Elizabeth Makharinsky Exeter College

Dec 12/Jan 13

Was Serialism, as practiced by Arnold Schoenberg, the apogee of modernist composition? The post-tonal revolution resulted in a vibrant musical sphere where many new ideas were being tried out; Schoenbergs Serialism, evolving out of his Expressionist post-tonal style, was one of the most successful of these, enjoying a long period of development and a large following. Despite its prominence, musicologists hesitate to ascribe the label of apogee of modernist composition to Serialism or any compositional technique that was developed because of the lack of clarity regarding which constituted the main technique that could be presented as the successor of tonality. Adorno, a particularly influential philosopher of music aesthetics, makes a concerted effort to argue Schoenbergs superiority, despite confessing the importance of Stravinskys music and that of his followers. By looking at Schoenberg and his compositional technique in detail, this essay attempts to qualify whether there may be reason to believe that Schoenbergs creative output is deserving of the highest respect within the modernist movement of the early twentieth century. A view that is commonly propagated is that the post-tonal revolution in the early twentieth century was completely unprecedented. The idea behind this is that new music did not emerge logically from late Romanticism and there was no analogous system presented as the clear replacement. Moreover, the non-linear progression from late Romanticism to 20th Century music is often regarded as distinctive. Robert P. Morgan argues that despite the initial impression that the break from tonality was a unique occurrence in Western music, parallels can be drawn with the events of the 17th century, when modal, polyphonic and intervallic composition was replaced with tonality and harmony in the traditional sense.1 Furthermore, when tracing back through late Romanticism to the point where change was instigated arguably as early as Liszt it is evident that collapse emerged steadily and owing directly to the existing capacity of the tonal music system that had yet to be pushed to its limits.2 Essentially, the dominant musical system of the Common practice period was undermined from within, with the progression to post-tonality equating to the extended development of chromaticism. It is however difficult to ascribe the role of the new main system to any of the styles that emerged; the universal status of tonality was difficult to follow. The seemingly limitless selection of compositional possibilities impacted composers psychologically. When no techniques were prescribed or prohibited, it was difficult to identify the style that had the following of a majority. In this respect, the label of apogee cannot be ascribed to any of the movements of the early twentieth century. It is nevertheless both interesting and possible to look at views that hold certain composers in the highest esteem and above the rest, assigning their system a higher value and thereby the main role within the modernist revolution. Primarily by questioning and exploring the reasoning behind Adornos advocacy of Schoenberg and secondary recognition of Stravinsky, this essay seeks to determine whether there is sound reason to raise Schoenberg and his practice of Serialism up above the other movements that emerged from the post-tonal revolution of the early twentieth century. At a time of varied and innovative output in the music sphere, it was Schoenbergs radical element that made him into an image of visionary non1 2

Katherine Bergeron & Philip V. Bohlman, Disciplining Music (1992, Chicago), p.46. Katherine Bergeron & Philip V. Bohlman, Disciplining Music (1992, Chicago), p.47 1

Elizabeth Makharinsky Exeter College

Dec 12/Jan 13

conformity and modernization.3 He wanted primarily to loosen the framework of traditional tonal forms because they were incompatible with the freedom required by his creative output. The consequent development of expressionism and serialism inevitably lead to the dissolution of tonality.4 It was only a conscious decision in so far as the instinctive nature of Schoenbergs works that lead him away from traditional techniques of tonal composition is recognized. His renown was by no means immediate, but neither was the settlement of his style into Serialism. His early works, most famously Verklarte Nacht, demonstrate a lavish late romantic style, whereas his creative output beginning around 1908 can best be described as atonal expressionism. The expressionist label is fairly unrestricted in its definition, in that it primarily identifies the composers personal expression as the overwhelming focus rather than the coherence of traditional forms. The pinnacle of Schoenbergs less systematic is Erwartung, constituting one of the most accomplished examples of sustained free composition within expressionism and the wider modernist movement.5 It is the shortcomings of attempts to analyse this work that are the confirmation of the works success as a controlled large-scale improvisation, constrained by the drama of the text. A popular idea is that Erwartung exemplified all that forced Schoenberg onto the road to twelve-tone writing; a more rigid and systematic approach was made a psychological necessity. By freeing himself from the restraints of his individual feelings, serialism was an effort by Schoenberg to expand his musical horizons.6 In establishing the new principle of serialism, Schoenberg intended to provide a system to replace the no longer applicable principle of tonality.7 His search was for a systematic approach, where one idea would control both all the subsequent ideas in a piece and the accompanying features. An early prototype of such a technique was achieved by the composer in his Piano Piece, Op. 11 No. 1 (1909); many analysts have shown that this incorporates a three-note cell in a similar function to that of the twelve-tone row in later serialist compositions. Deriving both thematic motives and accompanying figures and chords from these three notes, Schoenberg actually continued using cellular serialism for the next decade it can be observed in the first four of the Piano Pieces, Op. 23 (1920).8 However, he saw it only as a step towards what would become the true method of serialism; he came to believe that these short motives should not serve the purpose of both background and foreground material. Instead, he resolved that recurring cycles of all twelve chromatic semitones should be used. Schoenberg never proposed that this method of composition should replace functional harmony and tonality, nor should a preoccupation with the rigid method of serialism, translating into a fundamental unity, take away from the ultimate goal of a compositional technique providing a varied, intricate and extended form.9 In the early stages, Schoenberg seemed to compromise on his visionary radicalism, that which was so clear in Erwartung. However, this was regained in his later works, showing that the serialist method

