SOLUTIONS FOR CHAPTER 8

8.1 From (8.1),

(
( )
(

)
)

18 O

16

0.0020150 3
O
sample
18O o oo = 18
1 x10 3 =
1 x10 = 4.9
0.0020052
O

16
O standard

Since the sample has more 18O in it, there would be more glaciation since ice
selectively accumulates 16O, increasing the concentration of 18O left behind in
seawater.
8.2 Plotting delta D versus temperature gives

As shown, D changes by 6.19 per mil per oC.

8.3 An ice core with (2H/1H) = 8.100 x 10-5.

a. Using VSMOW 0.00015575 for deuterium in (8.1) gives

D (

(2 H/1 H) sample

0.00008100 3
/oo )= 2 1
1 x10 3 =
1 x10 = 479.8
0.00015575
( H/ H) standard

b. With D(0/00) = 435 per mil, and 6 per mil change in D(0/00) per oC, the rise in
D from 479.8 to 435 (44.8 per mil) gives a temperature rise of 44.8/6 = 7.5oC.
8.4 From the equation given for the ice core,

( )

T (o C) = 1.5 18O o oo + 20.4 = 1.5x(35) + 20.4 = 32.1o C

Pg. 8.1

notice, by the way, that since this sample is for glacial ice, not ocean water or sediment,
the negative sign on 18O o oo means colder temperatures.

( )

8.5 Plotting the ice core data for T(oC) and D

So:

( oo)+ 72.45

T(o C)= 0.1661 D o

8.6 The flat earth!

R

1370W/m 2

E absorbed = E radiated
S R = T A = T (2 R
2

S
T =
2

1370W / m 2
=
8
2 4
2x5.67x10 W / m K

8.7 The basic relationship is S =

= 331.5K - 273.1 = 58.4 C

k
2 . Using d and S for Earth from Table 8.2 lets us find k:
d

k = S d 2 = 1370W / m 2 x (150x10 6 km x 103 m / km ) = 3.083x10 25 W

2

a. Mercury: S =

k
3.083x10 25 W
2
=
2 = 9163W / m
2
6
3
d
(58x10 km x 10 m / km )

Pg. 8.2

b. The effective temperature (8.7) of Mercury would be:

S(1 )
Te =
4

9163W / m 2 (1 0.06)
=
4x5.67x108 W / m 2 K4

= 441K

(168 C)

= 256.2K

(-17o C)

c. Peak wavelength:

max =

8.8

2898 2898
=
= 6.6 m
T (K) 441

Solar flux variation of 3.3%, gives a range of S

Smax = 1370 (1+0.033) = 1415.2 W/m2
Smin = 1370 (1 -0.033) = 1324.8 W/m2

S(1 )
Te ,max =
4
S(1 )
Te ,min =
4

1415.2W / m 2 (1 0.31)
=
4x5.67x108 W / m 2 K4
1324.8W / m 2 (1 0.31)
=
4x5.67x10 8 W / m 2 K4

= 252K

(-21 C)

The variation from 17oC to 21oC is a difference of about 4oC, or about 2oC.
8.9 After a nuclear war:
2

a. Surface temperature,

Ts4 = 240W / m 2

Pg. 8.3

240W / m 2
Ts =
8
2 4
5.67x10 W / m K

= 255K

(-18 C)

b. X, Atmosphere to space: Balance Incoming from space = Outgoing to space

X = 273 W/m2

342 = 69 + X

c. Y, Absorbed by earth: Incoming solar has to go somewhere,

Y = 16 W/m2

342 = 69 + 257 + Y

d. Z, Radiation from atmosphere to surface: Balance earth's surface radiation,

Z = 224 W/m2

Y + Z = 240 = 16 + Z
8.10 A 2-layer atmosphere:
342

40

107

W
T1

X
W
Y

24 78

168

350

390

Z
T2
Z

a. At the surface: 168 + Z = 24 + 78 + 390

Z = 324 W/m2

b. Extraterrestrial:

W = 195 W/m2

342 = 107 + 40 + W

c. Lower atmosphere:
Y + 24 + 78 + 350 + 195 = 2 x 324
d. Incoming:

342 = 107 + X + 1 + 168

Y = 1 W/m2
X = 66 W/m2

e. Temperatures T1 and T2 (assuming blackbody radiation) can be found from

T = W = 195
4
1

195W / m 2
T1 =
8
2 4
5.67x10 W / m K

Pg. 8.4

14
o

= 242K (-31 C)

324W / m 2
T2 =
8
2 4
5.67x10 W / m K

T2 = Z = 324
4

14
o

= 275K (2 C)

8.11 Hydrologic cycle:

1J/s
s
hr
d
x3600 x24 x365
W
hr
d
yr
14
3
= 5.1x10 m
3
3
3
2465kJ / kg x 10 kg/ m x 10 J / kJ

