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ArtificialSatellite
Introduction
Artificial Satellite, any object purposely placed into orbit around Earth, other planets, or the Sun. Since the launching of the first artificial satellite in 1957, thousands of these man-made moons have been rocketed into Earth orbit. Today, artificial satellites play key roles in the communications industry, in military intelligence, and in the scientific study of both Earth and outer space. History's first artificial satellite, the Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957. Since then, thousands of satellites have been launched into orbit around the Earth; also some satellites, notably space stations, have been launched in parts and assembled in orbit. Artificial satellites originate from more than 50 countries and have used the satellite launching capabilities of ten nations. A few hundred satellites are currently operational, whereas thousands of unused satellites and satellite fragments orbit the Earth as space debris. A few space have been placed into orbit around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the Sun. Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military and civilian Earth observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research satellites. Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, and are classified in a number of ways. Well-known (overlapping) classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit. Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems. Satellite subsystems attend many tasks, such as power generation, thermal control, telemetry, attitude control and orbit control.

History of Artificial Satellites

Sputnik 1: The first artificial satellite to orbit Earth.

The first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957, and initiating the Soviet Sputnik program, with Sergei as chief designer (there is a crater on the lunar far side which bears his name). This in turn triggered the Race between the Soviet Union and the United States.

Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high atmospheric layers through measurement of its orbital change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere. The unanticipated announcement of Sputnik 1's success precipitated the Sputnik crisis in the United States and ignited the so-called Space Race within the Cold War.

Sputnik 2 was launched on November 3, 1957 and carried the first living passenger into orbit, a dog named Laika. In May, 1946, Project RAND had released the Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship, which stated, "A satellite vehicle with appropriate instrumentation can be expected to be one of the most potent scientific tools of the Twentieth Century.[6] The United States had been considering launching orbital satellites since 1945 under the Bureau

of Aeronautics of the United States Navy. The United's Project RAND eventually released the above report, but did not believe that the satellite was a potential military weapon; rather, they considered it to be a tool for science, politics, and propaganda. In 1954, the Secretary of Defense stated, "I know of no American satellite program."

On July 29, 1955, the White House announced that the U.S. intended to launch satellites by the spring of 1958. This became known as Project Vanguard. On July 31, the Soviets announced that they intended to launch a satellite by the fall of 1957.

Following pressure by the American Rocket Society, the National Science Foundation, and the International Geophysical Year, military interest picked up and in early 1955 the Army and Navy were working on Project Orbiter, two competing programs, the army's which involved using a Jupiter C rocket, and the civilian/Navy Vanguard Rocket, to launch a satellite. At first, they failed: initial preference was given to the Vanguard program whose launch vehicle had a strange and uncanny way of exploding on national television. But finally, three months after Sputnik, the project succeeded; Explorer 1 thus became the United States' first artificial satellite on January 31, 1958. In June 1961, three-and-a-half years after the launch of Sputnik 1, the Air Force used resources of the United States Space Surveillance Network to catalog 115 Earth-orbiting satellites. The largest artificial satellite currently orbiting the Earth is the International Space Station.

Launch vehicle

A Russian Soyuz lifts off from the BaikonurCosmodrome in Kazakhstan heading for the ISS In spaceflight, a launch vehicle or carrier rocket is a rocket used to carry a payload from the Earth's surface into outer space. A launch system includes the launch vehicle, the launch pad and other infrastructure. Usually the payload is an artificial satellite placed into orbit, but some spaceflights are sub-orbital while others enable spacecraft to escape Earth orbit entirely. A launch vehicle which carries its payload on a suborbital trajectory is often called a sounding rocket.