Arnold Whittall, Musical Composition in the Twentieth Century (1999, Oxford), p.42. Malcolm MacDonald, Schoenberg (1976, London), p. 71. 5 Anthony Payne, Schoenberg (1977, Oxford), p. 35. 6 Anthony Payne, Schoenberg (1977, Oxford), p.36. 7 Arnold Whittall, Musical Composition in the Twentieth Century (1999, Oxford), p.161. 8 Arnold Whittall, Musical Composition in the Twentieth Century (1999, Oxford), p.161. 9 Arnold Whittall, Musical Composition in the Twentieth Century (1999, Oxford), p.162.
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Elizabeth Makharinsky Exeter College

Dec 12/Jan 13

worked and that the incorporation of textural elements that were both traditional and structural was possible. The twelve-tone principle was a way of organizing musical thought coherently for Schoenberg. The material for compositions are the 48 versions of a prime set (sometimes called a tone row or series) that is particular to a serialist composition; these are derived by inverting the prime set and reversing both the original prime set and the inverted one. This gives a total of 48 versions of a set, consisting of the prime set, the inversion, the retrograde, the inversion retrograde and their respective transpositions (resulting in 11 new possibilities each). The exception is when the prime set incorporates some reflection, and therefore the retrogrades are identical to transpositions of the primes, making the total number of variations 24. 10 Although all of these forms of the basic set are available to use, no rules on serialist composition compel them to use all of these. They are also under no obligation to use each element of the set with exact equality; a hierarchical manner of treating the material evolves logically from any notion of hierarchy, such as distinguishing main and secondary themes. Reinforcing the difference between hierarchical features that are inherent in tonal music and atonality was not at the forefront of Schoenbergs method. Indeed, some elements of his completely twelve-tone compositions hint at traditional harmonic relationships. Between 1921 and 1928, Schoenberg completed a series of totally serialist pieces, including the Piano Suite, Op. 25. The composer limits himself to the prime row, inversion and respective retrogrades on G and D flat (P0 and P6). This transposition on the sixth semitone of G is on the tritone, suggesting a sort of tonic and flattened dominant relationship. Although the occurrence of such common features is inevitable, through the nature of the twelve-tone system, Schoenbergs decision to use this particular one is informed and, as with other features in other pieces respectively, this triton is a hierarchical feature that the composer exploits, most obviously as an inner ostinato or a double drone.11 Through the study of some of Schoenbergs works from this period, such as the Wind Quintet Op.26, a fluency in incorporating the new twelve-tone technique within the framework of forms developed much earlier and textural similarity is revealed. This can be viewed as a shortcoming of the serial method as practiced by Schoenberg, in its inability to be free of old forms, but alternatively demonstrates inventiveness in combining these two elements. Adorno marks out an important function of the tone row as rationalizing that which is instinctive in a composer writing atonally it regulates the recurrence of certain pitches, preventing a tone from coming again too early and [disrupting] the melodic-harmonic flow.12 The most impactful reminder he states is that this system is misunderstood as a technique of composition, and it is in fact a fundamental structure, acting like a progressive replacement for tonality, within which composition takes place, making it an ingenious method that deserves recognition as the most proficient approach within the frames of modernism. Adornos advocacy of Schoenberg and the development of Serialism are based on many facets of the compositional style. As one of the most influential philosophers and writers on music aesthetics of the twentieth century, his view must carry some weight. One of the theses that he presents is that twelve-tone technique is truly the fate of music; by subjecting composition to a rigid structure, it liberates the composer Arnold Whittall, Musical Composition in the Twentieth Century (1999, Oxford), p.162. Arnold Whittall, Musical Composition in the Twentieth Century (1999, Oxford), p.163. 12 Theodor W. Adorno, Philosophy of Modern Music (2007, London), p.46.
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Elizabeth Makharinsky Exeter College

