Basic Principles of measurements Instrumentation: The division of engineering science which deals with measuring techniques, devices and

their associated problems is called instrumentation. (or) The technology of using instruments to measure and control the physical and chemical properties of materials is called instrumentation. Control System: When the measuring and controlling instruments are combined so that measurements provide impulses for remote automatic action, the result is called a control system. Measurement: The word measurement is used to tell us the length, the weight, the temperature, the color or the change in one of the physical entities of a material. Measurement is the result of an opinion formed by one or more observers about the relative size or intensity of some physical quantity. The opinion is formed by the observer after comparing the object with a quantity of same kind chosen as a unit, called standard.

The measuring system (I/P) is known as measurand. The O/P is called measurement. Standards of measurement: The standard of measurement are often classified as 1. Primary standards 2. Secondary standards 3. Working standards Primary standards: The highest standard of either a base unit or a derived unit is called a primary standard. These standards essentially are copies of international prototypes and are kept throughout the world in national standard laboratories and institution of similar standing. These standard units are quite stable, independent, invariant, not relative but finite. The primary standards constitute the ultimate basis of reference and are used for the purpose of verification and calibration of secondary standards. These standards have the highest possible accuracy but are very expensive to own and maintain. The primary standards are not available for use outside the national laboratories.

Secondary standards: The secondary standards are the reference calibrated standards designed and calibrated from primary standards. These are sent periodically to the national standard laboratories for their calibration. These standards are kept by the measurement laboratories and the industrial organizations to check and calibrate the general tools for their accuracy and precision. Working standards: These standards have an accuracy of one order lower than that of the secondary standards. These are normal standards which are used by the workers and technicians who actually carry out the measurements. Units and conversion factors: The international system (SI) of units is divided into three classes. i. ii. iii. Based units Derived units Supplementary units

Mechanical Measurements: 1. Mechanics type (or self-operated type) 2. Power type Mechanics type of measurements: This type of mechanical measurements is commonly applied to experimental or developmental programmes. The following are the three distinct methods essential to determine the complete solution to complex problems in mechanical design. i. ii. iii. The empirical method The rational method The experimental method

Empirical method: In this method use is made of the knowledge of satisfactory precious performance, either personally observed or generally recognized as good practice. The results of such observations are available in the form of thumb rules in hand books and codes. This method, however, cannot be relied upon especially in case of complex systems design, since this method of design is mainly based upon the judgment of the designer. Rational method: This method is strictly based upon well established scientific laws and relationships. The rational method has a very limited scope in areas of mechanical engineering other than mechanics and thermodynamics, where the availability of laws and relationships is rather scarce. Experimental method: In the experimental design method, the component is designed by trial and error based on existing knowledge and the designed component is put on the job. The trails are

carried out intelligently and the interpretation of the error is done wisely. The experimental design, in fact, requires the greatest application of engineering ingenuity. Power type of measurements: This type of measurements is generally used for monitoring of operational measurements in control system. This entire area of automation and control is based upon power type of measurement. Methods of Measurement: i. ii. Direct comparison methods Indirect comparison methods

Direct comparison method: In this method the parameter to be measured is directly with either a primary or secondary standard. This method is commonly used for measurement of length. Generally this method is not always the most accurate or the best, it is not sensitive enough also. Indirect comparison method: In this method the comparison is done with a standard through the use of calibrated system. This method is used in those cases where the desired parameter to be measured is difficult to be measured directly. For example, the elimination of bacteria in milk is directly dependent upon its temperature. Thus the bacteria elimination can be measured indirectly by measuring the temperature of milk. Measurements are made more generally by indirect comparison with secondary standards through calibration. Modes of Measurement: Based upon the complexity of the measurement system, the measurements are generally grouped into 3 categories. 1. Primary measurement 2. Secondary measurement 3. Tertiary measurement Primary measurement: In primary mode, the sought value of a physical parameter is determined by comparing it directly with reference standards. There is no conversion of measurand in terms of length. Example: (i) Measurement of time by counting the number of strokes of a clock. (ii) Matching of two lengths when determining the length of an object with a ruler. (iii) Matching of two colors when judging the temperature of red hot steel. (iv) Estimating the temperature difference between the contents of containers by inserting fingers. The primary measurement provides subjective information only. Secondary measurement: The indirect measurement involving one translation is called secondary measurement. Example: (i) The pressure measurement by manometers. (ii) The temperature measurement by mercury in glass thermometers. The electrical methods are

preferred in indirect methods due to their high speed of operation and simpler processing of the measured variable. Tertiary measurement: The indirect measurements involving two conversions are called tertiary measurements. Example: The measurement of temperature of an object by thermocouple.