Launch-Vehicles There are two types of launch vehicles: expendable rockets, which are destroyed while completing their mission, and the Space Shuttle, which is reusable. Expendable rockets for communication satellites have three stages. The first stage contains several hundred thousand pounds of a kerosene/liquid oxygen mixture, plus a number of solid fuel rocket boosters that produce a tremendous display of flame--and ear splitting noise--as the rocket lifts off the pad. It raises the satellite to an elevation of about /50 miles. The second stage raises the satellite to 100 miles, and the third stage places it into the transfer orbit. After

the satellite is placed in its transfer orbit, the rockets mission is complete, and its remnants fall to earth. The satellite is placed in its final geosynchronous orbital slot by the AKM, which is fired on-command while the satellite is at the apogee of its elliptical transfer orbit. Figure 8 shows a picture of the Atlas IIAS expendable satellite launch vehicle.

Figure 8: The Atlas IIAS Expendable Satellite Launch Vehicle

The Space Shuttle shown in Figure 9 performs the functions of the first two stages of an expendable launch vehicle. The satellite--together with the third stage--are mounted in the cargo bay of the shuttle. When the shuttle reaches its orbital elevation of 150 to 200 miles, the satellite and third stage assembly are ejected from the cargo compartment as shown in Figure 10. Then the third stage is fired, placing the satellite into the elliptical transfer orbit. At the apogee of the transfer orbit, the satellites AKM moves the satellite into its designated geosynchronous orbital slot. After all of its cargo has been jettisoned, the shuttle returns to earth for refurbishing and reuse.

Figure 9: The Space Shuttle Reusable Launch Vehicle

Figure 10: The Space Shuttle

Launch pad

Kennedy Space CenterLaunch Complex 39 A launch pad is the area and facilities where rockets or spacecraft lift off. A spaceport (or rocket launch site) can contain one or many launch pads. A typical launch pad consists of the service and umbilical structures. The service structure provides an access platform to inspect the launch vehicle prior to launch. Most service structures can be moved or rotated to a safe distance. The umbilical structure has propellent loading, gas, power, and communication links to the launch vehicle. The launch vehicle sits atop of the launch platform, which has the flame deflection structure to withstand the intense heat and load generated by rocket engines during liftoff.

Most cryogenic launch vehicles need to be continuously topped off as scheduled liftoff approaches. This is particularly necessary as various holds are placed on the liftoff and then removed as support personnel correct problems or verify they are not serious. Without the ability to top off the launch vehicle, the launch would have to be scrubbed when problems slowed down the countdown. Gantries are commonly designed and constructed on launch pads to meet these types of servicing requirements both during launch and in the preparation period leading up to it.

Most rockets need stable support for a few seconds after ignition while the engines ramp up and stabilize at full thrust. This stability requirement is commonly met by the use of explosive bolts to connect the launch vehicle to the pad. When the vehicle is stable and ready to fly the bolts explode, severing the vehicle's ties to the launch pad and structures on the ground.

What are the principles of satellite launching

To place a satellite at a height of 300 km, the launching velocityshould be at least about 8.5 km s-1 or 30600 kmph. If this high velocityis given to the rocket at the surface of the Earth, the rocket will beburnt due to air friction. Moreover, such high velocities cannot bedeveloped by single rocket. Hence, multistage rockets are used.To be placed in an orbit, a satellite must be raised to the desiredheight and given the correct speed and direction by the launching rocketAt lift off, the rocket, with a manned or unmanned satellite on top, is held down by clamps on the launching pad. Now the exhaust gasesbuiltup an upward thrust which exceeds the rocket's weight. The clampsare then removed by remote control and the rocket accelerates upwards.To penetrate the dense lower part of the atmosphere, initially therocket rises vertically and then tilted by a guidance system. The first stagerocket, which may burn for about 2 minutes producing a speed of3 km s-1, lifts the vehicle to a height of about 60 km and then separatesand falls back to the Earth.The vehicle now goes to its orbital height, say 160 km, where itmoves horizontally for a moment. Then the second stage of the rocketfires and increases the speed that is necessary for a circular orbit. Byfiring small rockets with remote control system, the satellite is separatedfrom the second stage and made to revolve in its orbit.

How is a Satellite Launched into an Orbit?