78W / m 2 x5.1x1014 m 2 x
evaporation =

Averaged over the globe, with area 5.1x1014 m2, annual precipitation is very close to 1 m
8.12 Greenhouse enhanced earth:
342

30

100
67

24

78

X
Y

W
291K

W = 175 W/m2

a. Incoming energy: 342 = 100 + 67 + W

b. Find Z from radiation to space:

Z = 212 W/m2

342 = 100 + 30 + Z
c. To find X, need the energy radiated by a 291 K surface:

surface radiated = T = 5.67x10 W / m K x (291K) = 406.6W / m

8

X = 376.6 W/m2

so that, 406.6 = X + 30

d. Can find Y several ways; at the surface, or in the atmosphere,

W + Y = 406.6 + 24 + 78 = 175 + Y
or,

67 + 24 + 78 + X = Y + Z
67 + 24 + 78 + 376.6 = Y + 212

8.13

Y = 333.6 W/m2

(Y = 333.6)

CO2 from 10 GtC/yr to 16 GtC/yr over 50 years, with initial 380 ppm and
A.F. = 40%. Since it is linear, the total emissions would be those at constant level
plus the area of a triangle rising by 6 Gt/yr:

Pg. 8.5

50 yrs x10 Gt/yr + 1/2 x 50 yrs x 6 GtC/yr = 575 GtC.

Using the 2.12 GtC/ppm ratio and the 0.40 A.F. gives
GtC x 0.40
= 380 +108 = 488 ppm
(CO2 )= 380 + 575
2.12 GtC/ppm

8.14 CO2 growing at 2 ppm/yr, fossil fuel and cement emissions at 9 GtC/yr, and A.F. of
38%. The remaining emissions due to land use changes are:
Cemissions =

2 ppm/yr x 2.12GtC/ppm
= 11.15 GtC/yr
0.38

Land use emissions = 11.15 9 = 2.15 GtC/yr

8.15 With 40% oil, 23% coal, 23% gas and 14% carbon free:

a. Using LHV values from Table 8.3:

Coal

23%

@ 25.8 gC/MJ

Oil

40%

@ 20.0 gC/MJ

Gas

23%

@ 15.3 gC/MJ

Other 14%

@ 0

Avg C intensity = 0.23x25.8 + 0.40x 20.0 + 0.23x15.3 + 0.14x0 = 17.45 gC/MJ

b. Coal replaced by non-carbon emitting sources:
Avg C intensity = 0.23x0 + 0.40x20.0 + 0.23x15.3 + 0.14x0 = 11.52 gC/MJ
c. Modeled as an exponential growth function over 100 years:
C = C0e rt
1 C
1 11.52
r = ln =
ln
= 0.0042 = 0.42% / yr
t C0 100 17.45

8.16 With resources from Table 8.4 and LHV carbon intensities from Table 8.3, A.F. = 50%:

a. All the N. Gas: 15.3 gC/MJ x 36,100 x 1012 MJ = 552,330 x 1012 gC = 552 GtC
CO 2 =

552 GtC x 0.5

= 130 ppm CO 2
2.12 GtC/ppmCO 2

b. All the Oil: 20.0 gC/MJ x 24,600 x 1012 MJ = 492 GtC

Pg. 8.6

CO 2 =

492 GtC x 0.5

= 116 ppm CO 2
2.12 GtC/ppmCO 2

c. All the Coal: 25.8 gC/MJ x 125,500/2 x 1012 MJ = 1619 GtC

CO 2 =

1619 GtC x 0.5

= 382 ppm CO 2
2.12 GtC/ppmCO 2

d. All three: 130 + 116 + 382 = 628 ppm CO2. From (8.29) with T2X = 2.8oC:
Te =
8.17

(CO ) 2.8
628 + 380
T2X
2
ln
ln
= 3.9 oC
=

380
ln 2
(CO 2 )0 ln 2

Out of oil and gas, demand = 2 x 330 EJ/yr, 28%coal, 60% syn gas/oil@44gC/MJ,
a. Carbon emission rate:
Avg carbon intensity = 0.28 x 25.8 + 0.60 x 44 + 0.12 x0 = 33.6 gC/MJ
2 x 330x1018 J MJ 33.6gC GtC
Emissions =
x 6 x
x 15
= 22.2GtC / yr
10 J
MJ
10 gC
yr

b. Growth from 6.0 GtC/yr to 22.2 GtC/yr in 100 yrs,

r=

1 22.2
= 0.013 = 1.3%/ yr
ln
100 6.0

c. Amount remaining with 50% airborne fraction, use (8.27):