Measurements may also be divided into following categories: 1) Contact type: In this case the sensor of the measuring device contacts with the controlled medium. 2) Non-contact type: The sensors does not contact with the controlled medium. Ex: optical, radioactive also belongs to this category. Generalized Measurement System and its Functional Elements

The figure shows a measurement system with different components called elements and they perform certain definite and required step in the act of measurement. The various elements are: Primary sensing elements: It is an element that is sensitive to the measured variable. The sensing elements sense the condition, state or value of the process variable by extracting a small part of energy from the measurand, and then produce an output which reflects this conditions, state or value of the measurand. Variable conversion or Transducer element: This element converts the signal from one physical form to another without changing the information content of the signal. Ex: bourdon tube and bellows which transform pressure into displacement. Proving ring and other elastic members, which convert force to displacement. Rack and pinion, which convert the linear to rotary motion and vice versa. Obstruction flow meters, which transforms flow to pressure.

Manipulation element: This element operates on the signal according to some mathematical rule without changing the physical nature of the variable. Input x constant = output For the odometer of an automobile, the above mathematical operation takes the form: Revolution x [kilometer/revolution] = kilometer Data transmission element: This element provides a display record or indicator of the output from the manipulation elements. Electro-mechanical measurement system: In a measuring system using instrumentation an exciter and an amplifier are also incorporated into the circuit. The exciter is a source of electrical energy for the transducer. The amplifier serves to amplify the voltage from the transducer if this voltage is small.

The display unit may be required to serve the following functions: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Transmitting: To convey the information concerning the measured quality over some distance to a remote point. Signaling: To give a signal that the desired value has been reached. Registering: To indicate by numbers or by some other symbols the value of some quantity. Indicating: To indicate the specific values with an indicating hand over a suitably calibrated scale. Recording: To produce a written continuous record of the measurand against time.

Stages of general measurement system: The general measuring system consists of the following three stages: each comprising a distinct component or grouping of components. Stage-1 (Input stage): which comprises the sensor and transducer. It senses desired input to exclusion of all others and provides analogous output. Example:

Mechanical: contacting spindle, spring-mass, elastic devices (bourdon tube for pressure, proving ring for force), gyro. Electrical: contacts, resistance, capacitance, inductance, piezo electric crystals and polymers, thermocouple, semi-conductor junction etc. Optical: photographic film, photo electric diodes and transistors, photo multiplier tubes, holographic plates. Hydro-pneumatic: buoyant float, orifice, venture, vane, propeller. Stage-2 (Intermediate stage): It modifies transduced signal into form usable by final stage. It usually increases amplitude and / or power depending on requirement. It may also selectively filter unwanted component or convert signal into pulsed form. Example: Mechanical: gearing, cranes, slides, connecting links, cams etc. Electrical: amplifying or attenuating systems, bridges, filters, telemetering systems, various special pupose I.C (integrated circuit) devices. Optical: mirrors, lenses, optical filters, optical fibers, spatial filters (pin hole, slit) Hydro-pneumatic: piping, valving, dashpots, plenum chambers. Stage-3 (Output stage): which constitutes the data display, record or control. It provides an indication or recording in form that can be evaluated by an unaided human sense or by a controller. It records data digitally on a computer. Example: Indicators displace type: Moving pointer and scale, moving scale and index, light beam and scale, electron beam and scale (oscilloscope), liquid column. Digital types: Direct alphanumeric readout. Recorder: Digital printing, inked pen and chart, direct photography, magnetic recording (hard disk or tape) Processor and computers: Various types of computing systems, either special purpose or general, used to feed read out / recording devices and / or controlling systems. Controllers: All types.

Division of whole field of instrument: It is based upon 4 main categories. They are element, display, pointer deflection or loading effect and principle of functioning.

Static and Dynamic Characteristics To know how well an instrument operates, performance characteristics are required. 1. Static characteristics: for no variation or very small variation in inputs 2. Dynamic characteristics: important when input is changing at a faster rate Range & Span: Range is the region between the limits within which instrument is designed to operate. It is expressed by stating upper and lower limits. Span is the algebraic difference of upper and lower limits Example: Range -10 to 80oC 1 bar to 5 bar Span 90 4

Accuracy/Error: The uncertainty in the measurement is expressed in terms of accuracy/error. Accuracy is the conformity or closeness to an accepted true value. Error (static), Es = Vm - Vt Static correction, Cs = Vt Vm = - Es Error representation - accuracy 1oC - % of true value [(Vm - Vt) / Vt ] x 100 - % of true value [(Vm - Vt) / Full scale reading] x 100 where Vm is measured value and Vt is true value

