INDEX Flow chart of woven fabric dyeing Flow chart of knit fabric dyeing Flow chart of yarn dyeing

Singeing Desizing Scouring Bleaching Introduction of Dyeing and Dying machine Direct dye Basic dye Acid dye Vat dye Printing Water

Flow process chart of wet processing technology

1. Woven fabric dyeing:

Gray fabric inspection Stitching and brushing Singeing Desizing Scouring Bleaching Mercerizing Dyeing Finishing Final inspection Delivery Printing

2. Knit fabric dyeing: Gray fabric inspection Batching Singeing (optional) Mercerizing (optional) Scouring Bleaching Dyeing Finishing Final inspection Delivery Printing

3. Yarn dyeing: Gray yarn inspection Soft winding Batching and loading Scouring Bleaching Dyeing Finishing Hydro extraction Dryer Hard winding Final inspection Delivery

Singeing Definition: Singeing is a process carried out to remove loose hairy fibers protruding from the surface of the cloth, thereby giving it a smooth, even and clean looking face. Objects:

1. To remove loose hairy fibers. 2. In order to impart a clearly and sharp design to the cloth in
printing. 3. To obtain smooth surface. 4. Singeing is an essential process in the point of view of mercerizing. Types of singeing machine:

1. Plate singeing machine. 2. Roller singeing machine. 3. Gas singeing machine.

Plate singeing machine: Plate singeing machine consists of two curved copper plate 12 thick and barreled and heated by a suitable heating arrangement. The cloth is width and passes over in contact with the hot plates at a speed varying between 135-225 m/min. the protruding fibers are burnt during the passage of the cloth. Fiber end present in the interstitches of warp and weft are not singed. Temperature can not be maintained uniformly in this machine. But a certain amount of luster produced in the cloth due to friction.

Roller singeing machine: This singeing m/c is considered as a modification of plate singeing m/c. in this m/c the singeing surface is a rotating cylinder. It may be made of either copper or cast iron and provided with internal firing system. The fabric passes in contact with the hot cylinder. The surface temperature of the cylinder is more uniform. The rotation of the cylinder is in opposite to the fabric movement which raises the nap, ensuring efficient singeing. The fiber ends in the interstitches are not removed from the fabric and luster produced as plate singeing m/c due to friction. Grooves are produced on the metal surface which produce uneven singeing and visible after dyeing.

Gas singeing machine: This m/c essentially consists of one or more burners giving continuous flat or vertical flames. The flame issues from a narrow slit, which is adjustable with respect to width and thickness. When the cloth is drawn over the flame at a high speed, the flame burns protruding fiber without damaging the fabric. The fiber ends present in the interstitches of the warp and weft are also singed. The singed fabric passes into a water box, so that all the sparks are extinguished. A hood and a fan are provided over the m/c. both surface of the cloth are singed by this m/c.

Care should be taken on gas singeing m/c:

1. Fabric must be free from Zncl2, Mgcl2 i.e. anti mildew agent.
This may liberate an acid (HCl) and tender to cotton cloth by formation of hydrocellulose. 2. Fabric must be evenly dried before singeing. 3. All component of the m/c should be cleaned. 4. Flame should be effective. 5. Uniform speed of the fabric should be controlled. 6. Synthetic blend fabric should operate carefully.

Comparison among Plate, Roller and Gas singeing m/c: Plate singeing m/c Roller singeing m/c Gas singeing m/c 1. One side of the 1. One side of the 1. One side of the fabric fabric is singed. fabric is singed. is singed 2. Uniformed temp 2. Uniformed temp 2. Uniformed temp can cant be maintained. cant be maintained. be maintained. 3. Extra luster 3. Extra luster 3. No extra luster produces due to produces due to produced. friction between friction between fabric & plate. fabric & roller. 4. The fiber ends in 4. The fiber ends in 4. The fiber ends in interatitches cant interatitches cant interatitches can be be singed. be singed. singed. 5. Brush is not use. 5. Brush is not use. 5. Brush is used for proper singeing. 6. Process is not 6. Process is not 6. Process is suitable. suitable. suitable.

Desizing Definition: Desizing is a process carried out to remove size material (ex: starch) from the surface of the warp yarn in woven fabric otherwise the hydrophobicity of the wax and tallow hinder the dyeing and printing process. Objects: 1. To remove size material from the warp yarn. 2. To increase the absorbency of the fabric. 3. To make the fabric ready for the next subsequent process like scouring, bleaching, dyeing and printing. 4. To reduce stiffness, making soft and pliable. Some common sizing agents: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Polyacrylic acid (PA). Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). Starch. Modified starch. Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC). Paraffin wax.

Classification of desizing methods:

Desizing methods Hydrolytic method Oxidative method

Rot steep Acid steep Enzymatic steep Chlorine Chlorite Bromide Rot steep: This is the oldest and cheapest of the three methods. There is no special chemical required for this treatment. The cloth is passed through a padding mangle in which warm water is kept (40). The cloth is allowed to keep for 24 hours. The micro organism naturally present in the water which solubilize the starch present in the size. Finally the cloth is washed with water. The main disadvantage of this method is that it is a slow process and required more floor space for storing the water impregnated cloth.

Acid steep:

Dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid may be used to hydrolyze the starch from the sized fabric. A 0.25% solution of the acid at room temperature is sufficient. It requires 8-12 hours to complete the process. The rate of hydrolysis is increases at a higher temperature. The impregnation of thee grey cloth with acid solution may be carried out in two bowls or three bowl padding mangle. By this method all the starch present in the cloth may be liquefied. A subsequent wash removes the solubilize starch. Types of enzyme: Desizing enzyme Animal Ex: Viveral Novofarmasol Degomma vegetable Malt Extract Ex: Diastofar Diastase Bacterial Ex: Rapidase Biolase

Animal and pancreatic enzyme: The animal or pancreatic enzymes are prepared from pancreas of slaughtered cattle. This enzyme is also called diastase. A characteristic of pancreatic enzyme is that they form milky emulsion in water. Pancreatic enzymes works well at low temperature. It is more sensitive to heat.

