you understand and work more effectively with children.

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18. What precautions must be taken to safeguard the rights and welfare of a child who might be a psychological subject? In your answer, relate each precaution to a specific ethical concern in your answer. In addition, discuss at least two examples of other types of subjects who pose similar ethical difficulties for researchers. 19. Explain how you can become a wise consumer of information about children's development. Related Content to Use in Analyzing Answers for Essay Question 1. 2. A theory is a coherent set of ideas and general beliefs that helps explain data and make predictions. A theory contains hypotheses, assumptions that can be tested to determine their accuracy. Each theory has contributed an important piece to the child development puzzle. Different theories explain different aspects of development. The various theories let us see the total landscape of childrens development in all its richness. Science is defined not by what it investigates but by how it investigates. The scientific method is a series of procedures (Conceptualize a problem; Collect information (data); Analyze data; Draw conclusions). 3. Scientific research is objective, systematic, and testable, reducing the probability that the information will be based on personal beliefs, opinions, or feelings.

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3. Freud claimed that personality has three structures: Id, Ego, Superego. He suggested five stages of psychosexual development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital). At each stage pleasure is derived from a particular erogenous zone. Erikson said that we develop in psychosocial stages, in contrast to Freuds psychosexual stages, focusing on social relationships more than sexual relationships. He emphasized developmental change throughout the human life span, whereas Freud argued that our basic personality is shaped in the first 5 years of life. For Erikson, the developmental task at each stage is not a catastrophe but a turning point of increased vulnerability and enhanced potential. Freud overemphasized behaviors biological determinants and ignored the enormous impact of culture and experience in determining the personalities of the male and the female. His view on the differences between males and females, including their personality development, has a strong biological flavor, relying mainly on anatomical differences. Researchers found that the Oedipus complex is not universal, but depends on cultural variations in families. Rectification of the male bias in psychoanalytic theory is necessary. In the sensorimotor stage, infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions. In the preoperational stage, children begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings. In the concrete operational stage, children can reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets. In the formal operational stage, individuals move beyond the world of concrete experiences and think in abstract and more logical terms. Each of the stages is age related and consists of distinct ways of thinking. It is the different ways of understanding the world that makes one stage more advanced than another (qualitatively different). Piaget emphasized interaction and adaptation. In his view, environment provides the setting for cognitive structures to develop. Information-processing view has not addressed this issue extensively, but mainly emphasizes biological-environmental interaction. Information-processing approach places more importance than Piagets approach does on processing limitations, strategies for overcoming limitations, and knowledge about specific content. Piaget stressed the importance of developmental changes in childrens thinking, and the information-processing approach had an emphasis on detailed descriptions of cognitive processes. Discontinuity between stages in Piagets theory. Information processing approach does not emphasize stages. Individual responses

4.

5. 6.

7. 8.

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Behaviorism emphasizes the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinants. In Skinners behaviorism, the mind is not needed to explain behavior and development. Social learning theory states that the environment is an important determinant of behavior, but so are cognitive processes. Children have the ability to control their own behavior in the social learning theory.

