[Physics]

0






Compact Capsule
for class 12 final exam.
Physics

This will help you to revise all topics for the final time just before exam.

After you finish the exam today, you may feel relaxed and take some rest but in
the mean time several hours may be lost and that will prove costly in the end. So,
don't waste a single hour without concentrating on next exam. Feel
confident.there is nothing to lose. You have faced so many final exams in your
life and this one is also one of them.

Still you have enough time to revise the course smartly if not thoroughly.
It is very important to take a sound sleep the last night before exam as it will
keep your mind fresh and bring smartness during the exam.

The question now is figuring out a way to tackle it all in the short amount of time
available.
Do not make the mistake of cramming all that they have learnt at one go.
You may find that recollecting all that you have learnt is tough, better to cover
the important part from exam point of view. There are laws and formulas and
there are problems that need to be solved based using the theory. Therefore, it is
essential to remember the laws and formulas correctly. Memorize the laws and
the formulas. It would now be easier to deal with the problems or exercises.




NAME
Putalisadak,Infront of Singhdurbar
Ph-4231144,4220255
www.name.edu.np
www.facebook.com/ournamembbs
Laziness is nothing more than the
habit of resting before you get tired
Mortimer Caplan


[Physics]
1
Wave Motion
Wave: Wave is a kind of disturbance which is transferred from one part of
the medium to another part of the medium with finite velocity due to
repeated periodic motion of medium particles about their mean position.
Wave:
- Mechanical/Elastic wave
- Non-mechanical wave/Electromagnetic wave
Mechanical Waves:
- Require a material medium for propagation. e.g. Sound waves in
air, waves in stretched string.
- Transfer energy and momentum both
- Medium characteristics for mechanical wave must be elastic.
Must have inertia
- Damping must be very small.
Non-mechanical waves:
- Do not require any medium for propagation. e.g. Light waves,
infrared rays, -rays, X-rays, microwaves.





Transverse wave:
- Vibration is perpendicular to the propagation of wave.
- Medium must be rigid. Therefore, these waves are present in
solid but absent in gases.
- Energy is transferred but not mass and momentum.
- Can be polarized
- Pressure and density remains uniform
Longitudinal Wave:
- Vibration is parallel to the propagation of the wave present in
solid, liquid and gases.
- Energy, mass and momentum all are transferred.
- Cannot be polarized
- Density is not uniform
Relation between frequency (f), time periods (T) and angular velocity (e)
is given by:

T
f
t
t e
2
2 = =
Wave velocity f V = , Wave number

t 2
= K
Mechanical wave
Transverse wave Longitudinal wave
[Physics]
2
Maximum particle velocity a V
P
e =
max
) ( , where a = amplitude.
T
difference Time difference Path
2
difference Phase
= =
t


Free vibration: When a body vibrates without the help of any external
force, its vibration is called free vibration. e.g. Simple pendulum vibrating
in vacuum.

Forced vibration: The vibration in which a body vibrates under the
influence of an external periodic force is called forced vibration. e.g.
Sonometer wire, Resonance tube.

Resonance: It is special type of forced vibration. The phenomenon of
making a body vibrate with its natural frequency under the influence of
another vibrating body with the same frequency is called resonance.
- Due to resonance soldiers are not allowed to march in step on a
hanging bridge.
- Bells are made of metal but not of wood because wood has high
damping.
Plane progressive waves: If the wave propagates in forward direction
then it is called progressive wave. A progressive wave transfers energy
from one part of space to the other.

Equation of plane progressive wave: ) sin( Kx t a y = e .

Stationary wave or standing wave: A wave in which the wave profile of
the wave does not move through the medium but remains stationary is
called a stationary wave.
In stationary waves, disturbance is at rest and does not move at all. Hence,
no transfer of energy takes place in stationary wave.

Nodes:
- The points where amplitude is minimum are called nodes.
- Distance between two successive antinodes is
2

.
- Nodes are at permanent rest.
- At nodes air pressure and density both are high.
Antinodes:
- The points of maximum amplitudes are called antinodes.
- The distance between two successive antinodes is
2

- At nodes air pressure and density both are low.
- The distance between anode (N) and adjoining antinode (A) is
4

.
[Physics]
3
Mechanical waves
Newton's formula for velocity of sound in gas:
According to Newton propagation of sound through gas is an
isothermal change, so
V =
B
iso

=
P

( B
isothermal
= P)
V =
1.013 10
5
1.293
= 280 m/s
This value is much less than experimental value (332 m/s).
Laplace correction: Laplace modified Newton's formula assuming
that propagation of sound in air is an adiabatic process
B
adia
= p where =
C
p
C
v
= 1.4
V =

p
= 1.4 280 = 331.3 m/s
Effects of various factors on the velocity of sound:
1. Effect of density: V =
p

V
1

V
1
V
2
=

1

2. Effect of temperature:
V =
p

PV = RT
V =
RT
M

PM

= RT
V T
P

=
RT
M

V T since , R and M are constant for given gas.
3. Effect of pressure: At constant temperature, the velocity of
sound is independent of pressure since:
V =
p

=
RT
M

4. Effect of relative humidity: The velocity of sound in moist air
is more than the velocity of sound in dry air, since the density
of moist air is less than that of dry air at the same
temperature.
[Physics]
4
Wave in pipes and strings
Harmonics and overtones: The notes whose frequencies are integral
multiples of the fundamental frequency are called harmonics but the notes
of frequencies other than fundamental produced by an instrument are
called overtones. Overtones are the notes actually emitted.
Closed organ pipe: In a closed pipe, there is an antinode always at the
open end and there is a node always at the closed end.