Malt extract: Malt enzymes are obtained by extraction of freshly germinated barley. Bacterial enzyme: The fermentation is obtained from bacillus substitutes which grow on rice and its breaks down the starch into water soluble dextrin. Enzymatic Desizing process: For successful Desizing of starch using enzymes four phases must be considered. 1. Preparation of desizing mixture a) Water b) Wetting agent c) Salt d) Acid/Alkali e) enzyme 2. Saturation 3. Digestion 4. washing Continuous Desizing machine: The cloth may be impregnated with enzyme solution of the required concentration, taken over a winch and allowed to fall in a pit with slopping bottom, where the cloth assumes a wavy shape. Then the cloth is taken over a guide rollers and then to a washing machine.

Continuous singeing Desizing m/c and their main controlling points: 1. Temperature of the bath 2. pH of the bath 3. Burner pressure and flame intensity 4. Flame width 5. Speed o the fabric 6. Chemical concentration 7. Gas pressure 8. Quality of the fabric Enzymatic Desizing (pad batch):

Continuous singeing and Desizing (pad wash):

Continuous singeing and enzymatic Desizing (pad steam):

Enzymatic Desizing: Enzymatic Desizing i\s the classical desizing process of degrading starch size on cotton fabrics using enzymes. Enzymes are complex organic, soluble bio-catalysts formed by living organisms that catalyze chemical reaction in biological processes. Enzymes are usually named by kind of substances degraded in the reaction it catalyzes. Working principle of Enzyme: Amylases are enzymes that hydrolyse and reduce the molecular weight of amylase and amylopectin molecule in starch. The traditional approach is enzymatic desizing, in which an -

amylase or diastase enzyme is used to attack the 1,4-glycosidic links in the starch, breaking down the macromolecules into small soluble saccharides such as maltose and glucose. Enzymatic desizing is safer then acid desizing, where cellulose may also get hydrolyzed if the concentration of acid is higher than the optimum value.

Optimum conditions for enzymatic desizing:

Scouring
Definition: The term scouring applies to the removal of impurities of textile material such as oils, waxes, gums, soluble impurities and solid dirts to facilitate subsequent dyeing and printing process. Objects: 1. To remove the natural as well as added impurities as completely as possible. 2. To produce a clean material by adding alkali. 3. To make the fabric suitable for the next process. 4. To leave the material in a highly absorptive condition without undergoing physical and chemical damage. Typical composition of raw cotton: Component Cellulose Oils and waxes Pectins Carbohydrate Proteins Salt Water Other Main location Secondary wall Cuticle Primary wall Primary wall Lumen Lumen Relative (%) 86.8 0.7 1.0 0.5 1.2 1.0 6.8 2.0 amount

The main changes occurring during scouring are1. Saponifiable oils and fatty acids are converted into soaps. 2. Pectins and pectose are converted to soluble salts of pectic acid. 3. Proteins are degraded to simple soluble amino acids.

4. Mineral matter is dissolved. 5. Unsaponifiable oils are emulsified by the soaps formed during the hydrolysis of the Saponifiable matter. 6. Dirt is removed. 7. Sizing materials are broken down into soluble product. Chemical used in scouring: Caustic (NaOH): By using NaOH, oil and wax are removed from the cotton fiber. Oil and waxes are in tristearin form into the fiber. The reaction with NaOH happens as bellows.

This reaction of an ester with water and caustic is known saponification. As a result of saponification the soluble and water immiscible oil is converted into water soluble products. Wetting agent/surface active agent/surfactant: Substances which reduce the surface tension of water, thereby allowing it to wet surfaces easily are known as wetting agent or surface active agent. Ordinary soap is a wetting agent. A good detergent is a good wetting agent. The detergent should quickly reduce the interfacial tension between fiber and caustic water solution. The detergent also has good detersive or scouring

ability so that it can emulsify the organic impurities. The detergent keeps the solid particles removed from the fabric. Sequestering agent/chelating agent: The main function of sequestering agent is to deactivate metal ions in water. The presence of heavy metal in scouring bath can cause soap to be washed. EDTA (ethylene di-amine tetra acytic acid) is a good sequestering agent. It is also known as chelating agent. Scouring process: 1. Batch or discontinuous process e.g. Kier boiling process 2. Continuous process e.g. scouring in j-box 3. Semi continuous process. e.g. Pad roller process Batch scouring process: 1. Run fabric in a bath containing: NaOH------------------------------3.0-3.5 g/l Surfactant-------------------------0.5-1.0 g/l Sequestering agent---------------0.5-1.0 g/l 2. process fabric at 90-100c for 1 hour 3. rinse thoroughly. Continuous scouring process: 1. Saturate fabric with: NaOH------------------------------6.0-8.0 g/l Surfactant-------------------------0.5-1.0 g/l Sequestering agent---------------0.5-1.0 g/l 2. Steam fabric at 90-100c for 1 hour. 3. Rinse thoroughly.