Possible error & probable error: When an instrument consists of number of functional elements, each has its own limit of error say 1, 2 then overall accuracy can be stated. a. Maximum possible error (least count) = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4+ .. + n) b. Probable error (Root sum square error) = (12 + 22 + 32 + 42+ .. + n2) Problem: Pressure at a point is measured by a system consists of transmitter, relay, receiver. The specified accuracies are transmitter 0.2%, receiver 0.1% & relay 0.7%. Estimate maximum possible error and maximum probable error. [Answer: 2%, 1.32%] Sensitivity (k): It is a ratio of change of output signal to change in input signal. Mathematically, k = qo / qi The units of k depend upon measurand and output. For easy and accurate measurement k should be as high as possible. Overall system sensitivity: When different elements of a measuring system have different sensitivities (k1, k2, k3,.) and when they are connected in series. koverall = k1. k2. k3

Inverse sensitivity: Sometimes static senstivity is expressed as the ratio of magnitude of the measured quantity (input) to the magnitude of response (output). Thus it is the reciprocal of sensitivity. This ratio is defined as inverse sensitivity or deflection factor. Many manufacturers define the sensitivity of their instruments interms of inverse sensitivity and still call it as sensitivity. Sensitivity, k = change in output / change in input = qo / qi Inverse sensitivity = change in input / change in output = qi / qo Gain, Amplification: These are similar terms to sensitivity but when input and output are of same form. Ex: input 2V, output 10V k = 10 / 2 = 5 Problem: A pressure measuring instrument consists of a piezoelectric transducer, a charge amplifier and a UV recorder. The sensitivities of these elements are k1= 8.5 pc/bar, k2= 0.004 v/pc, k3= 20 mm/v. What would be the deflection on the chart due to a pressure change of 30 bar. koverall = 8.5 x 0.004 x 20 = 0.68 mm/bar Deflection for pressure gauge of 30 bar = 30 x 0.68 = 20.4 bar

Threshold & Resolution: When the input signal is gradually increased from zero, there will be some minimum value of input before which instrument will not detect any output change. This minimum value of input is called threshold. Therefore, threshold can be defined as the minimum value of input which is necessary to cause a detectable change from zero output. When the input signal is increased from non-zero the instrument output does not change until a certain input increment is exceeded. This increment is called resolution. Therefore, resolution can be defined as the smallest change of input for which there will be a detectable change of output. Threshold and resolutions are expressed as absolute values or as a fraction or percentage of full scale. The reasons for threshold and resolutions are backlash, internal noise due to friction etc. Problem: The pointer scale of a thermometer has 100 uniform divisions. Full scale reading is 200oC and 1/10 of scale division can be estimated with a fair degree of accuracy. Determine the resolution. R = (1/10) x (200/100) = 0.2oC Accuracy & Precision: Accuracy refers to closeness to the true value of measurand. Precision refers to ability of the instrument to reproduce its readings over and over again for a constant input signal. It is possible to obtain high precision with poor accuracy but not high accuracy with low precision. Precision is a necessary pre-requisite to accuracy but does not guarantee accuracy. Linearity: It is the ability of the instrument to reproduce the input characteristics symmetrically by the straight line equation y = mx + c; where y = output, m = slope, x = input, c = intercept. Any departure from straight line relationship is non-linear. The non-linearity may be due to non-linear elements in the device, mechanical hysteresis, and elastic after effects in the system etc. The deviation from linearity may be expressed by a term called %age linearity %age linearity = (maximum input deviation / full scale reading) x 100 Eg: potentiometer where displacement is input and resistance is output It is desirable to keep the %age linearity as low as possible Drift: The gradual departure of instrument output over a period of time i.e. unrelated to changes in input. Operating condition, wear and tear, high stresses developing at some points, contamination of primary sensing elements are the reasons for drift. Ex: Wear caused in venturimeters, orfices etc.

Contamination of sensors in thermocouples, thermometers etc. Drift occurs very slowly and checked by periodic inspection. Zero drift: If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set or due to undue worming up of electronic circuits zero drift sets in. This can be prevented by zero setting. Calibration: It is the process of periodical checking of an instrument with known standards or with known input source to determine error and consequently the correction to be made. During calibration the instrument should be kept in same position and subjected to same environmental conditions under which it is to operate whole in service the instrument is calibrated with values of measurand impressed both in increasing and in decreasing order. Results are plotted graphically. (output Vs input) the upscale output readings may not agree with the down scale readings. Hysteresis is the reason for this difference ABC Up scale curve DEF Down scale curve XYZ Median line (calibration curve)

From this errors at various input, outputs can be calculated and a correction curve can be generated which help the uses of the instrument.

