Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
INTRODUCTION
WHEN the universe was young there was hydrogen. Within the young stars hydrogen atoms joined to form helium, carbon, and
oxygen. As the stars aged and died heavier elements formed - such as gold, lead, and uranium. The Sun, and the Earth are made
up of this stardust. The process continues. Today over 90 percent of the detectable matter in the universe is hydrogen but only
0.2% of the earth's atmosphere.
In 1776 the British chemist Henry Cavendish discovered hydrogen by dissolving metals in dilute acids. When burned, it
produced water. In 1783 the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier named hydrogen from the Greek words meaning "water
producer."
Hydrogen on Earth is chemically combined with other elements. The most common hydrogen-containing substance is water.
There are other sources of hydrogen. It is found in combination with carbon in hydrocarbons. It requires energy to separate
hydrogen from the carbon in hydrocarbons or from the oxygen in water.
Electrolysis of water. Passing an electric current through water also produces hydrogen. This separates the
hydrogen from the oxygen in the water molecule in a process called electrolysis.
Steam reforming of methane. Oxygen combines with the carbon in the methane to liberate the hydrogen atoms.
Both of these processes require energy to separate the hydrogen. This is why hydrogen is not only a fuel but a way of storing
energy. When burned, the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen creates heat, returning some of the energy used to make it
available. Heat is released and water is formed. Each water molecule has two atoms of hydrogen and one oxygen - H2O.
Some advantages of hydrogen over other fuels are:
Hydrogen can be made endlessly from water by use of a water electrolyzer.
There are widely varying methods of production.
Combustion produces low levels of pollutants in the form of nitrous oxide, but these can be virtually eliminated by
various combustion control methods.
Hydrogen has the highest energy per unit weight -- three times that of gasoline.
Hydrogen can be transported safely in pipelines.
Hydrogen is nontoxic.
Hydrogen dissipates rapidly in air. This reduces explosion hazards.
Some disadvantages of hydrogen are:
When mixed with air, hydrogen has a wide range of flammability. This means that it will burn in lower concentrations.
It's harder to store than liquid and other gaseous fuels.
Hydrogen liquefies at a very low temperature, -253C (-423F|.
Small amount of energy on a volume basis; about one-third that of gasoline.
High flame velocity and low ignition energy give hydrogen an advantage in engine performance but present special
safety problems.
Despite the opportunities and challenges of using, hydrogen, there is little doubt that it is our future fuel. Should we start to
use it now, or wait for the oil to run out?
The electrical resistance of pure water is 100 ohm/cm (254 ohm/in). It can be reduced in one of several ways.
700 to l,000C (1,290 to 1,800F) heat.
A salt like sodium chloride
An acid such as sulfuric acid, or a base such as potassium hydroxide.
Salts tend to corrode electrode metals. At greater expense, platinum and phosphoric acid can be used. Potassium hydroxide
(KOH) with nickel-iron (stainless steel) electrodes provides the best compromise between performance and cost.
The reaction for an alkaline electrolyte (like KOH) at the cathode is:
Four water molecules break down into eight positively charged hydrogen ions (8H+) and four negatively charged oxygen ions
(402-). Each oxygen ion attaches to one hydrogen ion to form four hydroxyl ions (4OH-). Four hydrogen ions remain. Each of
them combines with four electrons emitted at the cathode to form four complete hydrogen atoms. Since hydrogen atoms
combine in pairs, the four hydrogen atoms combine into two hydrogen molecules (H2). The four negatively charged hydroxyl
ions are attracted to the positive electrode. The electrolyte allows the ions to be drawn to the anode by increasing the
conductivity of the water.
The reaction for an alkaline electrolyte (like KOH) at the anode is as follows.
Four hydroxyl ions give up four electrons to form a molecule of oxygen gas (O2) and two molecules of water. The four
electrons enter the anode and complete the electrical circuit, outside the electrolyzer. Exhibit 2 depicts the flow of ions.
The anode reaction is an oxidation reaction -- free electrons are produced. The reaction at the cathode is a reduction reaction- -
free electrons are absorbed.
The cathode reaction for an acid electrolyte (such as sulfuric acid, H2SO4) is:
Alkaline electrolytes are less corrosive to electrode material than acids. According to G.A. Crawford, alkaline electrolyte
material "... has the most significant near-term commercial potential for recovery of hydrogen from water on a large industrial
scale."
It is also more convenient to use on a smaller scale.
The two most common alkaline electrolytes used are sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH). NaOH is less
conductive than KOH, but is cheaper.
Since KOH combines with CO2 to produce potassium carbonate, periodic replacement is needed in cells open to the
Atmosphere. However, airtight cells cut down on this loss. High-purity distilled water is needed to eliminate the production of
chlorides and sulfates from tap water impurities. These chemicals slowly corrode the electrode material. Even with distilled
writer, electrode materials need to be corrosion resistant. The most commonly available materials are: iron cathodes and
stainless steel anodes.
Electrolysis may be used with other substances. Salt, a compound of sodium and chlorine in the molten state it may be
electrically split by a suitably designed electrolyzer to produce solid sodium at the cathode and chlorine gas at the anode. A
zinc chloride solution under electrolysis yields solid zinc at the cathode and chlorine gas at the anode.
Separators
Electrolyzers consist of five elements:
Container
Electrolyte. Water and a chemical added to conduct electrical current. The chemical may be a salt, acid, or base.
Positive electrode (anode)
Negative electrode (cathode)
Separator.
The separator is placed between the electrodes. It allows the current and ions to pass through but prevents the hydrogen and
oxygen generated by the electrolysis process to mix. Hydrogen and oxygen forms an explosive mixture. Between 4 and 75%
hydrogen in air and 4 and 94% of hydrogen in pure oxygen are explosive. Hydrogen at less than 4% or greater than 75% in air
will burn but not explode.
Materials such as asbestos fiber work well as separator material because the capillary pressure is greater than the cell
pressure. Artificial fiber cloth, rubber cloth, or metallic mesh can also be used.
The gap between the electrodes should be as small as possible.