Bio-scouring: Today highly alkaline chemicals such as sodium hydroxide are used for scouring. These chemicals not only remove the impurities but also attack the cellulose, leading to a reduction in strength and loss of weight of fabric. A new enzymatic scouring process is used in textile wet processing with which all non cellulose components, from native cotton are completely removed is known as bio-scoring. Recipe for bio-scouring: A typical process for a batch process combining scouring and desizing in one single step as follows: Impregnation at 60c (pH 8-9.5) 2-3 ml/l wetting agent 2-5 ml/l emulsifier 5-10 ml/l enzymatic compound 4-6 ml/l amylase 2-3 g/l salt Allow to dwell wet for 3-12 hrs depending on the type of starch. Hydro extraction and rinsing. Continuous scouring of cotton in J-box: Continuous scouring process in J-box can be divided into four unitsa) Impregnation box/Saturator: Fabric is passed into saturator in open width form through the guide roller and padded by caustic and wetting agent. Squeeze should be adjusted as to removed as much water from the cloth as possible. When the cloth leaves the saturator, it should contain 100-110C by weight of caustic solution.

b) Preheater: In this section, the material is passed through the thermostatic controlling system at temperature of about 90-100C for about 30 sec, then the material is passed to the J-box. c) J-box: The caustic treated goods are steamed in a J-box for 1 hour at about 100C. d) Washing unit: The washing is done in such a way that no excessive amount of caustic are carried into the peroxide saturator. 0.15-0.2 % caustic soda by weight of the cloth can be tolerated. If more caustic is retained in the cloth, the pH of the peroxide solution increases.

Scouring of wool: Wool scouring is the process of washing wool in hot water, detergent and soda to remove the non wool contaminates and then drying it. Wool can lose upto 30% of its weight during this processing.

Composition of wool: Wool fibers (Keratin) -------------------------------49% Wool grease (lanolin) -------------------------------19% Suint (sheep sweat) ----------------------------------6% Dirt (sand, dust, plant particles) -------------------16% Water--------------------------------------------------10% In case of wool all matters present in wool fiber are impurities except keratin, which is a special type of protein. Remove of wool fat and suint: Wool fat is removed by a process called degreasing. It is a process which emulsifies and saponifies the wool fat components with soap and soda solution. NaOH is not used, prefer Na 2CO3 (mild alkali) and the temperature is 35-40C, pH=10. The possibilities of enzyme treatment for other fibers, especially wool are under extensive research. Suint is an unwanted byproduct of animal metabolism. It is the potassium salt of fatty acid. It is soluble in water. So it is easily removed. This process is called desuinting. Note: Lanolin: Yellow viscose animal oil extracted from wool, a mixture of fatty acids and esters used in some ointments and cosmetics. Silk scouring: Silk fiber contains natural impurities called gum or sericin. This sericin is 20% on weight compare with the whole weight of silk fiber. Besides this silk fibre contain some wax and natural color which can be removed by scouring. This process is called degumming.

Composition of raw silk: Fibroin----------------------72-75% Sericin----------------------22-23% Ash--------------------------0.1-1.5% Wax and fat----------------1.4-2.7% Recipe for scouring of silk: Soap-------------------------0.5-0.75% Soda ash--------------------2-3% Temperature---------------95C Time------------------------30 min- 2 hrs pH--------------------------10 Scouring of man made fiber: MMF contains impurities like oil spot, dirt etc. during spinning, weaving and knitting these oil spot occur into the fiber. We use soap solution and detergent and alkali for scouring MMF. Temp 80-90C (for rayon). **Souple silk is the raw silk from which about 10% of the gum has been removed and in ecru 4% is taken away.

Bleaching Definition: The process of decolorize the natural coloring matter present in the cloth by treating with some oxidizing or reducing agent and ensure the permanent whiteness of the fabric is called bleaching. The bleaching process must ensure below1. A high uniform absorbency of the fabric for water, dyestuff and finishing agent. 2. A sufficient high uniform degree of whiteness in order to ensure the purity of bright dye shade. 3. The fabric should not be damage and DP should remain high. 4. The whiteness of the fabric should remain high. Mechanism of bleaching: Mechanism of bleaching is complicated and not completely understood. Color producing agent in natural fibers is often organic compounds containing conjugated double bonds. Decoloration can occur by breaking up the chromophore, most likely destroying one or more of the double bonds within the conjugated system. Bleaching agent: I. Oxidizing agent 1. Sodium hypochlorite 2. Bleaching powder 3. Hydrogen per oxide 4. Sodium chlorite 5. Per acetic acid 6. Ozone 7. Potassium permanganate 8. Potassium dichromate

II. Reducing agent: 1. Zinc dust 2. Staneous chloride 3. Ferrous sulphate 4. Sulphur di oxide 5. Sodium hydrosulphate 6. Hydrogen sulphite Sodium hypochlorite bleaching: Preparation: 1. By passing gaseous chlorite into a cold solution of sodium hydroxide. 2NaOH + Cl2 NaCl + NaOCl + H2O

2. By adding sodium carbonate, sulphate or hydroxide to an aqueous solution of bleaching powder. Ca(OCl)Cl + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + NaCl + NaOCl

3. By electrolyzing a solution of sodium chlorite. Characteristics of NaOCl: 1) Salt of hypochlorous acid 2) The stability depends ona) The temperature b) The pH c) The concentration d) Presence of impurities e) Storage condition

Bleaching mechanism of NaOCl: Sodium hypochlorite is the salt of hypochlorous acid. Solution is therefore alkaline. The species present in a solution can be understood as bellows: NaOCl + H2O Na+ + OCl-

Hypochlorite anion (ClO-) is the active bleaching species. Effect of pH: 1. Under strongly alkaline condition (pH>10) Little to no bleaching take place. 2. At a pH between 5 and 8.5HOCl is a major specie present so very rapid bleaching takes place. However rapid degradation of the fibre also takes place. However rapid degradation of the fiber also takes place. 3. When the pH drops below 5Chlorine gas is liberated and the solution has no bleaching effectiveness at all. 4. The optimum pH for bleaching is between 9 and 10 Although the concentration of HOCl is small, it is sufficient for controlled bleaching. Sodium carbonate is used to buffer the bleach bath to pH 9 to 10. Effect of time and temperature: Time and temperature of bleaching are interrelated. As the temperature increases, less time is needed. Concentration is also interrelated with time and temperature. Higher concentration requires less time and temperature. In practice one hour at 40C is satisfactory for effective bleaching.