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9. Ethology emphasizes the biological and evolutionary basis of development. It used careful observations in naturalistic settings. Ethological theory emphasizes sensitive periods of development. The critical and sensitive period concepts may be too rigid. The emphasis on biological foundations is too strong. In the ethological view, there is little or nothing about the nature of social relationships across the human life span, something that any major theory of development must explain. Also, its concept of critical period seems to be overdrawn. Classical ethological theory is weak in stimulating studies in human beings. The microsystem is the setting in which an individual lives. The mesosystem involves relationships between microsystems or connections between contexts. The exosystem is involved when experiences in a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role influence what the individual experiences in an immediate context. The macrosystem involves the culture in which an individual lives. The chronosystem involves the patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course and sociohistorical circumstances. Individual responses Individual responses. One aspect of development that is not treated in any of the theories in this book is spiritual development. An eclectic theoretical orientation does not follow any one theoretical approach but, rather, selects and uses from each theory whatever is considered the best in it . Each of the theories has made a different contribution, and it probably is a wise strategy to adopt an eclectic theoretical perspective as we attempt to understand childrens development. Refer to Table 2.2 Individual responses. Observation is a way to watch behavior both in a laboratory and in a natural setting. Interviews and questionnaires are used to assess perceptions and attitudes. Case studies provide an in-depth look at an individual. Standardized tests are designed to assess an individuals characteristics in relation to those of a large group of similar individuals. Life-history records consist of information about a lifetime chronology of events and activities. Physiological research provides information about the biological basis of development. The correlational strategy describes how strongly two or more events or characteristics are related. It does not allow causal statements. The experimental strategy involves manipulation of influential factors, i.e., independent variables, and measurement of their effects on dependent variables. Subjects are randomly assigned to experimental studies. The experimental strategy can reveal the causes of behavior.

10.

11. 12.

13. 14.

15.

16.
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The cross-sectional approach is a research strategy in which individuals of different ages are compared all at one time. The main advantage is time efficiency because researchers do not have to wait for subjects to grow up. The disadvantage is that it gives no information about how individuals change or about the stability of their characteristics. The longitudinal approach is a research strategy in which the same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more. Longitudinal studies are time consuming and costly. The main advantage is that we can evaluate how individual children change as they grow up. Research journals are the core of information in virtually every academic discipline. Most research journal articles follow this format: abstract, introduction, methods, results, discussion, and references. Scientific results and evidence from various research articles add more information to our knowledge and theories in child development. Researchers must ensure the well being of subjects in research. The risk of mental and physical harm must be reduced, and informed consent should be obtained. Researchers are obliged to explain precisely what the children will experience and must always weigh the potential for harming children against the prospects of contributing some clear benefits to them. A wise consumer of information is cautious about what is reported in the media. Being a wise consumer involves understanding the distinction between nomothetic research and idiographic needs, being aware of the tendency to overgeneralize from a small sample or a unique sample, knowing that a single study is often not the defining word about an issue or problem, understanding why causal conclusions cannot be drawn from a correlational study, and always considering the source of the information and evaluating its credibility.

17.

18.