Frequency of n
th
mode of vibration:
f
n
=
(2n 1)V
4l
= (2n 1) f
1
Where f
1
= fundamental frequency
= (n 1)
th
overtone = first harmonic
= (2n 1)
th
harmonic = zero overtone
Thus in closed oran pipe,
f
1
: f
2
: f
3
: ......... : f
n
= f
1
: 3f
1
: 5f
1
: ........ : (2n 1) f
1

= 1 : 3 : 5 : ......... : (2n 1)
Hence in closed organ pipe, only odd harmonics are present.
Open organ pipe: In the open pipes, there are antinodes always at
the open ends.

[Physics]
5
Frequency of n
th
mode of vibration
f
n
= n
V
2l
= nf
1
where f
1
= fundamental frequency
= n
th
harmonic = first harmonic
= (n 1)
th
overtone = zero overtone
Frequencities f
1
: f
2
: f
3
: ......... : f
n
= f
1
: 2f
1
: 3f
1
: ........ : nf
1

= 1 : 2 : 3 : ...... : n
Hence in open organ pipe all harmonics even and odd are present.
End correction: Due to inertia of air, antinode is formed slightly above the
open end of pipe. The distance (e) of antinode from open end is
called end correction. According to Rayleigh e = 0.6 R; where, R =
radius of organ pipes.
- Therefore, with end correction, fundamental frequency for
closed pipe is f
1
=
V
4(L + e)
and for open pipe f
1
=
V
2(L + 2e)

- Therefore narrower the pipe higher will be the frequency
or pitch and shriller will be the sound.
Resonance tube: It is used to determine velocity of sound in air with the
help of a tuning fork of known frequency.
It is a closed organ pipe having an air column of variable length.
When a tuning fork is brought over its mouth. Its air column
vibrates with the frequency of the fork. If the length of the air
column is varied until its natural frequency equals the frequency of
the fork, then the column resonant and emits a loud note.

At first resonance, l
1
+ e =
l
4
.......... (1)
[Physics]
6
At second resonance, l
2
+ e =
3l
4
.......... (2)
From (1) & (2),
2
1 2

= l l = 2(l
2
l
1
)
Velocity of sound V = f = 2f (l
2
l
1
)
End correction e =
l
2
3l
1
2

Laws of transverse vibrations of string:
The fundamental frequency f of a stretched string is f =
1
2l

T
m

Law of length f
1
l
if T and m are kept constant
Law of tension f T if l and m are kept constant
Low of mass f
1
m
if l and T are kept constant
Acoustic phenomena
Beats: When two sound waves of slightly different frequencies travelling
in a medium along the same direction, superimpose on each other.
Then the intensity of the resultant sound at a particular position
rises and falls regularly with time. This phenomenon of regular
variation in intensity of sound with time at a particular position is
called beats.
Beat frequency is equal to the difference between the frequencies of
two super posing waves f
b
= f
1
~ f
2

Determination of unknown frequency of tuning fork:
When tuning fork is loaded with wax. Then its frequency
decreases.
When tuning fork is filed, then its frequency increases.
(a) By loading
(i) If B is loaded with wax so its frequency decreases.
If x increases, then f
B
= f
A
x.
If x decreases remains same or becomes zero. Then f
B
= f
A
+x.
(ii) If A is loaded with wax its frequency decreases.
If x increases then f
B
= f
A
+ x.
If x decreases remains same or becomes zero. Then f
B
= f
A
x.
(b) By filing
(i) If B is filed, its frequency increases.
[Physics]
7
If x increases then f
B
= f
A
+ x.
If x decreases or remains same or becomes zero then f
B
=f
A
x.
(ii) If A is filed, its frequency increases.
If x increases then f
B
= f
A
x.
If x decreases or remains same or becomes zero then f
B
=f
A
+x
Doppler's effect: The apparent charge in frequency of a sounding body
due to relative motion between source and observer is called
Doppler's effect.
Apparent frequency f' =
relative velocity of sound
w.r.t observer
relative velocity of sound
w.r.t. source
real frequency f
f' =
V V
0
V V
s
f
Where f = real frequency, V = velocity of sound
V
0
= velocity of observer/listener
V
s
= velocity of source
Sign convention:
The direction of V is always taken from source to observer
If V and V
0
are in opposite directions then take +
If V and V
0
are in same direction then take
If V and V
s
are in opposite directions than take +
If V and V
s
are in same direction then take
Intensity of sound:
The rate flow of sound energy through unit area perpendicular to
the direction of propagation of sound is called intensity of sound. It
is denoted by I.
Intensity I =
Energy
Area time
=
E
A t

I =
1
2
ve
2
a
2
a
2
if , v and e are constant.
The intensity level of sound in bel is defined as B = log
10

\
|
.
|
I
I
0

Where I = intensity of sound
Threshold of hearing I
0
= 10
12
W/m
2
The intensity level of sound in decibel is defined as dB = 10log
10