All satellites today get into orbit by riding on a rocket or by riding in the cargo bay of the Space Shuttle. Several countries and businesses have rocket launch capabilities, and satellites as large as several tons make it safely into orbit on a regular basis. For most satellite launches, the scheduled launch rocket is aimed straight up at first. This gets the rocket through the thickest part of the atmosphere most quickly and best minimizes fuel consumption. After a rocket launches straight up, the rocket control mechanism uses the inertial guidance system to calculate Photo courtesy Arianespace necessary adjustments to the rocket's nozzles to tilt the rocket ARIANE 44L (four liquid to the course described in the flight plan. In most cases, the strap-on boosters) at liftoff French Guiana, flight plan calls for the rocket to head east because Earth from rotates to the east, giving the launch vehicle a free boost. The October 1998 strength of this boost depends on the rotational velocity of Earth at the launch location. The boost is greatest at the equator, where the distance around Earth is greatest and so rotation is fastest. How big is the boost from an equatorial launch? To make a rough estimate, we can determine Earth's circumference by multiplying its diameter by pi (3.1416). The diameter of Earth is approximately 7,926 miles (12,753 km). Multiplying by pi yields a circumference of something like 24,900 miles (40,065 km). To travel around that circumference in 24 hours, a point on Earth's surface has to move at 1,038 mph (1,669 kph). A launch from Cape Canaveral, Florida, doesn't get as big a boost from Earth's rotational speed. The Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 39-A, one of its launch facilities, is located at 28 degrees 36 minutes 29.7014 seconds north latitude. The Earth's rotational speed there is about 894 mph (1,440 kph). The difference in Earth's surface speed between the equator and Kennedy Space Center, then, is about 144 mph (229 kph). (Note: The Earth is actually oblate -- fatter around the middle -- not a perfect sphere. For that reason, our estimate of Earth's circumference is a little small.)

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Inertial Guidance Systems

A rocket must be controlled very precisely to insert a satellite into the desired orbit. An inertial guidance system (IGS) inside the rocket makes this control possible. The IGS determines a rocket's exact location and orientation by precisely measuring all of the accelerations the rocket experiences, using gyroscopes and accelerometers. Mounted in gimbals, the gyroscopes' axes stay pointing in the same direction. This gyroscopically-stable platform contains accelerometers that measure changes in acceleration on three different axes. If it knows exactly where the rocket was at launch and it knows the accelerations the rocket experiences during flight, the IGS can calculate the rocket's position and orientation in space. Considering that rockets can go thousands of miles per hour, you may wonder why a difference of only 144 mph would even matter. The answer is that rockets, together with their fuel and their payloads, are very heavy. For example, the February 11, 2000 lift-off of the Space Shuttle Endeavor with the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission required launching a total weight of 4,520,415 pounds (2,050,447 kg). It takes a huge amount of energy to accelerate such a mass to 144 mph, and therefore a significant amount of fuel. Launching from the equator makes a real difference. Once the rocket reaches extremely thin air, at about 120 miles (193 km) up, the rocket's navigational system fires small rockets, just enough to turn the launch vehicle into a horizontal position. The satellite is then released. At that point, rockets are fired again to ensure some separation between the launch vehicle and the satellite itself.

Launching Satellites Into Orbit

Placing a satellite into geosynchronous orbit requires an enormous amount of energy. The launch process can be divided into two phases: the launch phase and the orbit injection phase.

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The Launch Phase

During the launch phase, the launch vehicle places the satellite into the transfer orbit--an elliptical orbit that has at its farthest point from earth (apogee) the geosynchronous elevation of 22,238 miles and at its nearest point (perigee) an elevation of usually not less than 100 miles as shown below in Figure 7.

The Orbit Injection Phase

The energy required to move the satellite from the elliptical transfer orbit into the geosynchronous orbit is supplied by the satellites apogee kick motor (AKM). This is known as the orbit injection phase.

Figure 7: The Elliptical Transfer Orbit

What is apogee and perigee

The moon's orbit is elliptical. When the moon is at its farthest point from earth it is called the apogee. When it is closest to earth, it is called the perigee.

