pipe design

Fit for service?

George Antaki tests the integrity of pipeline systems
OIL and gas is collected, processed and transmitted from extraction fields to end users through a network of pipelines, rarely visible since they are mostly run underground. The integrity of the pipeline system has to be maintained throughout the hundreds of miles that constitute the gathering, transmission and distribution network. A leak can cause a disruption that reverberates up and down the system. This is what happened when in 2006 a quarter-inch hole in a transit line of BPs Alaska pipeline triggered an inspection, which in turn uncovered wider corrosion. The subsequent repairs disrupted oil deliveries from the North Slope and resulted in well-publicised hearings in the US Congress, which was concerned about the integrity and reliability of the pipeline system. A pipeline leak has several adverse consequences: safety concerns, as the escaping products can result in an explosion and fire; environmental damage, as a spill can harm the environment and waterways (Figure 1 illustrates a case where a leak occurred at a river crossing, dumping oil into the river); and economic setbacks, in the form of fines and system downtime to allow for investigations to be carried out and repairs and retrofit to be implemented. This is why, around the world, from remote oil fields down to the end users, pipelines are repeatedly inspected and repaired where necessary to assure their integrity, and provide for the safe and reliable delivery of hydrocarbons. This article is an overview of the steps that constitute the foundation of pipeline integrity.

integrity: a three-step process

The integrity of a pipeline system, its fitness-for-service, can only be understood by looking at both the forest and the trees. The forest, the big picture, comprises three key activities, in order: design and construction; operation; and maintenance. The trees are the myriad of technical challenges that accompany each of these activities.

design and construction

This first step constitutes the genes of the pipeline system. It, in turn, comprises four parts: system design, material selection, strength design, and construction. System design: This is the step that sets the hydraulic characteristics of the system (its throughput), sizes the necessary equipment (pumps, compressors, valves, etc), and selects the instruments, controls and alarms necessary for the safe and efficient operation of the pipeline system. The size of a pipeline, its diameter, is selected on the basis of flowrate and cost. The line must be sufficiently large to deliver the required throughput at the necessary pressure and at a reasonably low flowrate, but it cannot be too large to avoid unnecessary costs. Pressures in transmission pipelines can be in the order of 70 bars (1030 psi) or more. Material selection: Oil and gas transmission pipelines are typically made of carbon steel, a material which has the advantage of good strength over a wide range of temperatures, at a reasonable cost. But carbon steel has one disadvantage: it corrodes when buried in soil; and transmission

(Pictured top) Figure 1: Pipeline failed in corroded section at river crossing

pipelines are buried along most of their route, for congestion, aesthetic and safety reasons. The solution to this soilside corrosion problem is to coat the steel with a corrosion-resistant coating such as epoxy. But coatings are not perfect, and small defects in the coating (called coating holidays) do occur during construction or in-service as the coating ages and blisters, cracks or peels in spots. In order to protect the steel made bare at these coating holidays, the coated lines are also cathodically protected. Cathodic protection is achieved by imposing a small DC voltage to the line, or by placing the line in electric contact with a less noble metal such as magnesium or zinc, which serves as sacrificial anodes. In addition to soil-side corrosion, material selection also addresses fluidside corrosion. It is important to take into account the chemistry of the fluid, liquid or gas at this stage, as this is when the need for and level of corrosion inhibition is decided. It is also at this early stage of system design that provisions are made for access for future inspections. Strength design: Once the diameter, flowrate and pressure are established, and the material is selected, then the minimum required wall thickness is calculated. This is a straightforward step, which is clearly specified in design code equations. The thickness of a pipeline is selected to safely resist the maximum operating pressure, as well as to provide an over-thickness corrosion allowance to reduce the likelihood of leaks. More complex calculations are needed if the pipeline has to be designed to withstand large postulated loads such as earthquakes or large ground settlement or landslide. www.tcetoday.com