Dec 12/Jan 13

to a whole new language free from tonality.13 Adorno believes that the process of composition is brought back to a more natural process within the realm of basic musical material when subjected to rigorous exactitude of the tone row. Moreover, he tackles the criticism commonly ascribed to modernist music, relieving Schoenbergs Serialism from the claim of Intellectualism and incomprehensibility. Critics often reproach modern music for coming from the brain rather than the heart or the ear; in saying this, they insinuate that the tonal idiom of the common practice period was derived totally naturally, which is an illusion rooted in history.14 The presupposition that the formation of the idea of modern composition is a more intellectual than sensually developed from the extension of the principle of chromaticism is just evidence in support of the lack of comprehension of it. Moreover, the question of comprehensibility is a subjective one influenced by habit and conditioning. The true basis of meaning as understood by Adorno is musical continuity, and this is equally accessible in Schoenberg as it is in Beethoven. Culturally, preconditioning has taught listeners to avoid straining themselves in the time they have to commit themselves to the intellectual consumption of music, which is what listening to Serialism demands.15 The perceptive faculty of listeners has been reduced with overexposure to light music and so the common argument of complexity and inaccessibility should hold this accountable instead. Another observation in support of Schoenbergs prominence within modernist composition is the number of composers who followed in his stead with serialist composition and gained personal repute. These include his two most prolific and renowned pupils Berg and Webern, who with Schoenberg form the Second Viennese School. The twelve-tone technique was furthered by Berg in his opera Lulu; by forming derivations from the original prime set, by arranging specific pitches symmetrically, Berg devolved new rows which were both independent and linked to the original prime set.16 Even in compositions of his based on numerical patterns a method characteristic only of Berg such as his Chamber Concerto (1923 1925), Schoenbergs influence is apparent in the web of structural relationships derived from the first statement of the material equivalent to the tone row. He also uses very individual adaptations of the tone rows function. For instance, in Der Wein (1929), the series works more as a sort of mode in the traditional sense than a theme. Of the three, Webern was the one who detached himself most completely from the past ideas of tonality.17 Although he did develop a deeply a unique personal style, much the same way as Berg did, both relied on the influence imparted on them by Schoenberg. Most notably, Webern took the idea of organization of pitches and extended it to include rhythm and timbre, resulting in what was called total serialization.18 It was Webern who emerged as the leading figure in dodecaphonic thinking and composition in the middle of the twentieth century, but the roots of this school of thinking lay of course in Schoenbergs twelve-tone serialism. The disciples of his who took these principles to their furthest consequences were by extension also disciples of Schoenberg. Notably, Pierre Boulez, unique in his determination, realized potentialities that had Theodor W. Adorno, Philosophy of Modern Music (2007, London), p.49. Theodor W. Adorno, Philosophy of Modern Music (2007, London), p.8. 15 Theodor W. Adorno, Philosophy of Modern Music (2007, London), p.6. 16 Theodor W. Adorno, Philosophy of Modern Music (2007, London), p.46. 17 Joseph Machlis, Introduction to Contemporary Music (1979, Toronto), p. 271. 18 Joseph Machlis, Introduction to Contemporary Music (1979, Toronto), p. 275.
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Elizabeth Makharinsky Exeter College

Dec 12/Jan 13

not been previously explored and can be deemed to have truly fully fulfilled the modernizing forces of serialism. He was part of the untainted post-war generation who were motivated to rebuild what had become a stagnated modernist music movement. A very Schoenbergian influence was the double-layered form that Boulez explored, and the use of row fragments as harmonic units.19 His focus before 1951 was serializing rhythm, joined by Messiaen in his efforts to serialise duration and instrumentation. The most significant observation of the development of twelve-tone practice was that Babbitt had devised rhythmic serialization a year before independently of Boulez. This complies with Adornos belief in the historical imperative of Serialism within the progress of modernist music, and although this does not command belief in a supernatural pre-determining of Serialism as the pinnacle of modernist music, it does uphold the idea that it was the most logical progression from tonality. In discussing early twentieth century innovation, Stravinsky is more often than not singled out as the strongest oppositional force to Schoenbergs following of serialism. Adorno holds them up as innovators by virtue of their uncompromising consistency.20 However, Adorno grants Schoenberg the status of progressive, deeming that Stravinsky is synonymous with restoration. The latters choice to use traditional genres and traditional features reveal his belief in the degree to which these models could be reformed and rewritten. The result is a tension between the old and new components, both between features and within those such as harmony; the range of harmonic units from simple triads to atonal ones with complex added harmony are typical of the Stravinskian neoclassical harmonic language. One of the first neoclassical pieces was Pulcinella, which sees a juxtaposition of old forms and rhythms with unusual instrumentations and harmonization. Unprecedented ideas of neo-classicism with regards to recomposition were striking for three main reasons: the historical distance between the material and the recomposed work, the new type of artistic impulse to recompose and the relationship between the composer and the predecessor21. The period of the material that was used as the basis for neo-classical was notably imprecise it did not refer solely to the music of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. In fact, the back to Bach movement was the most influential of them, and it was Stravinsky who first explored reworking pieces of the Baroque master. The past has had a role to play in the music of every composer; emerging masters, such as Beethoven, began their compositional careers against the background of their predecessors in the case of Beethoven, the influence of Mozart and Haydn was inescapable. What dissociates Stravinsky from previous composers is the much larger space in time that separates him from his precedent. This results in much deeper stylistic gulfs between the original work and the compositional style of the composer. Whereas Bachs recompositions used a common musical language to that of Vivaldis originals, twentieth century recompositions project a striking clash in style. It is possible to distinguish the two layers of neo-classical works for this reason. Although a very interesting practice and completed in Stravinskys hands with great skill, the shortcoming of Neoclassicism as an innovative language following the breakdown of tonality is its precedence in music history prior to the twentieth century. Paul Griffiths, Modern Music and After (2010, Oxford), p.6. Theodor W. Adorno, Philosophy of Modern Music (2007, London), p.2. 21 Joseph N. Straus, Recompositions by Schoenberg, Stravinsky and Webern The Musical Quarterly (1986), p.302.
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Elizabeth Makharinsky Exeter College