\
|
.
|
I
I
0

Ultrasonics and Infrasonics:
Longitudinal oscillations and waves of a frequency higher than 20
KHz are called ultrasonics and longitudinal oscillations and waves
of frequency below 20 Hz are called infrasonics.
[Physics]
8
Nature and Propagation of Light
Huygens principle:
1. Each source of light is a centre of disturbance from which waves
spread in all directions. All particles equidistant from the source
and vibrating in same phase lie on a surface known as wave
front.
2. Each point on a wave front is a source of new disturbance called
secondary wavelets. These wavelets are spherical and travel with
speed of light in that medium.
3. The forward envelope of the secondary wavelets at any instant
gives the new wave front.
4. Rays are perpendicular to wave fronts.
Spherical wave front: Spherical wave front is produced by a point source
when it is at a finite distance.
Plane Wave front: Plane wave front is produced by a point source when it
is at infinity.
Velocity of light by Michelsons method: It is accurate to determine
velocity of light and uses octagonal mirror.
C= 8nd
where, n = number of rotations made by the octagonal mirror per
second, d = distance travelled by light.
Velocity of light by Focaults method:
u
tnd
C
4
= .
where,
n = number of revolutions per second made by the mirror.
d = radius of curvature of the curved mirror.
u = angle turned by the plane mirror.
Interference
Coherent Sources: Coherent sources are a pair of sources of light which
emit light waves of the same wavelength and frequence which are always
in the phase with each other or have a constant phase difference.

Interference: The phenomenon of non-uniform distribution of energy in a
medium due to superposition of two light waves of same frequency or
wavelength having constant phase difference from two coherent sources is
called interference.

Superposition of light waves and conditions for constructive and
destructive interference: When two light waves having same frequency,
[Physics]
9
amplitudes a
1
and a
2
with a constant phase difference | superimpose each
other.
Then amplitude of resultant wave is:
| cos
2 1
2
2
2
1
2 a a a a a + + = ------------------- (1)
Intensity of the resultant wave is:
] since [ cos
2
2 1 2 1
2 a I I I I I I + + = |
For constructive interference or maxima:
t t t | n 2 ...., .......... , 4 , , 2 0 =
(max) cos 1 + = |

2 1
a a a + =
max


2
2 1
) (
max
I I I + =
For destructive interference or minima
t t t t | ) (2 ...., .......... 5 , 3 , 1 + = n
minimum cos = = 1 |

2 1
a a a =
min

( )
2
2 1
I I I =
min


Young's double slit experiment

d = S
1
S
2
is the distance between two slits
D = distance between slit & the screen
Path difference = S
2
P S
1
P = Ax
Condition of maxima
Ax =

2t
| =

2t
2tn = n
where n = 0, 1, 2, .............
Condition of minima
Ax =

2t
| =

2t
(2n 1) t = (2n 1)

2

Position of fringes from central maxima (O)
1. For bright fringes:
Location of n
th
bright fringe is
d
D n
y
n

=
D
P
S
1
S
2
C O
A
B
y
d
Ax
Fig: Theory of interference fringe
[Physics]
10
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..................
2. For dark fringes
Location of n
th
dark fringe is
y
n
=
(2n + 1) D
2d
where n = 0, 1, 2, ...........
Fringe width (|): The separation between two consecutive bright fringes
or two consecutive dark fringes is known as fringe width.
| =
D
d

Fringe width depends on medium:
| =

0
D
d
=
|
0

where |
0
= fringe width in air
= refractive index of medium
Diffraction
Diffraction of light: It is the phenomenon of bending of light
around the corners of an obstacle or aperture in the path of light.
On account of this bending light penetrates into geometrical
shadow of an obstacle.
Diffraction takes place due to superposition of secondary wavelets
starting from different points of the same wave front.

Fraunhoffer diffraction: In the Fraunhoffer diffraction, the source
and the screen are at infinite distance from the obstacle or the
aperture causing the diffraction.


Diffraction of light at a single slit:

[Physics]
11
Path difference = d sinu
For minima, d sinu
n
=
n
d

u
n
=
n
d
where u
n
is the direction of the n
th
order minima and n = 1,
2, 3, ............. an integer.
For secondary maxima: u
n
= (2n + 1)

2d

Where u
n
is the direction of the n
th
order secondary maxima & n =
1, 2, 3, ............. an integer.
Width of central maximum = 2x =
2D
d

Plane transmission diffraction grating:
d sinu = n where d = a + b
a = width of the transparent portion
b = width of the opaque portion.
Polarization
Unpolarized light: In unpolarized light, light wave vibrates in
every plane perpendicular to the direction of travel of light.
Polarized light: In polarized light, light wave vibrates only in one
plane.
Polarization: The phenomenon in which the vibrations of light are
confined to a single plane is called polarization of light and such
that is plane polarized light.
Polarization of light shows they are transverse waves.
Longitudinal wave is not polarized so sound waves cannot be
polarized.
Polarizing angle: The angle of incidence at which the reflected ray
is completely plane polarized.
Brewster's law: At polarizing angle, the reflected and refracted
rays are perpendicular to each other. The tangent of angle
polarization for a given medium is numerically equal to refractive
index of the medium. That is, = tanu
P

Electricity and Magnetism
Direct current circuit
Relation between current and drift velocity
I = neV
d
A
Where n = no. of electros per unit volume of the conductor
A = area of cross -section of the conductor
[Physics]
12
V
d
= drift velocity of electrons
e = electronic charge
I = current
Current density J =
I
A
= neV
d

Drift velocity V
d
: The average velocity with which free electrons
get drifted towards the +ve end of the conductor under the
influence of an external electric field.
t
m
E e
V
d

V
d
E V
d

V
l

Where e = electronic charge, m is the mass of electron, E

= electric
field applied, t = Relaxation time.
Drift velocity of electron depends upon
(i) The nature of conductor
(ii) Electric field applied across the conductor
Ohm's law: Under constant physical conditions (temperature,
mechanical strain etc), the current (I) flowing through a conductor
is directly proportional to the potential difference (V) across its
ends. That is, V I V = IR where R = resistance of the conductor.
Resistance (R): R =
l
A

where l = length of the conductor
A = area of cross section of the conductor
= specific resistance/resistivity
Resistance of a conductor depends upon the temperature, nature
and dimensions of the material of the conductor.