Recipe: Active chlorine----------------------------2-3 g/l Wetting agent-----------------------------0.1-0.2 g/l Soda ash------------------------------------2-4 g/l Time----------------------------------------1-4 g/l Temperature-------------------------------30-40 Bleaching powder: Bleaching powder is a double chlorine and hypochlorite of Ca (OCl) Cl. When chlorine gas is passed over dry slaked lime Ca (OH)2, it is rapidly absorbed forming a moist powder which is called bleaching powder. Ca (OH)2 + Cl2 Ca (OCl) Cl + H2O Properties of bleaching powder: 1. It is a white amorphous having the smell of chlorine. 2. It contains 10% free lime Ca (OH)2 3. A good sample of bleaching powder contains calcium hypochlorite, Ca (OCl) Cl, CaCl2, lime Ca (OH)2, hypochlorous acid (HOCl). 4. Bleaching powder solution is alkaline in nature due to presence of free lime. Comparison among NaOCl and bleaching powder: 1 2 3 NaOCl Bleaching powder No insoluble product form 1 Sludge form during preparation of during bleaching solution. Ca(OCl)Cl+H2O CaCO3 +HOCl There is no lime 2 Residual lime and calcium salts produced. remaining into the fabric which gives harsh feeling. NaOCl has higher 3 Lower diffusibility. diffusibility into the fiber.

4 5

pH fall slowly. 4 pH fall quickly. Iron doesnt react with 5 Iron react with bleaching powder. NaOCl. Souring: The process of neutralization of fabric after bleaching is called souring. By souring CaCO3 and NaCO3 are removed by using HCl or H2SO4. The reaction is as follows:H2O + H2O H+ + HO2-

Na2CO3 + H2SO4

Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) bleaching: Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is called universal bleaching agent, most widely used in textiles for bleaching and over 85% of all fabrics are bleaching with it. It can be used for vegetable as well as protein fibers, although the cost of chemicals when bleaching with H2O2 is greater then hypochlorite. Properties of hydrogen peroxide: 1. H2O2 is a clean and colorless liquid. 2. Strength of H2O2 is available 35-70% 3. Should store away from light. 4. In presence of heavy metals like gold, sliver, platinum it decomposes with the liberation of oxygen. 5. This material is irritant to the skin and mucous membranes and dangerous to eyes.

Introduction of Dyeing and Dying machine Dyeing: Dyeing is a process by which some physical or chemical change in textile material. Not all colorant are dyes. It must be soluble, have substantivity, fastness properties and chromophore group. Dye: A type of organic compound which is responsible for color. A dye is a substance which at least during some stages of its application has inherent affinity for textile materials. Pigments: The dyestuffs that are insoluble in water and mostly of mineral origin which are responsible for color are called pigment. Properties of pigment: 1. Colored pigments have no substantivity for the fiber. 2. They are held on the fabric surface in a film of a suitable polymeric binding agent. 3. There is no penetration of color. 4. After printing heating the fabric for a short period cures the binders. 5. Technique is applicable for all types of fiber. 6. Have good to excellent light fastness. Color: There are three main stages in the penetration of color but each one consists of numerous complicated processes. 1. Absorption of colored light entering the eye by the sensitive cells in the retina lining back to the eye ball. 2. Transmission of nerve impulses from the retina to the brain via optic nerve.

3. Interpretation of those nerves when they reach the visual cortex in the brain. Why dye molecules are colored? Chromophore: The name derived from the Greek chroma = color and phore = to bear. Chromophores are unsaturated organic radicals. In general the chromophore gives the dye molecules its particular color. A molecule possessing no chromophore group would be colorless. Types of color fastness: 1. Color fastness to wash 2. Color fastness to rubbing 3. Color fastness to light 4. Color fastness to perspiration 5. Color fastness to dry cleaning Description of the normal fastness grades: Fastness grade Grade 5 Grade 4 Grade 3 Grade 2 Grade 1 Staining of adjacent white sample No change Excellent No staining Slight loss in Good Slight staining depth very Appreciable Fair Moderate staining loss Significant loss Poor Significant staining Great loss in Very Deep staining depth poor Shade change of Fastness tested sample

Dyeing machines for textile materials:

1. Loose fiber dyeing machine 2. Yarn dyeing machine Package dyeing m/c Beam dyeing m/c Hank form dyeing m/c 3. Fabric dyeing machine Discontinuous: winch, jet, jigger Semi continuous: pad batch Continuous: pad thermosol, pad dry, pad steam 4. Garment dyeing machine Basic features of a dyeing machine: 1. A dyeing machine has a container in which to hold the dye solution and the goods being dyed. 2. It must be connected to a water supply for filling and to a drain the water. 3. Uniform circulation of the dye liquor through the material or movement of the goods. 4. In modern dyeing machines, the surfaces and parts made from stainless steel. 5. The dyeing machine must have an arrangement for heating the dye solution.

