EXECUTIVE MANAGEMENT: SUPERVISORY MANAGEMENT AND HUMAN RELATIONS A. Work Group Behavior What is Group?

Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives. Classes of Groups Formal groups Those defined by the organizations structure, with designated work assignments establishing tasks. Informal group A group that is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. Natural formations in the work environment that appear in response to the need for social contact. Command group A group composed of the individuals who report directly to a given manager. Task groups Also organizationally determined, representing those working together to complete a job task. Interest group People not necessarily aligned into common command or task groups who affiliate to attain a specific objective. Friendship group Those brought together because they share one or more common characteristics. Stages of Group Development Model 1: The Five Stage Model Stage 1 (Forming Stage) The first stage in group development, characterized by much uncertainty, (tests the waters"). Stage 2 (Storming Stage) Characterized by intragroup conflict and constraints,( who will lead and control?). Stage 3 (Norming Stage) Characterized by close relationships and cohesiveness begins thus, relationships form. Stage 4 (Performing Stage)

The fourth stage in group development, when the group is fully functional. Stage 5 (Adjourning Stage) The final stage in group development for temporary groups, characterized by concern with wrapping up activities rather than task performance. Model 2: The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model (Temporary Groups w/Deadlines) "Time" is the key - from first meeting to official deadline Phase 1 - Meet for the first time. Inertia follows. Transition - Half of the time is used up - changes occur - "get moving". Phase 2 - Execute the plans coming out of the Transition. What is Group Behavior? Group behavior emanated from the causes that contribute to the group effectiveness. The well structured, well defined role and status hierarchy, able leadership, well developed norms and strong cohesiveness a group has, the greater the groupthink. Groupthink is defined as the deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment in the interest of group solidarity. As groups function and interact with other groups, they develop their own unique set of characteristics including structure, cohesiveness, roles, norms and processes. As a result, groups may cooperate or compete with other groups, and intergroup competition can lead to conflict. GROUP BEHAVIOR MODEL

External condition s imposed on the groups

Group member resource s

Group Process

Group Task

Performa nce and satisfacti on

Group Structure

External Conditions Imposed on the Group

Groups are a subset of a larger organization consisting of the following: Organization Strategy Organizational Infrastructure Leadership Rules Resources Evaluation and Rewards Organizational Culture Group Member Resources

A groups potential level of performance is, to a large extent, dependent on the resources that its members individually bring to the group. Knowledge, Skills, & Abilities Set the parameters for what members can do and how effectively they will perform in a group. Personality Characteristics The magnitude of the effect of any single characteristic is small, but taking personality characteristics together, the consequences for group behavior are of major significance. Group Structure Groups are not unorganized mobs. They have a structure that shapes the behavior of members. Formal Leadership

Roles (psychological contracts are important in organizations!) Norms Status Size (social loafing) Composition (diversity, group demography) Cohesiveness

*Understand the relationship between group cohesiveness, performance norms, and productivity Highly cohesive groups with high performance norms are best!

Group Process The processes that go on within a work group e.g. communication patterns, group decision processes, leader behavior, power dynamics, conflict interactions etc.
Potential Group effectiveness + Potential Gains - Process losses = Actual group effectiveness

SynergySocial Facilitation Effect - Performance tends to improve or decline in response to the presence of others.

Group Tasks Consider when to use large vs. small groups What type of task? Simple (routine) or complex (non-routine) tasks? Performance and Satisfaction Performance Work groups are part of a larger organization and can provide a favorable or unfavorable climate for operations. Structural factors show a relationship to performance. There is a positive relationship between role perception and an employees performance evaluation. Norms control group member behavior by establishing standards of right and wrong. Status inequities create frustration and can adversely influence productivity. The impact of size on a groups performance depends upon the type of task in which the group is engaged. A groups demographic composition is a key determinant of individual turnover. Satisfaction Most people prefer to communicate with others at their own status level or a higher one. Large groups are associated with lower satisfaction.