The specific resistance of a conductor depends upon the
temperature and nature of the material of the conductor. It is
independent of the dimensions of the conductor.
Conduction G =
1
resistance R

Conductivity o =
1
resistivity

Variation of resistance with temperature: R
t
= R
0
(1 + ot)
where o = temperature coefficient of resistance
For metals o = +ve
For semiconductors & insulators o= ve
[Physics]
13
For alloys like manganine, constant and o = very small that is why
these alloys are in making standard resistances.
For super conductor, o = 0
Recasting resistances
R =
l
A

On stretching /compressing a wire, its volume remains constant.
(i) R =
l
A

l
l
=
l
2
V
R l
2

(ii) R =
l
A

A
A
=
v
A
2
R
1
A
2

Resistance for change in length & area both R
l
r
2

Series combination of resistances: The current through each
resistance is the same. R
S
= R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
+ ........ + R
n

Parallel combination of resistances: The potential difference is
same across each resistance.
The effective resistance R
P
is given by
1
R
P
=
1
R
1
+
1
R
2
+ ..... +
1
R
n

Shunt: A small resistance connected in parallel to a galvanometer
in converting a galvanometer into an ammeter.





P.d. across shunt = p. d. across galvanometer
(I I
g
)R
s
= I
g
R
g

Rs =
I
g
R
g
II
g


Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter:
The galvanometer
- Can be converted into voltmeter by connecting high resistance in
series with its coil.
- The high resistance to be connected in series with galvanometer
coil is given by R =
V
I
g
R
g

I I
R
g

I
g

II
g

G
R
S

[Physics]
14
Heating effect of current and EMF of cell:
Joule's laws of heating effect of electric current: The amount of
heat produce in a conductor due to the flow of current
(i) Is directly proportional to square of the current, H I
2

(ii) Is directly proportional to resistance of the conductor, H R
(iii) Is directly proportional to time for which the current is
passed, H t.
That is, H I
2
Rt
H = I
2
Rt Joule (SI unit)
Power = IV = I
2
R =
V
2
R
watt
Electric cell: It is an energy convertor. The emf of a cell depends on
(i) The nature of two plates
(ii) Nature, temperature and the concentration of the electrolyte.
Internal resistance (r):
The internal resistance of a cell is the resistance of the column of
liquid between the two plates of the cell. It depends on
(i) Separation between the plates
(ii) Area of cross section of the column of liquid between the
plates.
(iii) Nature, temperature and the degree of dissociation of
electrolyte between the plates.
Terminal potential difference (V):
It is the potential difference between the two electrodes of a cell in a
close circuit. When a cell is being charged, V = E + Ir (V > E)
When the cell is being discharged V = E Ir (V < E)
When cell is short circuited then R = 0, SoV = 0
In an open circuit, I = 0, V = E

Electrical circuit
Kirchhoff's first law/Junction law/Current law:
It is based on conservation of charge. Algebraic sum of current
meeting at any junction in a circuit is zero. i.e. Ei = 0
Incoming current is considered positive and outgoing current
negative.
Sum of incoming current = sum of outgoing current.
Kirchhoff's 2
nd
law/Loop law/Voltage law:
[Physics]
15
It is based on the law of conservation of energy. The algebraic sum
of emf's is equal to algebraic sum of the potential difference across
the resistors in the loop of electrical circuit.
That is EIR = EE
If anticlockwise current (or emfs) is taken as positive in a loop. The
clockwise current (or emfs) will be taken as negative in the loop.
Wheat stone bridge:
Wheat stone bridge is an electrical circuit, which is used for the
accurate measurement of resistance of a conductor. It is an
arrangement of four resistances in which three of them are known
and the unknown resistance is
measured in terms of known
three resistors.

At balanced condition of wheat
stone bridge, galvanometer
shows no deflection.

P
Q
=
R
S


Meter bridge:
A meter bridge is an electric device used for the measuring
unknown resistance. It is practical or refined form of wheat stone
bridge. It works on the principle of wheat stone bridge.




That is
P
Q
=
R
S
S =
Q
P
R
S =
\
|
.
|
100 l
l
R where l = balancing length.
Potentiometer:
I
2
-I
g

B
C
D
P
Q
S
R
G
I
g

I
1
+I
g

K
I
2

I
1

A
I
Fig. 1: Wheatstone bridge circuit
I
Equivalent wheatstone
bridge circuit.

Meter Bridge

[Physics]
16
Potentiometer is an electric device used to measure the emf and
internal resistance of a cell. It is also used to compare emf's of two
cells.
Principle of potentiometer: Potential difference across any section
of a uniform wire is directly proportional to the length of that
section of the wire when a constant current flows through the wire.
To compare emf's of two cells by potentiometer:

E
1
E
2
=
l
1
l
2

Determination of internal resistance of a cell using potentiometer
r =
\
|
.
|
l
1
l
2
1 R
Thermoelectric Effect
Seebeck effect:
When two dissimilar wires are placed in contact at end points,
thermocouple is formed. If one junction is kept hot and other
junction is kept cold, current is produced which is shown by
galvanometer.