Direct Dye Introduction: Direct dyes have been used to dye cellulose for over 100 years. Because of the simplicity of application and great choice of products available, direct dye is a popular dye class. Direct dyes range from moderate to poor in wash fastness. Light fastness varies from poor to excellent depending on the particular dye. The dyes which have strong affinity towards the fire and can be applied directly on the fabric without help of any assistance are called direct dye. They are also called substantive color because of their excellent substantivity for cellulose textile material. Properties of Direct Dye: 1. As direct dyes are Na-Salt of sulphonic acid, they are soluble in water. 2. Direct dye has more affinity to cellulosic fiber mainly cotton and viscose. Although some protein fiber can also dye with it. 3. It can easily penetrate in fibre. 4. Washing fastness of this dye is not good. But wash fastness and light fastness can be increased by after treatment. 5. It can be applied in neutral condition. 6. The cost of dyes is comparatively cheap. 7. Direct dyes depends on secondary forces such as H-bonds and van Dar Waals forces to bond with cellulosic fibre. Classification of Direct Dye: Class A Dye: These are self leveling dyes with good migration. They usually require considerable amounts of salt for good exhaustion because of their lower substantivity. Dyeing is started at 50C in the presence of salt and continued at the boil 1 hour.

Class B Dye: These are salt controllable dyes with poor leveling characteristics. The dyeing method is the same as for Class A dyes but the initial salt is omitted. Gradual addition of salt at the boil controls the exhaustion. Class C Dye: These dyes are temperature controllable. Level dyeing depends on the gradual increase of the dyeing temperature and addition of salt. Dyeing is started at low temperature without added salt. The bath is slowly hearted, with particular care in the temperature region where exhaustion is more rapid. Recipe: Dye----------------------------------------------3% Salt----------------------------------------------20 g/l Na2Co3 -----------------------------------------5 g/l Wetting agent----------------------------------1g/l Sequestering agent----------------------------1 g/l pH----------------------------------------------- 7-9 Temperature------------------------------------ 90C Time--------------------------------------------- 45 min Dyeing curve:

Dyeing Methods: Direct dyes may be applied by either batch or continuous methods. Details of the procedure vary according to the equipment used and the particular dye selected. Exhaust dyeing procedures consist of following steps: 1. Dye is dissolved in water and added to the dye bath containing the fabric which has been appropriately prepared for dyeing. 2. The temperature of the dye bath is gradually increased to near the boiling point of water and held at this temperature for some period of time. 3. Common salt or Glauber salt is added to enhance exhaustion of the dye. The timing of the salt addition depends on the particular dyes selected. 4. The fabric is rinsed to remove residual salt and dye that did not exhaust. 5. An after treatment to improve color fastness of the dyed material may be done at the end of the dye cycle. The Effect Of variations in Dyeing condition: 1. Effect Of salt:

Gradual addition of salt to the dye bath exhaustion onto cellulosic fibers. Fibers immersed in water develop a negative surface potential. The negative change of the cellulose surface repels anionic dye molecules. The salt provides sodium ions to counteract the negative surface potential of wet cotton. 2. Effect of temperature: Increasing temperature increases the rate of dyeing and of dye migration. Higher dyeing temperature ensures good leveling and better penetration of dye into the fibers. 3. Effect of PH: Dying with direct dye is usually carried out in neutral solution. Under alkaling conditions, cellulous fibres have an even greater negative potential because of increasing number of hydroxyl group. 4. Effect of liquor ratio: Dying with direct exhaustion should increase with decrease in the dying liquor ratio. Dying at low liquor ratio decreases the amount of waste dye in the effluent. It also consumes less water & steam as well as salt. After treatment of direct dye: Fastness properties of direct dyes can be improved by after treatmenting the dyed material. It works on the principle of increasing the size of the molecule or decreasing its solubility on water. Treatment of the fabric with a resin finish usually improves fastness of direct dyes to washing. Cationic agents: After treatment of direct dyes with cationic fixing agents cfan improve their wash fastness. The cationic agent combine with the

sulphonic acid groups in the dye to produce a large organic salt which is soluble in water and therefore more difficult to wash from the fabric.

Copper after treatment: When certain dyes are treated with copper sulphate then it forms a metal complex is slightly larger in size than the original dye molecule and results in a slight improvement in wash fastness. Formaldehyde after treatment: When direct dye react with formaldehyde (HCHO) dye molecules appear to be joined together by methylene cross-links, giving very large dye molecule complexes which are much difficult to wash out of the fiber.

Acid dye Acid dyes are so called because they are usually applied under acidic conditions. Acid dye contain acidic groups usually SO3H and are used o0n fibers containing basic group that can interact with these acidic group. The fibers readily colored with acid dyes are manmade, synthetic, nylon fibers and the natural protein fibers. Fiber-NH2 + HSO3-DYE
Fiber with basic Amino group dye with acidic sulphonic group

Fiber-NH3 + -SO3-DYE
dye fiber with salt linkage between dye and fiber

Classification of the basis of structure: 1. Azo group 2. Anthraquinone group 3. Triphenylmethane 4. Nitro group 5. Pathelocyanine group 6. Xanthane group Classification according to application: Acid dyes are commonly classifies according to their dyeing behavior specially in relation to the dyeing PH, their migration ability and their wash fastness. The molecular weight5 and the degree of sulphonation of the dye molecule determine these dyeing characteristics. The original classification of this type, based on their behavior in wool dyeing is as follows: 1. Leveling dyes 2. Fast acid dyes 3. Milling acid dyes

4. Super milling acid dyes Characteristics of the various types of acid dye: Characteristi cs Dye bath pH Migration ability Wash fastness Molecular weight Dye solubility Substantivity Acid used Levelin g dyes 2-4 High Fast acid Milling dyes acid dyes 4-6 5-7 Super milling acid dyes 6-7 Very low

Moderate Low

Poor fair Good Very good Very good Low Moderate High Very high High Moderate Low Low