What is the differance between apogee and perigee

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Apogee: The point in the orbit of the moon or an artificial satellite where it's farthest from the earth.

Perigee: The point in the orbit of the moon or an artificial satellite where it's closest to the earth.

Methods used to place a satellite into orbit

There is a considerable amount of expertise and technology used to ensure that satellites enter their orbits in the most energy efficient ways possible. This ensures that the amount of fuel required is kept to a minimum; an important factor on its own because the fuel itself has to be transported until it is used. If too much fuel has to be used then this increases the size of the launch rocket and in turn this greatly increases the costs. Many satellites are placed into geostationary orbit, and one common method of achieving this is based on the Hohmann transfer principle. This is the method use when the Shuttle launches satellites into orbit. Using this system the satellite is placed into a low earth orbit with an altitude of around 180 miles. Once in the correct position in this orbit rockets are fired to put the satellite into an elliptical orbit with the perigee at the low earth orbit and the apogee at the geostationary orbit as shown. When the satellite reaches the final altitude the rocket or booster is again fired to retain it in the geostationary orbit with the correct velocity.

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Use of a transfer orbit to place a satellite in geostationary orbit Alternatively when launch vehicles like Ariane are used the satellite is launched directly into the elliptical transfer orbit. Again when the satellite is at the required altitude the rockets are fired to transfer it into the required orbit with the correct velocity. These are the two main methods of placing satellites into orbit. Naturally it would be possible to place a satellite directly into geostationary orbit, but this would take more energy and would not be feasible.

What altitude is minimum for launching a satellite

Technically, any altitude is minimum, as long as one can overcome aerodynamic drag (and not hitting anything else) and have enough centripetal acceleration (from travelling in an orbit) to counter the gravitational pull towards the center of the earth. In fact, most satellites operate at different altitudes within their orbits, the closest point (to earth) of the orbit being perigee and the point farthest away being apogee. Sputnik, one of the first satellites, had a perigee of 228 km, which puts it at a Low Earth Orbit (LEO). In LEO, atmospheric effects such as air drag (not too much, but still can be significant) can cause the orbit to degrade.

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However, you can also have Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) and High Earth Orbit (HEO), with different corresponding altitudes for each.

What are the steps for launching satellites

first stage: engine of the rocket is put on. second stage: lower part of the rocket splits. then the main part of the rocket enters the space and revolve around the earth.

How much does launching a satellite cost

$51 million has been the average per-satellite launch cost between 1999 and 2009.

Launch along the equator

The best place to launch a satellite into geostationary orbit is from a launch site near the equator, to take advantage of the rotation of the Earth. But satellites are also launched from the equator into other orbits. A geostationary orbit is about 36,000 kilometres from the surface of the Earth. In it, a satellite appears to hover over a fixed point on Earth, a location ideal for communications satellites and for some Earth observation satellites.

The easiest way to attain the right speed for orbiting a geostationary satellite is to launch it along the equator in the direction of the Earths rotation. The launcher then gets a boost from the Earth which, at the equator, moves at a speed of 1675 kilometres per hour. Thus the rocket can do its job with less propellant.

Space on board a launcher is limited. The load carried divides between the useful payload

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(satellites) and the propellant. The greater the payload capacity, the lower the cost for orbiting each satellite. First, the launcher orients itself in the satellites orbit, and then it releases the satellite. Thereafter, the satellite stays in its orbit, which it can adjust as needed using small on-board thrusters. French Guyana is a good site for launching satellites into the equatorial plane. Here, ESAs powerful Ariane 5 rockets are launched. The Ariane 5 has a load capacity of up to eight tons, enough to orbit the heaviest satellites.

Other orbits If a satellite is to be launched into a polar orbit (orbiting pole to pole, instead of around the equator), its launch rocket gets little or no help from the Earths rotation. In theory, such a satellite may be launched from anywhere on Earth. But a rocket launch base is expensive, so its actually cheaper to have a base at the equator to meet all launch needs.