Thus, the phenomenon where electric current is produced in the
thermo couple due to difference in temperatures of two junctions is
called thermoelectric effect. This is also known as seebeck effect.
The current and emf produced here are known as thermoelectric
current and thermoelectric emf respectively. The magnitude and
direction of thermoelectric emf depends on the nature of the
materials forming the thermocouple and the temperature difference
between the two junctions of the thermo couple.
Seebeck series of metals: Bi, Ni, Co, Pt, Cu, Mn, Hg, Pb, Sn, Au, Ag, Zn,
Cd, Fe, As, Sb.
Bi Sb couple is most sensitive.



Temp. of hot junction
u
n
u
c
= u
i
u
n

u
n
=
u
i
+ u
c
2


[Physics]
17
Neutral temperature is independent of temperature of cold
junction.

2

2
1
E + =
At neutral temperature, thermo emf is maximum,
dE
du
= 0.

dE
du
= o + |u
o + |u
n
= 0
u
n
=
o
|

At inversion temperature, E = 0
0
2
1

2
= + u
i
= 2
\
|
.
|

o
|
= 2u
n

Inversion temperature (u
i
):
The temperature of hot junction of a thermocouple at which thermo
emf becomes zero and reverses its direction above this temperature
is called inversion temperature. It depends up on
(a) Temperature of the cold junction
(b) The nature of the materials forming thermocouple
Peltier effect: Inverse of seebeck effect.
Thomson effect:
When current is passed through a metal maintaining temperature
difference between any two parts, heat is either absorbed or
evolved.
Chemical Effect of Current
Faraday's constant: 1 F = 96500 C/mol.
Faraday's constant is defined as the amount of charge required to
liberate or deposit one mole of a monovalent substance in
electrolysis.
Faraday's laws of electrolysis:
Ist law: m q m = ZIt
where Z = electro equivalent of the substance.
2
nd
law: m E
m
1
m
2
=
E
1
E
2

Magnetic field
Magnetic Lorentz force: F = qVBsinu
[Physics]
18
where F = force acting on moving charged particle through a
magnetic field, q = charge, V = velocity of charge
B = magnetic flux density
u = angle between direction of V & B.
Force on current carrying wire kept in magnetic field:
F = IlB sinu
where I = electric current
l = length of current carrying straight wire
B = magnetic flux density
u = angle between direction of l and B.
Biot-Savart's law:
dB =

0
4t

Idl sinu
r
2
where
0
= 4t 10
-7
WbA
1
m
1

= magnetic permeability of free space.
Magnetic field due to straight current carrying conductor
1. Of finite length B =

0
I
4ta
(sinu
1
+ sinu
2
)

Where u
1
and u
2
are the angles made by the lower and upper
end of linear conductor with perpendicular line OP, where OP
= a.
When conductor AB is of infinite length
Then u
1
= u
2
= 90
B =

0
I
2ta

2. Magnetic field due to current carrying circular loop of radius r.
(i) At its centre B =

0
NI
2r
where N = no. of turns. When the coil is
made infinitely large, its radius r . B = 0.
(ii) At its axis at distance x from centre B =

0
NIr
2
2(r
2
+ x
2
)
3/2

3. Magnetic field along the axis of a long solenoid
[Physics]
19
B =
0
nI where n = number of turns per unit length.

Ampere's theorem:
The line integral of magnetic field B around any closed path in
vacuum is equal to
0
times the total current enclosed by the path.

}
= I l d B
0
.


One ampere: The force per unit length between two current
carrying conductors is written as
F
l
=

0
I
1
I
2
2tr

when I
1
= I
2
= IA and r = 1m, then
F
l
=
4t 10
7
1 1
2t 1

= 2 10
7
N
Hence, one ampere of current is defined as the current which when
passed through two parallel conductors separated by 1m
experiences a force 2 10
7
N per unit length on each other.

Magnetic properties of materials
Intensity of magnetization (m): magnetic moment per unit volume
M = nI
m

Relation between B, H & M: B =
0
(H + M)
where B = total flux density
H = intensity due to the magnetizing
M = intersity of magnetization
Relative permeability:
r
=

0

Relation between B & H B = H
Susceptibility _ =
M
H

Relation between & _ B =
0
(H + M)
H =
0
(H + M)

0
= 1 +
M
H


r
= 1 + _
Angle of dip: The angle of dip at a place is the angle made by the
earth's magnetic field with horizontal in the magnetic meridian.
The value of this angle varies from zero at the equator to 90 at the
geomagnetic pole.
Angle of declination: It is the angle between the magnetic
meridian to the geographic meridian.
[Physics]
20


Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday's laws of electromagnetic Induction
(i) An induced emf or current is produced in a conductor or coil
whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux linkage with
conductor or coil.
(ii) The induced emf or current in a conductor or coil lasts only
for the time when the magnetic flux linkage with conductor or
coil is actually changing.
(iii) The magnitude of the induced emf in a conductor or coil is
directly proportional to the rate of charge of magnetic flux
linkage with the conductor or coil.
E
du
dt

Lenz's law:
The Lenz's law is in accordance with the principle of conservation
of energy.
Direction of induced emf/current is such that it opposes change in
flux that produces it.