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pipe design
Construction: The construction activities include buying the pipe spools, shipping them to the field, aligning and welding them, examining each weld for defects, cutting-out and repairing weld defects, coating the welds, lowering the pipe into its trench, and finally pressure testing the line, typically with water at a higher pressure than the highest operating pressure. Again, as was the case for strength design, these activities are strictly specified in construction codes. In addition, the qualifications of welders and examiners are also explicitly defined in codes and standards. The competence applied in the above four steps is crucial in delivering to the operating company a well-designed and well-constructed pipeline, a condition necessary, but not sufficient, for longevity. pig. An intelligent pig, also referred to as smart pig or in-line inspection (ILI) tool, is an instrumented bullet launched inside the pipeline at one end, carried along the pipeline by normal flow, and collected, hours later, at the other end of the pipeline. In the meantime, the ILI tool has measured and collected wall thickness readings along the full length of the pipe and all around its circumference. A pig run provides a complete three-dimensional view of the pipeline, its thickness (wall thickness pigs), as well as deviation to its circular shape (caliper pigs). There are, however, difficulties in conducting pig inspections, other than cost: the inside of the pipeline has to be cleaned of wax, corrosion and other deposits; and the pipeline must be designed to accept the pig. This means, for example, that it cannot have sharp bends or large changes in pipe diameter, which would cause the pig to get stuck. ILI inspections are conducted at intervals dictated by regulation and by the likelihood of corrosion or damage. Fitness-for-service assessment: This step analyses the inspection results and other operating data to make the run-or-repair decision. It is a very interesting step, as it requires a solid understanding of all the previous six steps. Here the engineer is a doctor diagnosing the pipeline condition, its fitness-for-service, based on the inspection and operating data: What do the indications mean? Were the flaws detected present since construction? Do they point to an active degradation or damage mechanism? How severe are the indications? How do they trend with time? Is an immediate shutdown or reduction in operating pressure called for? If not, when should the next inspection be conducted? Should operation be changed? The engineer has two important advantages when conducting a fitnessfor-service: A full picture of the pipeline condition through the ILI inspection, and a set of codes and standards which provide go/no-go rules to assess degradation and damage, such as British Standard BS 7910 Guide to methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in metallic structures, Norwegian recommended practice DNV-RP-F101 Corroded pipelines, and US standard ASME B31G Manual for determining the remaining strength of corroded pipelines. Another ingredient of a good integrity programme is characterised by the quality of the feedback loop which takes the results of the fitness-for-service assessment and provides lessons learned to engineering and operations. Repairs: Some repairs are preventive: they reinforce a weak section that has not yet leaked but has been discovered through the prior steps of inspection and fitness-for-service assessment. Other repairs are necessary to mitigate a leak or rupture. In either case, repairs can generally be grouped into two categories: metallic and non-metallic repairs. Each repair technique should be investigated in detail for adequacy, compatibility with the pipeline operating parameters (temperature, pressure, other applied loads), and longevity. While repairs are often characterised as temporary or permanent, it is more appropriate to study each repair and assign it a design life, based on corrosion, degradation in service, and strength considerations. Metallic repairs include cutting and replacing the damaged section by a new section welded in place, wrapping the damaged pipe section with a tight fitting steel sleeve, welding a round or rectangular steel patch on top of a corroded section, building a welded box around the corroded section to confine leaks should they occur, or placing a leak-tight bolted box around the pipeline to confine leaks, as illustrated in Figure 2. Non-metallic repairs include resinimpregnated fibre-glass or carbon fibre wraps, inserted liners, or brushed or rolled compounds. George Antaki (gantaki@becht. com) is a senior engineering fellow with Becht Engineering in Aiken, South Carolina, US; he has written several books on pipe integrity and maintenance

operations
Whereas design and construction produce a pipeline with the right genes, operation of the pipeline is effectively its lifestyle. The operating company has the responsibility to operate the pipeline responsibly, within its design parameters and within regulations. It also makes sure the pipeline, equipment, instruments and controls are kept in good condition through periodic checks, inspections and maintenance. Periodic checks and adjustments of the cathodic protection system are equally important. This is done by inspecting the cathodic protection components, and over-theline surveys which measure voltage gradients in the soil above the pipeline. Periodic flyovers of transmission pipelines are conducted to identify any suspicious third-party activities or damaging natural phenomena along the right-of-way.

summary
The integrity of a pipeline relies on sound engineering in three areas: design and construction, consisting of system design, material selection strength design and construction; operation; and maintenance inspection, fitness-forservice, and repairs. Each step has its own challenges, but the technology is well developed, the tools are available, and the codes, standards and regulations are in place to resolve these challenges and provide for safe and reliable operation of pipeline systems. tce

maintenance
Maintenance is the third step in any integrity process. Despite good design, good construction, and good operation, corrosion is bound to occur over time. Maintenance is therefore unavoidable. It consists of three activities: inspection (check-up), fitness-for-service (diagnostic of any illness), and repairs (medications or, if necessary, surgical intervention). Inspection: It may take years or decades for corrosion to become significant and possibly lead to a leak, or at worst a blowout. It is therefore vital that pipelines are inspected regularly. In many countries these periodic inspections are imposed by regulation. When it comes to inspecting pipelines, pipeline operators have a great advantage: the intelligent www.tcetoday.com

Figure 2: Bolted leak box repair, with nozzles for sealant injection

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