B. Conflict and Cooperation Conflict is generally defined as the internal or external discord that results from differences in ideas, values, or feelings between two or more people. Because managers have interpersonal relationships with people having a variety of different values, beliefs, backgrounds, and goals, conflict is an expected outcome. Conflict is also created when there are differences in economic and professional values and when there is competition among professionals. Scarce resources, restructuring, and poorly defined role expectations also are frequent sources of conflict in organizations. Two Types of Conflict Substantive Conflict Substantive conflict can occur on just about any issue, but its moving force is that the two parties simply disagree about an issue. This can be a good thing or a bad thing. Handled correctly parties in conflict can create, for themselves and those around them, the ability to resolve an issue with something creative, something better than either party's original position. Personalized Conflict While substantive conflict, if handled correctly, can be very productive, personalized conflict is almost never a good thing. There are several reasons. First personalized conflict is fuelled primarily by emotion (usually anger, frustration) and perceptions about someone else's personality, character or motives. When conflict is personalized and extreme each party acts as if the other is suspect as a person. Second, because personalized conflict is about emotion and not issues, problem solving almost never works, because neither party is really interested in solving a problem...in fact, in extreme cases, the parties go out of their ways to create new ones, imagined or real. Third, personalized conflicts almost always get worse over time, if they cannot be converted to substantive conflict. That is because each person expects problems, looks for them, finds them, and gets angrier. Different categories of conflict Intergroup Conflict Occurs between 2 or more groups of people, departments, or organizations. Intrapersonal Conflict Occurs within the person. Involves an internal struggle to clarify contradictory values or wants. Interpersonal Conflict

Also known as Horizontal Violence or Bullying. Happens between 2 or more people with differing values, goals and beliefs. CONFLICT PROCESS
Latent Conflict (Also called antecedent conditions

Felt Conflict

Perceived Conflict

Manifest Conflict

Conflict Resolution Or Conflict Management

Conflict Aftermath

Stages of Conflict Latent It implies the existence of antecedent conditions such as short staffing and rapid change. In this stage, conditions are ripe for conflict, although no conflict has actually occurred and none may ever occur. Much unnecessary conflict could be prevented or reduced if managers examined the organization more closely for antecedent conditions. Perceived/ Substantive

 Is intellectualized and often involves issues and roles. The person recognizes it logically and impersonally as occurring. Sometimes, conflict can be resolved at this stage before it is internalized or felt. Felt Occurs when conflict is emotionalized. Felt emotions include hostility, fear, mistrust, and anger. Also referred to as Affective Conflict. It is possible to perceive conflict and not feel it. A person can also feel the conflict but not perceive the problem. Manifest Also called Overt Conflict. In this stage, action is taken. It may be to withdraw, compete, debate, or seek conflict resolution. Conflict aftermath It is the end result of conflict. It is always present and is either positive or negative. Solution Strategies Identification When involved in a conflict situation, it is important that you are aware of whether you and the other party are dealing with a substantive conflict or a personalized one. It isn't always easy to tell them apart, and it is difficult to look honestly at oneself. Move to Substantive Issues

Even in situations where both you and the other party have personalized the conflict, you can work to focus on specific issues. You have not direct control over another person, but you have control over yourself. By moving to the issues, and staying there, you will also encourage the other person to do so. It isn't easy, of course. The trick is to try to put aside your negative perceptions about the other person, and not to dwell on them. That's an internal thing. Every time you think to yourself "what an idiot"(or all the other negative things), you make it that more difficult to stay focused on problem- solving, rather than winning, or getting your own way.

Work to Prevent Personalization

It is rare that personalization occurs just on the basis of two incompatible personalities. Usually, personalization occurs because conflict on substantive issues is handled badly. That is, one or both parties behave in noncooperative ways. Good managers coach employees to handle peer-to-peer issues themselves

There is a Communications Triangle in most organizations. Once a relationship sails into this danger zone, theres no guarantee it will ever come back. Ironically, many managers enter the Triangle because they think its the right thing to do and they have no idea that the relationship could capsize. Conflict Resolution If you deal with people, you will, sooner or later, have to deal with conflict. Conflict is not inherently bad. Conflict simply stems from differing viewpoints. Since no two people view the world exactly the same way, disagreement is quite normal. In fact, anyone who agrees with you all of the time is probably telling you what you want to hear, not what he or she actually believes. The reason conflict is often dreaded is because of the emotional aspects that come along with it. When there is conflict, it means that there is disagreement between two or more individuals. The conflict is usually in relation to interests or ideas that are personally meaningful to either one or both of the parties involved. Unmanaged conflict can lead to bad feelings and even violence. The key to managing conflict effectively is to learn the skills necessary to become good at handling conflict. AREAS WHERE CONFLICT OCCURS Conflicts in Interpersonal Relationships Sometimes in interpersonal relationships, such as those between you and one of your employees, there may be a conflict that you are not aware of. If someone who is normally upbeat and friendly toward you suddenly begins avoiding you or being rude, there is usually a reason. If the person has remained cheerful with everyone else except you, chances are you are dealing with a conflict situation.