Induced Emf in conducting rod moving in uniform magnetic field:
When a conducting rod of length l moves with velocity V in
uniform magnetic field of induction B such that l makes angle u
with V, then the magnitude of the average induced emf is given by
E = VBl sinu.
Induced emf in conducting rod rotating with angular velocity e in a
uniform magnetic field: When a rod of length l rotates with
angular e is a uniform magnetic field B, the induced emf across the
ends of the rotating rod is
E =
1
2
Bel
2
=
1
2
B. 2tfl
2
= B tl
2
f = BAf
Where A = tl
2
= area swept by the rod in one rotation
f = frequency of rotation.
Self induction:
It is the property of a coil by virtue of which the coil opposes any
charge in the strength of current flowing through it by inducing an
emf in itself.
u = LI
where L = coefficient of self induction or self inductance of the coil.
For N turns of coil, u = NLI
[Physics]
21
E =
du
dt
=
d
dt
(LI) = L
dI
dt

where E = back emf
The SI unit of L is Henry or Weber/Ampere.
Energy stored in inductor:
Energy density =
Energy
Volume
=
1
2

B
2

0

Energy stored by magnetic field =
B
2
2
0
volume
An inductor stores energy in the form of magnetic energy given by
E =
1
2
LI
2

Mutual induction:
It is the property of two coils by virtue of which each coil opposes
any charge in the strength of current flowing through the other by
developing an induced emf when a current I flowing in the
primary coil produces a magnetic flux u in the secondary coil, then
u I
u = MI; where M = coefficient of mutual induction
The SI unit of M is Henry.
The emf induced in the neighbouring coil is given by
E =
du
dt
= M
dI
dt

Transformer:
It works on the principle of mutual induction and is used in AC
only. It is used for changing alternating voltage.
A transformer consists of a primary coil of turns N
P
and secondary
coil of turns N
S
and a laminated soft iron core.
Transformation ratio K =
E
S
E
P
=
I
P
I
S
=
N
S
N
P

Where E
S
= voltage across the secondary coil.
E
P
= voltage across the principle coil.
For a step up transformer, K > I and
for a step down transformer K < I.
Power is lost during working of a transformer is because of
following ways:
(i) Flux/coupling loss due to imperfect coupling
(ii) Copper loss-as heat in copper wire
(iii) Eddy loss-due to generation of current in iron core.
[Physics]
22
(iv) Hysteresis loss during cycle of magnetization
(v) Huming loss-as sound due to vibration
Eddy loss is minimized by using laminated plates pasted together
with non -conducting glue.
Efficiency of transformer:
q =
Output power
Input power
100% =
E
S
I
S
E
P
I
P
100%
Thus, a transformer actually transforms power.
For ideal transformer, output power = Input power
E
S
I
S
= E
P
I
P

Eddy currents:
When a metallic piece (soft iron block) is placed in a varying
magnetic field, the induced currents are set up in the metal piece.
These currents are called Eddy currents. The direction of Eddy
currents is given by Lenz's law. Eddy currents produce heat due to
which there is loss of power which can be reduced by use of
laminated core. Following are some useful uses of Eddy currents
(a) Eddy current damping (b) Induction heating
(c) Induction motors (d) Energy meters
(e) Electromagnetic brakes
Alternating currents
R.M.S value of an A.C:
The steady current, which when passed through a resistance for a
given time will produce the same amount of heat as the alternating
current does in the same resistance and in the same time.
I
rms
=
I
0
2
; where I
0
= Peak value
E
rms
=
E
0
2

Average value of ac over full cycle = 0
Average value of ac over half cycle
I
av
= 2
I
0
t
E
av
=
2E
0
t

R = resistance, X
L
= inductive resistance, X
C
= capacitive reactance,
Z = impedence.
Y = Admittance =
1
Impedence

Phase difference = | = Power factor = cos| =
R
Z

[Physics]
23
A.C circuits:




(1) Pure R: V
R
& I are in same phase
Phase difference (|) = 0
Power factor cos| = cos0 = 1
Z = R
(2) Pure L:
V
L
is leading I by
t
2

Phase difference | = 90
Power factor = cos90 = 0
Z = X
L
= eL = 2tfL
V
Supply
= V
L

Power constant = 0
(3) Pure C:

V
C
is lagging from I by 90
Phase difference | = 90
Power factor = cos90 = 0
Z = X
C
=
1
e
C
=
1
2tfc

V
Supply
= V
C

Power consumed = 0
For d.c, f = 0
z = A capacitor will block DC.
(4) Series R L:

R
V
Supply
= V
R
2
+ V
L
2

Z = R
2
+ X
L
2

[Physics]
24
V leads from I by actute angle | = tan
1

\
|
.
|
X
L
R

Power factor cos| =
R
Z

(5) Series R C:

Voltage lagging from I by actute angle
| = tan
1

\
|
.
|
X
C
R

Power factor cos| =
R
Z

(6) Series R L C:

V
Supply
= V
R

Pure R circuit
Phase difference | = 0
Power factor = cos0 = 1(maximum)
Impedence (Z) = R (minimum)
Current (I) =
V
Z
= maximum
X
L
X
C
= 0
Resonance frequency f
r
=
1
2t LC

Choke coil: Choke coil is based on the principle of wattless current.
A choke coil has high inductance and negligible resistance so that
power factor is almost zero. It is used in fluorescent tubes to control
the current.
Modern Physics
V
Supply
= V
R
2
+ V
C
2

Z = R
2
+ X
C
2

Case I: When VL > VC
Circuit behaves as series R L circuit
Case II: When VL< VC
Circuit behaves as series R C circuit.
Case III: When VL = VC (Voltage resonance)

[Physics]
25
The Electron
Gaseous discharge: A dry gas at NTP is bad conductor of
electricity but becomes good conductor at low pressure.
At 10mmHg crackling sound and luminous streaks
At 5mmHg Geissler's discharge of colour of positive column
depends upon the nature of gas in the discharge tube. (Eg: Red for
Neon, Blue for Hydrogen).
At 1mm of Hg Positive column near anode and negative glow
(bluish) at cathode with Faraday's dark space in between.
At 0.5mm of Hg Cathode glow and Crooke's dark space appear.