Why dont satellites fall down?

Many satellites dash over our heads at speeds of thousands of kilometres per hour. Careful computations keep them in orbit. A stable orbit is determined by just the right combination of satellite speed and distance from the Earth. The speed must be great enough so gravity doesnt bring the satellite back to Earth, but not so great that the satellite escapes gravity out into space.

A simple example shows why that is so. Think of a stone tied to the end of a piece of string held in hand and whirled in a circle. The stone simulates the satellite, and the hand is the Earth. Centrifugal force pulls outward, but the taut string holds the stone in its circular orbit. If the speed of the stone is too low, the stone doesnt move in a circle, but falls toward the hand holding the string. Theres no air resistance in space, so as soon as a satellite has gained the right speed, it retains that speed. Satellites fly in stable orbits, for which satellite speed and distance from the Earth are calculated accurately. A satellite in a stable orbit wont fall down of its own

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accord, so theres almost no chance of being hit by one.

Occasionally, a satellite must correct its orbit to keep its position. When a satellite has reached the end of its useful life, it can be moved to a graveyard orbit or sent back toward Earth to burn up in the atmosphere

Why are satellites launched into a easterly direction

Most satellites are launched to the east to utilize the earth's rotation as an extra propelling force. The earth is rotating in a counter-clockwise direction when viewed from the North Pole (from west to east), and when we launch our satellites east we take advantage of this momentum (angular momentum) from the earth's rotation. In effect, a rocket sitting still on the launch pad at Cape Canaveral is ALREADY GOING EAST, at about 800 miles per hour!

On the other hand, if we launch them westward, the satellites will have to fight against the angular momentum of the earth's rotation, which means more power is needed to break through the earth's atmosphere. As many of us might not have noticed, we are moving at a breathtaking speed just by standing still (about 1000miles/hour at the equator, and decreasing with increasing latitude) when viewed from outer space. Launching our satellites eastward will harvest this power and save on fuel cost, and in space shuttle terms, that's a lot of money!

However, not ALL satellites are launched to the east; some are launched to the south. Some relatively small percentage of satellites are launched into polar orbits so that they orbit the Earth from south to north, and then north to south. The Earth spins west to east, so that the effective ground path of the satellite is covers the Earth like a ball of twine. American satellites launched into polar orbits are often launched from Vandenberg AFB in California, where a launch to the south keeps the rocket over water for several thousand miles

Orbit

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A satellite orbiting the Earth has a tangential velocity and an inward acceleration.

In physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved path of an object around a point in space, for example the orbit of a planet around the center of a star system, such as the Solar System. Orbits of planets are typically elliptical. Current understanding of the mechanics of orbital motion is based on Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity, which accounts for gravity as due to curvature of space-time, with orbits following geodesics.

Low Earth orbit

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An orbiting cannon ball showing various sub-orbital and orbital possibilities.

Various earth orbits drawn to scale; the inner cyan (light blue) ring represents low Earth orbit (LEO).

Roughly half an orbit of the ISS

A low Earth orbit (LEO) is generally defined as an orbit within the locus extending from the Earths surface up to an altitude of 2,000 km. Given the rapid orbital decay of objects

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below approximately 200 km, the commonly accepted definition for LEO is between 160 2,000 km (1001,240 miles) above the Earth's surface.

Medium Earth orbit

Various earth orbits to scale; Yellow represents medium earth orbit

To-scale diagram of low, medium and high earth orbits

Medium Earth orbit (MEO), sometimes called intermediate circular orbit (ICO), is the region of space around the Earth above low Earth orbit (altitude of 2,000 kilometres (1,243 mi)) and below geostationary orbit (altitude of 35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi)).

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Geostationary orbit

Geostationary orbit.To an observer on the rotating Earth (fixed point on the Earth), the satellite appears stationary in the sky. A red satellite is also geostationary above its own point on Earth.