Very Moderate High High high Sulphuri Acetic Acetic or NH4+ c NH4+

Chemistry Involved in dyeing with acid dye: The application of acid dyes to protein fibers results in an ionic or salt linkage between the dye molecule and fiber polymer. The point of the fiber polymer at which dye is attached is termed as dyesite. In wool the dye sites are the many amino groups of the fiber. Under dyeing conditions, the amino group because positively changed and attracts the negatively changed dye anion. This can be presented as follows. Wool-NH2
Wool polymer with Amino group

H+
Hydrogen or acid ion

Wool-NH3+
Wool with positively charged amino group

Wool-NH3+
Wool with positively charged Amino group

+ -SO3-DYE
Dye with acidic Sulphonic group

Wool-NH3 + -SO3-DYE
ionic link formed between positively charged amino group on wool polymer and dye anion

The application of acid dyes to nylon also results in ionic bond or salt Linkage between the dye molecules and the polymer. The point at which the ionic link is formed is the terminal amino group of nylon. The greater crystalline fiber structure of nylon compared With Wool as well as the relatively lower number of amino groups means that the dark shades on nylon cannot be obtained with acid dyes. The dyeing of nylon with acid dye can be represented as below: Nylon- NH2 + H+
hydrogen acid ion

Nylon- NH3+
nylon with positively charged Amino group

Nylon polymer with Amino group

Nylon-NH3+ + -SO3-DYE
Nylon with positively charged amino group Dye With acidic sulphonic group

Nylon-NH3 + -SO3-DYE
ionic link formed between positively charged amino group on nylon polymer and dye anion

In addition to ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds and van der waals force will be formed between the acid dye molecule and fiber polymer system. Dyeing procedure: Recipe Dyeing curve Striping of dyes: Process 1

To correct the unleveled shade goods are treated at pH 8-8.5 at 100C time 30min Some dye desorbs The bath can then acidify and desorbs re-extortion to nylon. Process 2(chemical striping) Sodium sulphoxylate formaldehyde NaSO2.CH2OH (Rangalite-C) ----------------------------4% pH--------------------------------------------------------------4 Temp-----------------------------------------------------------90 Time------------------------------------------------------------15min N.B. sodium sulphoxylate formaldehyde is a strong reducing agent.

Basic dye Sometimes called cationic dye because the chromophore contains positive charge .Basic dyes are used on fibres containing acidic groups that can interact with these cationic groups. Fibre contains -COOH or -SO3H groups. Fibre-SO3H
Fibre with Acidic group

+ R3N+ Dye ClBasic dye

Fibre SO-3 R3N+ -Dye

Dyed Fibre with salt linkage

Properties: 1. Salt of the Basic form. 2. Color fastness varies greatly from one dye to another & depend what fiber they are used on. 3. Wash and light fastness are very good to excellent for acrylic. 4. Suitable for high brilliant shades. 5. Dye decomposes at boil. Dyeing Recipe: Dye--------------------------------------------X% *Glauber salt---------------------------------2.5g/l Sequestering agent (EDTA) ---------------0.5-1g/l Wetting agent--------------------------------1g/l Acetic acid------------------------------------0.5-1g/l pH----------------------------------------------4.5g/l Time-------------------------------------------60-90min Temp-------------------------------------------90C-100C *Cationic Retarder---------------------------2g/l

Dying procedure: Set the batch with all chemicals except dye Run the m/c for 5min (cold) Raise the temp 80C at1.5C/min Raise the temp 80C-100C at 0.5C/min Dying continue for 60min-90min If dye adds needed temp is dropped slowing to50C Rinse

Dyeing curve:

Effect of temperature: Acrylic fibres do not absorb much water or dye at temp below the glass transition temp. When the dye bath exceeds 80C temp absorption because very rapid. Raising the temp very slowly thought the critical range is very important. Acrylic fibres are easily deformed above the glass transition temp. The maximum dyeing temp is 100C. Effect of salt:

The relatively small Na ions of Na2SO4 deffuse into the fibre in the early stages of dyeing and occupy dye sites. The dye ions which have greater affinity for the dye sites deffuse in and displaced the Na ion. Cationic retarder: This are organic ammonium salt.

Their absorption on the fibre surface reduces the negative surface potential. They also compete with the cationic dye for anionic sites in the fibre, thus slowing the rate of absorption. During dyeing the cationic auxiliary in the fibre is gradually displaced by the cationic dye.

Vat dye Definition: The name vat was originally derived from the large wooden vessel from which vat dyes were first application. Vat dyes provided textile materials with the best color fastness of all the dyes in common use. Properties of vat dyes: 1. Only natural cellulosic and man made cellulosic fibers can be dyed. 2. Light fastness rating is very high. The rating is 7-8. 3. Wash fastness rating of vat dye is 4-5. 4. More costly then other dye. 5. A solubilized from of vat dye has been developed. Principle of application of vat dye: 1. Aqueous dispersion. 2. Vatting/Reduction(Insoluble soluble) 3. Absorption of dye on the fibre/dyeing. 4. Oxidation. 5. Souping off/washing. Vatting: The stage involves chemical reduction of vat dye to produce soluble vat dye.