 Conflicts in Meetings Conflicts in meetings can be very disruptive. But they can also be very helpful. Remember, conflicts are disagreements. If the person who is disagreeing with you is raising valid questions, it may benefit the group to address the issues they are presenting. In fact, by listening to them, you may gain valuable insight into what is and what is not working within your organization. Conflicts in Negotiations When you are negotiating with your clients, vendors, or even your employees, it is important to always keep in mind the idea that both parties are seeking a Win/Win situation. No one wants to feel like they are giving away something for nothing. In fact, most conflicts arise because one party feels like the other party is taking advantage of them. Cooperation Cooperation involves individuals or groups working together for the achievement of their individual or collective goals. In its simplest form, cooperation may involve only two people who work together towards a common goal. Two college students working together to complete a laboratory experiment, or two inter-city youths working together to protect their 'turf' from violation by outsiders are examples. In these cases, solidarity between the collaborators is encouraged and they share jointly the reward of their cooperation. Again at the level of two-person interactions, the goals towards which the cooperation parties work may be consistent with each other, but they may not be identical or shared. From the college experience again, student and professor may cooperate towards the student's mastery of professor's discipline, but the student may be working to make a good grade while the professor is working to establish or reinforce his/her reputation as a good teacher. If some of their rewards are shared, some also are individual but attainable only through joint effort. The cooperating parties in this case may be either neutral or kindly disposed towards one another but their relationship is not likely to have lasting solidarity. 5 TYPES OF COOPERATION Direct Cooperation:

Those activities in which people do like things together play together, worship together, labor together in myriad ways. The essential character is that people do in company, the things which they can also do separately or in isolation. They do them together because it brings social satisfaction. Indirect Cooperation:

Those activities in which people do definitely unlike tasks toward a single end. Here the famous principle of the 'division of labour' is introduced, a principle that is imbedded in the nature of social revealed wherever people combine their difference for mutual satisfaction or for a common end. Primary Cooperation: It is found in primary groups such as family, neighborhood, friends and so on. Here, there is an identity end. The rewards for which everyone works are shared or meant to be shared, with every other member in the group. Means and goals become one, for cooperation itself is a highly prized value. Secondary Cooperation:

It is the characteristic feature of the modern civilized society and is found mainly in social groups. It is highly formalized and specialized. Each performs his/her task, and thus helps others to perform their tasks, so that he/she can separately enjoy the fruits of his/her cooperation. Tertiary Cooperation:

It may be found between 2 or more political parties, castes, tribes, religions groups etc. It is often called accommodation. The two groups may cooperate and work together for antagonistic goals. Cooperation is important in the life of an individual that it is difficult for man to survive without it. C.H. Cooley says that Cooperation arises only when men realize that they have a common interest. They have sufficient theme, intelligence and self control, to seek this interest through united action. WAYS TO FACILITATE COOPERATION Focus on doing well. Attempt to do well and trying to beat others are two separate mental processes. It is impossible to concentrate on both. Of the two, cooperating with yourself and others to create a positive outcome has more rewards. Allow ample time. Cooperation comes to a grinding halt as time pressures increase. Time pressures produce non-agreement, decreased information exchanges, and firmer negotiator demands. The perception of available time facilitates cooperation. Use similar language. If someone is hoping you will cooperate with him or her on a particular venture, ask questions using the same works they used to describe the plan originally.

 Share leadership. Cooperation as a form of leadership, equally shared by all group members. By sharing the leadership, you allow others to take on initiative and to be integral parts of the group. There is an increased sense of "ownership" of plans and ideas by all members, and the work environment is pleasurable. Learn cooperative problem-solving tools. That these are really creativity tools by another name. Practice reciprocity. When someone helps you out, make it a point to help them. Express your gratitude by helping them before they expect it. A policy of general reciprocity - people helping people facilitates cooperation. This particular technique has been shown empirically (especially in international studies) as one of the few ways to gain an adversary's cooperation. Share resources and information. When people are vying for knowledge, work space, personnel, or anything to help them get the job done, cooperation decreases. Resource exchange, however, encourages one person to work with another. Reinforce team efforts. Rather than praising one person for a job well done, utilize a team approach to problem solving. When the team does well, the entire group is rewarded. This minimizes individual competition, and maximizes cooperation. Distribute the rewards equally among group members. Act cooperatively. Research supports the fact that individuals who have witnessed a cooperative act will "pass it on," sharing some degree of cooperation with the next person they meet. Anytime you help another person feel better, you have increased the probability that he or she will be cooperative toward you. For your health's sake, experience cooperation. Make it a point to notice how much better you feel when you cooperate with others. As the researchers suggest, once you experience the positive feelings, there seems to be no other way to work except cooperatively.