TopDown View

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Geostationary orbit.To an observer on the rotating Earth (green dot on the blue sphere), the magenta satellite appears stationary in the sky. A red satellite is also geostationary above its own point on the blue sphere

Side view of Geostationary 3D of 2 satellites

Side view of Geostationary 3D of 2 satellites of Earth

A geostationary orbit (or Geostationary Earth Orbit - GEO) is a geosynchronous orbit directly above the Earth's equator (0 latitude), with a period equal to the Earth's rotational period and an orbital eccentricity of approximately zero. An object in a geostationary orbit appears motionless, at a fixed position in the sky, to ground observers. Communications satellites and weather satellites are often given geostationary orbits, so that the satellite antennas that communicate with them do not have to move to track them, but can be pointed

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permanently at the position in the sky where they stay. Due to the constant 0 latitude and circularity of geostationary orbits, satellites in GEO differ in location by longitude only.

Escape velocity

Isaac Newton's analysis of escape velocity. Projectiles A and B fall back to earth. Projectile C achieves a circular orbit, D an elliptical one. Projectile E escapes.

In physics, escape velocity is the speed at which the kinetic energy plus the gravitational potential energy of an object is zero
[nb 1]

. It is the speed needed to "break free" from a

gravitational field without further propulsion. For a spherically-symmetric body, escape velocity is calculated by the formula

whereG is the universal gravitational constant (G=6.6710-11 m3 kg-1 s-2), M the mass of the planet, star or other body, and r the distance from the centre of gravity. In this equation atmospheric friction or air drag, is not taken into account. A rocket moving out of a gravity well does not actually need to attain escape velocity to do so, but could achieve the same result at walking speed with a suitable mode of propulsion and sufficient fuel. Escape velocity only applies to ballistic trajectories.

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The term escape velocity is actually a misnomer, as the concept refers to a scalar speed which is independent of direction whereas velocity is the measurement of the rate and direction of change in position of an object

PrincipleOf Rocket Propulsion

The principle of rocket propulsion depends on the following two laws: (i)Newtons third law of motion (ii) Law of conservation of momentum We have already read about these laws, and now we will see how they can be applied for propelling the rocket. The motion of a rocket is an interesting application of Newton 's third law of motion & momentum principle. The rocket expels a jet of hot gases from its tail. This is say, an action force. The jet of hot gases exerts a force on the rocket, propelling it forward; this is the reaction force. From the momentum point of view, the hot gases acquire momentum in the backward direction & the rocket

acquires an equal amount of momentum in the forward direction. The simplest example to
Propulsion Principle

understand the propulsion of rockets is that of a balloon.

A balloon shooting forward (when the mouth of the balloon filled with air is released) and a rocket hurtling into space are propelled by similar forces. The air in a closed balloon exerts a uniform outward force. But when air rushes out of its neck (similar to exhaust gases leaving

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rockets) disturbs this equilibrium. Thus an equal and opposite force is exerted on the surface opposite to the neck. This drives the balloon forward. As we have seen in the previous section propellants are used to provide thrust to the rockets. These propellants on burning produces large amount of gas, which are allowed to pass through nozzle. On passing through the nozzle, high pressure is generated i.e. gas comes out with high pressure. Now to increase the thrust, one basic property is used while designing the nozzle. The neck of the nozzle is kept very small as compared to the body of the rocket. So the pressure of the gas increases and so does the velocity. Thus high thrust is achieved. Let us now see the different types of propulsion techniques classified according to presentday and future techniques.

Classification of Propulsion
In the initial years, solid and liquid propellants were used to propel the rockets but due to advancement in technology and demerits existing in the conventional methods, scientists have discovered new and efficient propulsion techniques. Let us see how these propulsion techniques are classified

Present- day propulsion techniques

These are the propulsion techniques, which are currently being employed to propel the spacecraft One of the major limitation of these techniques is that enormous amounts of mass must be expelled to create required thrust. This would increase cost of sending the spacecraft.