Recipe: Vat dye------------------------ X% Wetting agent-----------------2g/l NaOH--------------------------4g/l Hydros/Sodium di-thionite/hydro sulphite/ Na2S2O4 -----------------------5g/l Vatting temperature----------30-60C Vatting time-------------------5-10min Dyeing temp------------------20-80C pH------------------------------about12 Dyeing time-------------------30-45min Classification of vat dye: Chemical classification: I. Indigoid:

II. Anthraquinone:

III. Fused ring polycyclic According to application: Dyestuff manufacturer ICI Ltd (UK) Ciba (Switzerland) B.A.S.F (Germany) Indian (IDA) Method of dyeing 1 2 C-I C-II IN IW A/Q1 A/Q2 3 C-III IK A/Q3 4 Special Special A/Q1+

Characteristics of different type of vat dye: Temp(C) Dye bath addition(g/l) Group Vatting Dyeing NaOH Na2S2O4 NaCl IN IW IK 50-60 50 50 50-60 40-50 20-30 1.5-10 0.4-4.5 0.4-3 1.5-10 0.4-6.25 0.4-4.5 None 3.25 6.6

Trade Name of vat dye: Name Cibanone Manufacturer Cibageigy Country Switzerland

Sandothrene Calendone Indanthrene

Soindoz Ltd ICI B.A.S.F

Switzerland UK Germany

Striping: Method of correction involves re-Vatting of the dye on the material in a bath containing NaOH & Hypo sulphite at high temp in then presence of leveling agent.

Printing Definition: The textile printing is the art of design by mechanical and chemical application. It is the localized application of dyes on pigments by any method which can produce attractive designs or particular effect of color on the fabric according to the design. Steps/Stages of printing: Preparation of the fabric. (Singeing, desizing, scouring, bleaching) Preparation of the printing past.

Making an impression of the paste on the fabric

Drying of the printed fabric

Steaming of the printed fabric (100C-102C, 15min) After treatment(soaping, washing)

Flow chart of print pattern approved: Received picture pattern from buyers end Submission of color wise & size of wise layout for approval Layout approved If not Strike of submission according to layout Strike of approved (color + layout) Preparation for screen Sample production Submission of sample after was Bulk production

Difference between dyeing and printing: Sl Dyeing 1 Yarn or fabric can be dyed 2 Dyeing paste is not required 3 More time required 4 Can dye whole area 5 Adhesive are not required 6 Dyeing material is not steamed 7 Thickener is not required 8 Generally one color produced Sl Printing 1 Only fabric can be dyed 2 Printing paste is required 3 4 5 6 7 8 Less time required Can print localized area Adhesive are required Printing material is not steamed Thickener is essential One or more color is produced

Essential ingredients used in printing: 1. Dyestuff / pigment 2. Wetting agent 3. Thickener 4. Solvent / dispersing agent Acetic, Di-ethylene, glycol, thiodiethylene glycol 5. Defoaming agent Sulphated oil, Silicone defoamers. 6. Oxidizing and reducing agent 7. Catalyst and oxygen carrier 8. Acid / alkali 9. Carrier, swelling agent certain hydrocarbon, phenols. 10. Miscellaneous agent Styles of printing: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Direct Style Dyed Style Discharge Style Resist Style Raised Style

6. Azoic Style 7. Metal Style 8. Flock Style Direct Style: The dyes are printed directly at the required places of the multicolored design on the fabric leaving the other portion white. Dyed Style: This style consists of two stagesI. Mondating II. Dyeing Printing of the color with a thickener mordant Fixing of the mordant The dyestuffs combine with the mordant to form an insoluble color lake. On leaving the dye bath, the whole surface of the cloth gets more or less stained with the color, but the color on the unmordanted portions only adheres mechanically. Discharge Style: Discharge Style means procedure which can product a white or colored effect on a dyed (ground) by printing past containing a chemical capable of removing the ground color. Discharge Style can produce two types effect. I. White effect II. Color effect White effect: After dyeing and printing the discharge agents discharge the dye of printed areas and leaves the dye present on the unprinted area unaffected so that a white design is produced on color ground.

Color effect: The colored printing paste remove the initial value the colored ground and at the same time from the color on the original ground. Discharge agents may be I. Oxidizing Potassium on sodium chlorite II. Reducing Rangalite C Resist Style of printing: This is only applicable to those of dyes which are dyed on the fabric by two or more separate chemical process. The style consist two steps1. Printing-The fabric is printed unit resist salt of certain chemicals. 2. Dyeing-Then the fabric is dyed with suitable dye. In resist printed area, fabric does not retain dye molecules and produce a style of printing. Reaction of discharge stile: NaH SO2 CH2O 2H2O NaH SO2 + 2H2O NaHSO2 + CH2O + H2O NaHSO4 + 4H

Methods of printing: Methods of printing means the methods of producing can be classifying as:

Thickener: Thickener is a thick mass which imparts stickiness may be applied on the fabric surface without bleeding or spreading and be capable of maintaining the design outlines. Function/ object or purpose of thickener: 1. To give required viscosity to the printing paste. 2. To prevent present premature reactions between the chemicals contained in the print paste. 3. To hold the ingredients of the print paste. 4. To prevent migration of color.

Factors to be considered to select/choice of thickener: 1. Type and quality of material to be printed. 2. Compability with dyes and chemicals. 3. Print paste stability. 4. Styles and methods of printing. 5. Properties of dried thickener film. 6. Effect of color yield such as- diffusion, fixation. 7. Preparation and removal of thickener cost Classification of thickener:

Thickener preparation: Starch------------------100 parts Water-------------------900 parts 1000 parts Time--------------------15 min Temp-------------------60C

WATER Definition: Water is the universal cleaning agent and after sufficient treatment it is used for much textile operation. For a wet processing industry a plentiful supply of water is essential. Water is considered as the lifeline of wet processing industries. About 11/2 -3 lac gallons of water needed per day for a medium to large size industries. Water is used in the plant: 1. Boilers: Supplying steam for heating/drying. 2. Machines for wet processing in desizing, scouring, bleaching, mercerizing, dyeing, printing, finishing. Classifications of source of water: 1. Rain water: a) Naturally distilled water and purest of all sources of natural water. b) It may certain impurities i.e. O2 ,HNO3 ,HNO2 ,CO2 ,SO2 ,dust particles and other byproducts. c) Impurities present in it can be filtered by using a bad of sand. d) Although it may not considered for industrial purposes but may be useful for special purposes it storage is undertaken. 2. Surface water: a) Rain water which has been collected from steams of rivers and lakes etc are classified as surface water. b) This contain organic matters, suspended impurities, mineral matter depending upon the nature of soil or rock with which it has come contact. c) It causes generation of nitrifying bacteria in water which converts organic matter into nitrates. These nitrates are not harmful to textile material.