Millikan's oil drop Experiment: It is used to determine charge of
an electron. It is based on Stoke's law of viscosity and is strong
evidence of quantization of charge.
q =
6tq
E
(V
1
+ V
2
) r where r =
9qV
1
2 ( o)g

Where V
1
= velocity of drop with no electric field
V
2
= velocity of drop with electric field
= density of oil
o = density of medium
S.S. Thomson's method for determination of specific charge of an
electron:
Specific charge of electron =
e
m
=
V
rB

It is found experimentally
e
m
= 1.76 10
11
C/kg
Cathode rays: Cathode rays are a steam of fast moving electrons.
These are not electromagnetic waves. They are deflected by electric
and magnetic fields. They are produce fluorescence and can affect
photographic plate. Cathode rays are low ionizing power than
positive rays.
Specific charge of cathode rays > specific charge of positive rays.

Deflection of an electron in a magnetic field: An electron is
deflected in a circular path by the effect of a magnetic field when
velocity of electron is perpendicular to magnetic field.
Magnetic force = Centripetal force.
BeV =
mv
2
r
r =
mv
Be

Time period T =
2tr
V
=
2tm
eB

[Physics]
26
Frequency =
1
T
=
eB
2tm

Deflection of an electron in an electric field:
y =
1
2
at
2
=
1
2

eE
m
t
2
=
1
2

e
m

V
d
.
\
|
.
|
D
u
2

where y = vertical deflection
E = electric field =
V
d
=
P.d between two parallel plates
distance between two parallel plates

D = length of plate
u = horizontal velocity of electron
Path of electron is parabolic.
Photons
Photons: Photons are the packets of energy.
The energy of photon is
E = hf =
hc

where h = 6.62 10
34
Js
Photo-electric effect: When light of smaller wavelength falls on a
certain metal surface, the free electrons are emitted from the metal
surface. These electrons are called photoelectrons and the
phenomenon is called photo electric effect. The number of electrons
emitted depends on the intensity of radiation but the kinetic energy
of the electrons depends on the frequency of radiation.
Threshold frequency f
0
: The minimum frequency of incident
radiation which is just sufficient to eject an electron from the
surface of a metal is known as threshold frequency f
0
, for that
metal.
Different metals have different threshold frequencies. Illumination
of surface with light of frequency less than f
0
will not cause ejection
of photoelectrons.
Work function |: Minimum energy required to remove a free
electron from the metal surface.
| = h f
0
=
hc

0

Einstein's photo-electric equation:

1
2
m V
max
2
= hf hf
0
= h (f f
0
)

1
2
m V
max
2
=
hc

hc

0
= hc
\
|
.
|
1

0

Stopping potential (V
0
):
[Physics]
27
eV
0
=
1
2
m V
max
2


Quantization of energy
de-Broglie wavelength: All particles have wave properties.
According to de-Broglie, the wavelength of the particles is given
by =
h
mv
=
h
2mE

Uncertainty principle: It is impossible to determine precisely and
simultaneously both position and momentum of an electron.
Ax Ap >
h
2t

Bohr's theory of hydrogen atom:
Postulates:
(i) The electrons can occupy only those orbits in which the
angular momentum (mvr) is some integral multiple of
h
2t
.
mvr =
nh
2t
........... (1) where n = 1, 2, 3, ...............
(ii) The atom emits or absorbs energy when the electron jumps
from one orbit to another orbit.
hf = E
2
E
1
.................(2)

Velocity of an electron in the orbit:
Centripetal force = electrostatic force

mv
2
r
=
1
4tc
0

e
2
r
2
..............(3)
mv
2
=
1
4tc
0

e
2
r
..............(4)
Divides equation (3) by equation (1), we get
V =
e
2
2c
0
nh
................ (5)

Radius of the orbits:
From equation (1), r =
1
mv
n
h
2t

r =
c
0
n
2
h
2
tme
2
........... (6), using eq. (5)
Total energy of an electron in the orbit:
E = E
K
+ E
P

[Physics]
28
=
1
2
mv
2
+ charge of the electron electric potential due to the nucleus

=
1
2

1
4tc
0

e
2
r
+ ( e)
\
|
.
|
1
4tc
0
.
e
r

=
1
8tc
0

e
2
r

=
e
2
8tc
0

tme
2
c
0
n
2
h
2
, using eqn. (6)
E =
me
4
8c
0
2
n
2
h
2
................... (7)
Frequency of radiation:
f =
me
4
8c
0
2
h
3

\
|
.
|
1
n
2
2

1
n
1
2
.......... (8)
Wave number =
1

=
me
4
8c
0
2
ch
3

\
|
.
|
1
n
2
2

1
n
1
2

where
me
4
8c
0
2
ch
3
= Rydgberg's constant.
Excitation potential and energy: If an atom is in the ground state
with energy E
0
and absorbs the energy eV
1
and jumps to the energy
level E
1
, then
E
1
E
0
= eV
1

Where ev
1
= excitation energy
V
1
= excitation potential
Ionization potential and ionisation energy: If an atom absorbs
energy eV and is raised to the ionised state (E = E