19.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS

Answers to these critical thinking questions reflect an ability to apply critical thinking skills to a novel problem or situation that is not specifically discussed in the chapter. These items most appropriately may be used as take-home essay questions (e.g., due on exam day) or as homework exercises that can be answered either by individuals or groups. Collaboratively answered questions encourage cooperative learning by students and reduce the number of papers that must be graded. 1. Review the book titled The Uses of Enchantment: The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales by Bruno Bettelheim. Bettelheims views are based on the acceptance of Freuds psychosexual theory. Critically evaluate the evidence Bettelheim uses to support his ideas. Does he present convincing research to support his conjectures? Select one or two well-known fairy tales and suggest other theoretical perspectives from which the tales might be interpreted. How might alternative interpretations change the degree of enjoyment that is often experienced with stories that rely on fantasy? 2. According to Chapter 1, three fundamental developmental issues concern maturation (nature) versus experience (nurture), continuity versus discontinuity, and early versus later experience. Indicate your ability to think critically by (a) perusing the alternative theoretical perspectives, and (b) comparing and contrasting any three of the perspectives on each issue.
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3. Santrock sets off several quotations in this chapter. Indicate your ability to think critically by (a) learning about the author and indicating why this individual is eminently quotable (i.e., what was this individuals contribution to human knowledge and understanding); (b) interpreting and restating the quote in your own terms; and (c) explaining what concept, issue, perspective, or term in this chapter Santrock intended this quote to illuminate. In other words, about what aspect or issue in development does this quote make you pause and reflect? 4. At the end of the section about theories of development, Santrock concludes that no single theory is capable of explaining the rich complexity of child development. Apply your knowledge about the scientific method by designing a study to determine the relative impact of the different theoretical approaches on the field of child development in the past, present, and/or future: (a) What specific problem or question do you want to study? (b) What predictions would you make and test in your study? (c) What measures would you use (e.g., controlled observation in a laboratory, naturalistic observation, interviews and questionnaires, case studies, standardized tests, cross-cultural studies, physiological research, research with animals, or multimeasure, multisource, and multicontext approach) and how would you define each measure clearly and unambiguously? (d) What strategy would you follow correlational or experimental, and what would be the time span of your inquiry cross-sectional or longitudinal? (e) What ethical considerations must be addressed before you conduct your study? 5. Review Erikson's psychosocial stages of development in Chapter 2. Select a journal article on a topic related to social or emotional development. Write an abstract on the article including (a) the bibliography, (b) summary of the article, (c) your reaction and response to the article, and finally (d) an analysis of how the article information relates to Erikson's developmental stages. Keep in mind that, although Erikson's theory points to a critical issue at each stage, these issues are present in some form throughout the life span. For example, issues related to trust are present at every age. The same is true for autonomy, initiative, industry, identity, intimacy, generativity, and integrity. 6. In Chapter 1 Santrock describes the work of Marian Wright Edelman, President of the Childrens Defense Fund, which advocates public policies that enhance the lives of families and children. Publications from the Childrens Defense Fund report indicators showing that the United States is lower than all other industrialized nations in its social support for children. Edelman advocates for better healthcare, safer schools and communities, parent education, and more support for families in general. Santrock discusses the following benefits of studying child development: (1) to nurture children because they are society's future, (2) to gain understanding of self and others, (3) to prepare for career and /or parenting responsibilities, and (4) to influence education/schools to be more effective. After reading and studying the information from Santrocks Chapter 2 on theories of child development, speculate ways to further support and nurture children in meeting Marian Wright Edelmans challenge to us to make the world a better place for children and families. 7. In Chapter 1 Santrock indicates that something needs to be done to improve the education of our children. He continues to say that the biological, cognitive, and socioemotional areas of development are all interrelated and cannot be separated. In Chapter 2 Santrock briefly describes three cognitive theories of child development. (a) Reflect on your educational experiences and identify three suggestions for improving the educational opportunities of our children, including one suggestion from each theory (Piaget's cognitive theory, Vygotsky's sociocultural cognitive theory, and information processing). (b) Based on the interrelatedness of all areas of development, defend the perspective that schools should or should not address the development of the whole child using information from the three cognitive theories.

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IMPLICATIONS FOR GUIDANCE

1. The postmodern family has been described by David Elkind in Ties That Stress (1994) as permeable as opposed to the nuclear family of the modern age. The permeable family is affected by massive change and high demands made upon parents. Postmodern parents often must choose between meeting their own needs for success versus meeting needs of their children. Thus, he proposes that children in the postmodern society are vulnerable. Using the ecological theory created by Urie Bronfenbrenner that Santrock describes (a) analyze Bronfenbrenner's theory, (b) identify concerns or issues that the postmodern family might experience based on this ecological theory, and (c) create a list of suggestions for guidance to help improve the postmodern family. 1. Research indicates that the authoritative parenting style generally results in the best outcomes for childrens development. Review the characteristics of parenting styles in Chapter 15. Review the information in Chapter 2 on social cognitive theory of Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel and then: (a) Describe the relationship between social cognitive theory and each parenting style. (b) Identify three suggestions for guiding children knowing that they model the behaviors of others according to the social cognitive theorists. 2. In Chapter 1 Santrock indicates that many parents learn parenting practices from their parents. He continues to say that some practices are accepted and others discarded and when strategies are passed from one generation to the next that both desirable and undesirable practices are perpetuated. In Chapter 2 Santrock reviews theoretical information and concludes that no one theory can explain the complex nature of child development and each theory has made different contributions. Identify two parenting practices that you recall from your childhood that (a) you would perpetuate and (b) two that you would discard. Then (c) for each practice speculate which theory would support perpetuating or discarding the practice.

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