3. Subsoil water: a) Water which is collected of sallow tube wells about 50ft or so deep under the land surface. b) This type of water is usually free from suspended impurities because it has been filtered through soil level but contain organic matter (Fe) and soil 4. Deep well water: a) Water which is obtained from 400-500ft depth below the surface is called deep well water. b) Almost 99% of textile industry depends upon deep well water in our country. c) It is generally free from organic matter and suspended impurities. d) It may certain salts of calcium and magnesium is various proportions depending upon the area from which it is collected. e) The salts of Ca and Mg responsible for hardness and harmful to textile machines. Water hardness: The term hardness is applied to water denoting a measurement of its pH and metal salt content. The presence of Ca and Mg salts as sulphates, chlorides and bi carbonates in water causes hardness of water. There are two types of hardness. i. Temporary hardness ii. Permanent hardness Method of expressing hard water: Hardness is generally expressed by1. PPM (parts per million) 2. English Degree 3. German Degree 4. French Degree 5. American Degree

Various units used for water hardness: Units of water hardness PPM CaCO3 1 British Degree 14.3 1 American Degree 17.2 1 French Degree 10.0 1 German Degree 17.9 Classification of water according to hardness: Total hardness Description 0-4 Very soft 5-8 Soft 9-14 Mild 16-18 Fairy hard 19-30 Hard Above 30 Very hard Temporary hardness: The presence of bi carbonates of Ca and Mg salt or both in the solution causes temporary hardness. It is so called because it disappears on boiling. When temporary hard water is heated, then salts of bi carbonates are converted into salts of carbonates CO2 and water. Ca (HCO3)2 Mg (HCO3)2 Permanent hardness: CaCO3 MgCO3 + H2O + CO2 + H2O +CO2

The presence of chlorides and sulphates or calcium and magnesium salt (CaCl2, MgCl2, CaSO4, MgSO4) causes permanent hardness. These salts dont decompose on boiling, dont precipitate. When the water is boiled but remains in the solution. Standard for textile water supply:

pH should be in the range of 7-8 water should be odorless and colorless water should be free from CO2 maximum hardness 5 iron (Fe) < 0.1 mg /L Manganise (Mn) < 0.05 mg/L Copper <0.01mg/L Nitrate <50mg/L Inorganic salt <500mg/L Organic salt <20mg/L Methods of water softening: 1. Soda lime process 2. Base Exchange process 3. De mineralization process Soda lime process: Basic principle: In this method hydrated lime and soda carbonate is used to remove the hardness of water. For temporary hardness:Ca (HCO3)2+Ca(OH)2 Mg(HCO3)2+2(Ca(OH)2 For permanent hardness:CaSO4 + Na2CO3 MgCO3 +Na2CO3 MgCO3 + Ca(OH)2 + Na2SO4 soluble Na2SO4 + MgCO3 Not easily precipitate Mg(OH)2 + CaCO3 CaCO3 2CaCO3 2CaCO3 +2H2O +Mg(OH)2+H2O

The arrangement in the figure fives a diagrammatic representation of an intermittent lime soda water softening plant. The lime soda and coagulant are metered into the reaction tanks together with a predetermined amount of hard water. Agitation is bought about by a large propeller. When sufficient time has elapsed for the precipitation to be complete the water passes through filters to the soft water storage. The quantities of lime and sodium carbonate necessary for softening any given volume of hard water depends onI. The temporary hardness II. The permanent hardness Sodium aluminate (NaAlO2) is used coagulant which increases the rate of precipitation. Ways to increase rate of precipitation:1. Increase the temperature which fastens crystallization. 2. Use of excess reagent & stirring (Na2CO3) 3. Addition of coagulants (Na-Aluminate). Base Exchange Process:This method depends upon the use of Base Exchange commonly known as Zeolites. The zeolites are hydrated silicates of sodium and aluminium with a general formula:

(Na2O)x(Al2O3)y(SiO2)z(H2O)n . These compounds occurred naturally known as zeolites or made artificially known Base Exchange. When Base Exchange complexes are brought in contact with hard water following reaction occurs in which Z i8s an abbreviation for the Al2O3SiO2.H2O part of the molecule. For temporary hardness: Ca (HCO3)2 + Na2O.Z Mg (HCO3)2 + Na2O.Z For temporary hardness: CaSO4 + Na2O.Z MgSO4 + Na2O.Z CaO.Z + Na2SO4 (soluble) MgO.Z + Na2SO4 CaO.Z + 2NaHCO3 MgO.Z + 2NaHCO3

The soft water obtained from this method is 0.2 hard or even less. After a time whole of the sodium in the Base Exchange substance becomes replaced by Ca or Mg. it is then said to be exhausted because it will no longer soften. Thus it has to be regenerated. Regeneration of Zeolites:CaO.Z + 2NaCl CaCl2 +Na2O.Z The CaCl2 and residual NaCl are washed away and regenerated. Sodium zeolites compound can be used again to soften hard water.

Advantages of Base Exchange process:1. Water can be used directly. No pumping required. 2. Zero hardness can be obtained. 3. No salt formation. 4. No other chemical required. 5. Comparatively small space required.