) from the
ground state (E = E
0
),
Then eV = E

E
0

Where eV =

ionisation energy
V = ionization potential
E

= 0
eV = E
0
or V =
E
0
e

X-rays
X-rays: The kinetic energy of electrons striking a target
\
|
.
|
1
2
mv
2
is
given by
1
2
mv
2
= eV where V = p.d. applied across the electrodes of
the x-ray tube.
[Physics]
29
Maximum frequency and minimum wavelength of x-ray
radiation:
hf
max
= eV f
max
=
eV
h


min
=
C
f
max
=
Ch
eV

Bragg's law of x-ray diffraction
2d sinu = n
Where u = glancing angle, n = order of reflection.
d = spacing between crystal plates.
Nuclear Physics
Binding energy in terms of packing fraction:
When protons and neutrons combine to form the nucleus, some of
the mass disappears because it is converted into energy according
to Einstein's mass energy relation E = Amc
2
. This energy is called
binding energy of the nucleus. The magnitude of binding energy
gives the stability against disintegration. The packing fraction is
defined as the mass defect (Am) per unit mass number A.
f =
2
2 2
m mc Bindingenergy
A Ac Ac
A A
= =

Difference between nuclear fission and fusion are given below:
Fission Fusion
The process of breaking up of a
heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei is
called fission.
The process of combination of
two lighter nuclei into a heavy
nucleus is called fusion.
Products of fission are radioactive. Products of fusion are not
radioactive.
It is single state reaction. it is multistage reaction.
It is induced by neutrons. It is introduced by protons.

Example of nuclear fusion:

1
H
2
+
1
H
2

2
He
4
+ 24 MeV
Example of nuclear fission:

92
U
235
+
0
n
1
[
92
U
236
]
56
Ba
141
+
36
Kr
92
+
30
n
1
+ Q

Relativistic mass variation formula:
According two Einstein's theory of relativity, the mass of an object
is measured in increases as it speed increase according to the
[Physics]
30
relation.
m =
2
2
0
1
c
v
m

, where m
o
is the rest mass of the object.
m is the mass of the object when it moves with a speed V.
m
o
c
2
is called rest mass energy.
Chain reaction:

U
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
U
U
U
n
n
n

Atomic mass unit:
1 a.m.u. = 1.66 10
27
kg = 931 MeV

Radioactivity
The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of radiations (o, | and
rays) by heavy elements like uranium, polonium, radium etc. is
called radioactivity.

The rate of disintegration of a radioactive substance is directly
proportional to the number of atoms reminder in decayed in the
substance. This law is called radioactive decay law or
disintegration laws.
According to the definition of decay law
dN
N
dt
o or,
dN
N
dt
=
where is a constant called decay constant or disintegration
constant.
Exponential decay equation:

t
o
N N e

=
Relation between half-life and decay constant:
T
1/2
=
0.6931

Average life: T =
1

[Physics]
31
Particular Physics and Cosmology
Quark combination of a proton:
A proton is made of two 'up' quarks and a 'down' quark. An 'up'
quark has charge
2
3
each such that two of them would make
4
3
. A
'down' quark has charge
1
3
. When the three combine, their total
charge becomes '+1'
2 2 1
3 3 3
| |
= +
|
\ .
. So a proton is expressed as
'uud' combination.
Quark combination of neutron:
A neutron is made of one 'up' quark and two 'down' quarks. An
'up' quark has charge
2
3
. A 'down' quark has charge
1
3
such that
two of them would make
2
3
. When the three combine, their total
charge becomes '0'
\
|
.
|
=
2
3

1
3

1
3
. So a neutron is expressed as 'udd'
combination.
Quark combination of antiproton:
The u u d combination produces an antiproton. The u quark has a
charge
2
3
. So two of them would produce charge
2
3
+
2
3
| |
|
\ .
or
2 2
3 3
| |

|
\ .
. The d quark has charge
1
3
. So, when totaled, the total
charge would be
2 2 1
3 3 3
| |
+
|
\ .
or 1
Black hole:
When the mass of the residual star is more than five times the mass
of the sun, the gravitational pull of it will be very high that nothing
can escape from its gravity even light cannot escape from its
gravitational field. So it cannot be seen and hence named as black
hole.
Hubbles law:
Hubbles law states that the velocity of recession of a galaxy is
directly proportional to it distance from us, i.e., V = H
0
d.
H
0
is known as Hubbles constant which is taken to be about 71
km/s/Mpc.
[Physics]
32
Solids and Semiconductor Devices
Hole in the semi-conductor:
When an electron escapes from a band, it leaves behind a vacancy
in the lattice. This absence of electron is called a hole. Clearly, a
hole is a region in which there is an excess of positive charge. Hole
has the same charge at that of an electron.
Differentiation of n-p-n or p-n-p transistor:
The arrow in the circuit symbol of transistor can be used to
differentiate an npn transistor from a pnp transistor. If the
arrow in the emitter terminal pointed in as shown in figure (b), the
transistor must be a pnp transistor.

If the arrow in the emitter terminal pointed out as shown in the
figure (a), the transistor must be an npn transistor.
Circuit symbol and truth table of NAND gate:
A logic gate whose output is high when any or all of the inputs are
low is called a NAND gate. The combination of an AND and a
NOT gate gives a NAND gate as shown in the circuit symbol
below.

The truth table of NAND gate for two inputs is given below
Input Output
A B X
0 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0