Dec 12/Jan 13

Both the Schoenbergian and Stravinskyan methods came out of the need for stability and clarity, and both schools of thought focused on the constructive process and aspect of music. The return of both to forms developed in the eighteenth century and to thematic development acted as a type of reconciliation between the two opposing protagonists of early development following the post-tonal revolution.22 Taking this into account, the need to separate either out as the primary style associated with music modernism falters. However, Stravinskys conversion to twelve-tone composition in his final years acts somewhat like a final admission by the Stravinsky of Schoenbergs success in instituting the serialist compositional method. Nevertheless, there was a lot of opposition between the camps of Neoclassicism and Dodecaphony during the early stages of development of both styles. The fundamental difference between them that is difficult to reconcile was the opposing view towards and link with what came before. Neoclassicism grew from what was fundamentally an anti-romantic movement it was a representation of the reaction against what appeared to be the overly emotional and sometimes formless style of music in the late 19th century. Stravinsky desired primarily to subordinate this expression to formal values, using re-composition as a means to do so. As Schoenberg was the product of German Romanticism, he ardently adhered to the concept of art as personal expression. Moreover, the way in which he observed twelve-tone composition as a method concerning the composer but not the listener confirms that it is merely the method and starting point; this intricate set of technical procedures facilitated the compositions, much like those of harmony and counterpoint did for his predecessors.23 This is why the popular view is that dodecaphonic music emerged as the significant contributor to the language of contemporary music. Although the wider public was not necessarily reached, twelve-tone devotees gained a great influence and challenged at least the musical intelligentsia. The modernist music movement was searching for a new method to ensure further development, and Schoenbergs system opened up an exciting and innovative way of utilizing the means available within the twelve-tone scale. Aside from Schoenberg and Stravinsky, there were many composers who brought innovation to the early twentieth century Debussy, Ravel and Bartok to name but a few. When trying to testify that Schoenberg can be picked out as the most progressive and is deserving of a title above the rest as the main innovator following the post-tonal revolution, one method of qualifying is to appeal to the way in which he moved towards the synthesis of his ideas. Schoenberg proposed the most radical and thorough consolidation among his counterparts, at a time when all composers were moving towards clearer forms that would represent the amalgamation of their new ideas.24 What is more, Schoenbergian Serialism pertains to Late Romanticism better than Neoclassicism in that it can possibly be described as a natural extension of late chromaticism past tonality and into an alternative system of organization. Based on the assumption made by Adorno that composers other than Stravinsky and Schoenberg do not deserve advocacy on the same level as the two innovators within compositional procedures, it is possible to give Serialism a higher stature, taking into account the aforementioned. Everything from the large following to the technical skill brought this compositional method a well-deserved renown. Joseph Machlis, Introduction to Contemporary Music (1979, Toronto), p. 240. Joseph Machlis, Introduction to Contemporary Music (1979, Toronto), p. 242. 24 Eric Salzman, Twentieth-century music: an introduction (1988, London), p.109.
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Elizabeth Makharinsky Exeter College

Dec 12/Jan 13

Bibliography: Theodor W. Adorno, Philosophy of Modern Music (2007, London) Katherine Bergeron & Philip V. Bohlman, Disciplining Music (1992, Chicago) Paul Griffiths, Modern Music and After (2010, Oxford) Malcolm MacDonald, Schoenberg (1976, London) Joseph Machlis, Introduction to Contemporary Music (1979, Toronto) Anthony Payne, Schoenberg (1977, Oxford) Eric Salzman, Twentieth-century music: an introduction (1988, London) Joseph N. Straus, Recompositions by Schoenberg, Stravinsky and Webern The Musical Quarterly (1986) Arnold Whittall, Musical Composition in the Twentieth Century (1999, Oxford)