Chemical Propulsion
In this method of propulsion techniques, propellants used are basically chemicals, which produces high amount of energy on burning.

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Depending upon the physical state of the propellant used they can be classified as: a) Propulsion

using

solid

propellants: -

Here solid propellants (see solid propellants) are used to propel the rocket When the solid fuel is ignited, it burns along the walls of the combustion chamber. As discussed earlier, solid fuels have

perforation. This is to increase the surface area and eventually to increase the thrust produced by the rocket. As the combustion proceeds, the perforation shape changes into a circle. This provides high thrust initially and thrust lowers during the middle of the Solid Propulsion flight. Solid-fuel rocket engines have three important advantages:
o o o

Easy to design Low cost Ensures safety

They also have two disadvantages:

o o

Thrust cannot be controlled. Once ignited, the engine cannot be stopped or restarted.

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b) Propulsion using liquid propellants: liquid propellants (see liquid propellants) are used to propel the rockets. In liquid propellant rockets, fuel and oxidizer are pumped into the combustion chamber. They are ignited to produce high pressure, high velocitygases. These gases are then directed towards the nozzle to provide thrust to the rocket.
Liquid Propulsion

Liquid propellant rockets encounter a problem in cooling the combustion chamber and nozzle. For this purpose, cryogenic fuels (super cooled liquids) are circulated to cool these parts.

Nuclear Propulsion
In chemical propulsion, combustion process was used to produce the necessary thrust to propel the rocket. But in nuclear propulsion techniques, nuclear reactions are used to do the same. Nuclear reactions release tremendous amount of energy. This energy is used to heat the propellants (like liquid H 2 ), due to which gaseous product is formed, which provides thrust to the rocket. The propulsion techniques using the nuclear reactions are called: Fission Propulsion Fusion Propulsion Let us see how fission and fusion propulsion techniques are used for propelling the rockets.

Fission Propulsion
Principle:

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In fission propulsion, fission reaction is used to generate energy. This energy is used to heat the propellants forming gaseous products. The gases are forced out through a nozzle, thus producing thrust.

Working of Fission Propulsion The Fuel rod is the reactors are bombarded with particle like neutron, and fission process starts. It produces energy is the form of heat. This heat is given to propellant. The propellant gets heated up and gives a high amount of gaseous products. These gases when passed through nozzle, provides thrust to the rocket. Demerits: (i) Fission is uncontrolled reaction. So, possibility of explosion of rocket is more. So, careful designing is needed. (ii) Products formed are usually radioactive and they are a threat to environment.

Fusion Propulsion
Principle: In nuclear fusion, lighter nuclei (lighter than iron) fuse to form a heavier nucleus. In this process they release energy. This energy is used to heat the propellants forming gaseous products providing thrust to the rocket. Explanation: The best example of energy generated by fusion is our sun, in which the heat energy is produced by the fusion of two hydrogen isotope atoms to form helium.
2 1H

+ 1H22He4 + Energy

There is a difference in mass between the two original lightweight nuclei and single product nucleus. Here also, the energy is liberated according to mass defect concept explained in nuclear fission. This results in release of tremendous amount of energy. This energy is used to heat propellants, which form gaseous products. These gases are forced out through nozzle producing thrust.

Advantages A fusion propulsion rocket will have much greater specific impulse. A chemical rocket engine has a specific impulse of about 450 seconds. A fusion rocket could have an estimated specific impulse of 130,000 seconds.

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This large specific impulse would greatly increase the speed of rockets making the missions faster (it could cut down the number of days by about 50%) and make manned missions easier. Fusion-powered rockets would use hydrogen as a propellant. Hydrogen is present in the atmosphere of many planets. So as the spacecraft travels through space it could replenish its supply of hydrogen from any planet's atmosphere. This propulsion technique is currently not being used, as it requires very high temperatures to initiate the fission process.

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REFERENCES

www.howstuffworks.com www.satellites.co.uk www.isro.orgwww.wikipedia.com www.wikipedia.com Satellite Communications by Dennis Roddy