The user of the instrument looks along abscissa for the value indicated by the instruments and reads the correction applied.

Hysteresis: It is the maximum difference for the same input signal between the upscale and downscale readings during a full range travel in each direction. Hysteresis is specified as percentage of full scale value. Hysteresis is due to irreversible phenomena: mechanical friction, slack motion in bearings and gears, elastic deformation, magnetic and thermal effects. Dead zone: It is the largest range through which an input signal can be varied without initiating any response from the instrument. Friction, play are the reasons of this.

Tolerance: It is the range of inaccuracy which can be tolerated in the instrument. It is the maximum permissible error. Zero stability: A measure of the ability of the instrument to restore to zero reading after the input has returned to zero.

Dynamic characteristics: When the instrument is required to measure an input which is varying with time the dynamic behavior of the instrument becomes importance. Speed of response: It is the rapidity with which an instrument responds to a change in the value of input. Measuring lag: It is the delay in the response of an instrument to a change in the input signal. Inertia, capacitance, resistance are the reasons of measuring lag. Fidelity: It is the degree of closeness with which system indicates or records the signal impressed on it. It is the ability of the instrument to reproduce output in the same form of input (eg: sine wave). Dynamic error: The difference between the indicated value and the true value of a time varying quantity. Overshoot: It is the maximum amount by which pointer moves beyond the steady value because of mass and inertia pointer does not immediately come to rest. It goes beyond the steady state value. Dead time: It is the time required for the instrument to begin to respond to a change in the input quantity. It is the time before the instrument begins to respond after input change. Friction, backlash, hysteresis are the reasons of dead time. Dead zone: It is the largest range through which an input signal can be varied without initiating any response from the instrument. Friction, play are the reasons of this. Problem: When an input of 100 bar is applied to a pressure gauge the pointer swings to a pressure of 102.5 bar and finally comes to rest at 101.3 bar. Determine the overshoot of the gauge reading and express it as percentage of final reading. Also calculate the percentage error of the gauge. Input = 100 bar; Output = 101.3 bar Overshoot = 102.5 101.3 = 1.2 bar %age overshoot = (1.2/101.3) x100 = 1.18% %age error = [(101.3 100)/100] x100 = 1.3%

ERRORS Types of errors: Every measurement has a certain amount of uncertainty. The errors can be classified as: Gross errors (Blunders): These are mainly human mistakes in reading and recording the value. For example, a value can be read as 31.2 and recorded as 32.1. Although complete elimination is not possible, one should try to anticipate and correct them. These can be reduced by taking a) care in reading and recording b) more number of readings Systematic errors: They have definite magnitude and direction. These are more troublesome as repeated measurements need not necessarily reveal them. The experimenter may sometimes use theoretical methods to estimate the magnitude of systematic errors. There are 3 types of systematic errors. i. a) Instrumental errors Inherent inaccuracies of instrument and inaccuracies that develop with use and time. Eg: finite width of knife edges in balance, clearance in gear teeth, yielding of supports, friction and wear. Mis-use of instruments i.e. improper operation of instruments. Eg: poor initial adjustment, flow meter after bend, thermometer bulb insufficiently immersed, misalignment of axis. Loading effects these are also called system interaction errors. Eg: providing thermometer well, introduction of thermometer provides leakage, ruler pressed against a body, tachometer reading with applied pressure, ammeter provides additional resistance etc. Environmental errors: These errors come into picture if the instrument is used in the conditions different for which it is designed and calibrated. The different conditions are temperature, pressure, humidity, altitude etc. These errors alter with time in unpredictable manner. These errors can be nullified by Using the instrument under same conditions Measuring the deviation and applying the correction Making a complete new calibration Observational errors: Even when the instrument and environmental conditions are good, errors are bound to come due to observers skill. Eg: parallax error, lack of ability of the interpolation between the graduations, non-simultaneous observation of interdependent quantities, anticipation of a signal and reading soon. These errors can be reduced with proper training and taking independent readings of each item by two or more observers.

b)

c)

ii.

a) b) c) iii.

Random errors (Residual errors): Any measurement is effected by some known and some unknown factors. The happenings about which we are unaware or lumped together are called residual errors. They remain ever after eliminating the systematic errors. These errors are random in their occurrence and variable in magnitude and usually follow certain statistical law (Normal distribution). With more number of measurements the deviation () becomes small and true reading approaches.