Total emitted = C tot =

C0 r T
6.0 GtC/yr 0.01308/yr x 100 yr
e 1)=
1)= 1239 GtC
(
(e
0.01308
r

Amount remaining in atmosphere = 0.50 x 1239 = 619 GtC

d. Amount in atmosphere in 100 yrs = 750 + 619 = 1369 GtC

(CO2 ) =

1369GtC
= 646ppm
2.12GtC/ ppmCO2

e. Equilibrium temperature increase, with T2x=3oC from (8.29):

T =

CO 3.0
T2x
645
2
= 2.57 o C
ln
ln
=

ln
2
356
ln 2
CO
( 2 )0

Pg. 8.7

8.18

Repeat of Prob. 8.17, but now conservation scenario:

a. Carbon emission rate:
Avg carbon intensity = 0.20 x 25.8 + 0.30 x 15.3 + 0.10 x20 = 11.75 gC/MJ
Emissions =

330x1018 J MJ 11.75gC GtC

x 6 x
x 15
= 3.88GtC / yr
10 J
MJ
10 gC
yr

b. Growth from 6.0 GtC/yr to 3.88 GtC/yr in 100 yrs,

r=

1 3.88
= 0.0044 = 0.44% / yr
ln
100 6.0

c. Amount remaining with 50% airborne fraction, use (8.27):

Total emitted = C tot =

C0 r T
6.0 GtC/yr 0.0044/yr x 100 yr
e 1)=
1)= 483 GtC
(
(e
r
0.0044

Amount remaining in atmosphere = 0.50 x 483 = 242 GtC

d. Amount in atmosphere in 100 yrs = 750 + 242= 992 GtC

(CO2 ) =

992GtC
= 468ppm
2.12GtC/ ppmCO2

e. Equilibrium temperature increase, with T2x=3oC,

T =

CO 3.0
T2x
468
2
= 1.18o C
ln
ln
=
ln 2
(CO2 )0 ln 2 356

8.19. Finding LHV efficiency of a condensing furnace with 95% HHV efficiency.

From Example 8.4, HHV = 890 kJ/mol and LHV = 802 kJ/mol. The output of a HHV
95% efficient furnace burning 1 mole of methane is 0.95 x 890 kJ = 845.5 kJ. On an LHV
basis, you still get the same output, but the efficiency is now

LHV efficiency =

845.5 kJ delivered
= 1.054 = 105.4%
802 kJ LHVinput

Pg. 8.8

This over 100% efficiency is one reason LHV values are sometimes avoided in the U.S.
8.20

Finding HHV carbon intensities:

a. Ethane, C 2H 6 :

2 x 12 gC/mol 10 3 kJ
x
= 15.56 gC/MJ
MJ
1542 kJ/mol

b. Propane, C 3H 8 :

3 x 12 gC/mol 10 3 kJ
x
= 16.36 gC/MJ
MJ
2220 kJ/mol

c. n - Butane, C 4 H10 :

8.21

4 x 12 gC/mol 10 3 kJ
x
= 16.68 gC/MJ
MJ
2878 kJ/mol

Using HHV carbon intensities from Table 8.3, the four options are:

1) pulse

2) conv gas

100MJ

95MJ
delivered
=0.95

=14.5gC/MJ

95MJ

1380gC

100MJ

1380gC

70MJ
delivered
=0.70

1380gC

=19.7gC/MJ

70MJ

1380gC

heat pump
3) heat pump

100MJ
2420gC

4)resistance

100MJ
2420gC

35MJ
COP=3

=0.35

power plant

105MJ del

105MJ

70 from enviro.
35MJ

=0.35

2420gC
35MJ

=69.1gC/MJ

power plant

Notice the tremendous range: 14.5 to 69.1 gC/MJ, almost 5:1 !

8.22

Propane-fired water heater with 2200 kJ/mol vs Example 8.6:

3 x 12 gC/mol 10 3 kJ
x
= 16.36 gC/MJ
a. Carbon intensity C 3H 8 :
2220 kJ/mol
MJ
b. Delivering heat at 85% efficiency to hot water

Pg. 8.9

2420gC

=23.0gC/MJ

c. Savings versus 32.5 gC/MJ with a n. gas electric water heater in Example 8.6:

propane 19.25 gC/MJ

=
= 0.59 so there is a 41% savings vs electricity
electric 32.5 gC/MJ

8.23

Initial CO2 = 356 ppm, 6 GtC/yr and 750 GtC; want 70 year scenario. Do it by scenario:
(A)

Using r = 1.0 + 0.3 - 2.0 - 0.7 = -1.4%/yr in (8.27)

C tot =

C0 r T
6.0 GtC/yr 0.014/yr x 70 yr
e 1)=
1)= 268 GtC
(
(e
r
0.014

(CO 2 ) =
T =

750GtC + C tot x AF 750 + 268 x 0.4 GtC

=
= 404 ppm
2.12 GtC/ppmCO 2
2.12 GtC/ppmCO 2

CO
3
T2x
404
2
= 0.55o C
ln
ln
=
ln 2
(CO2 )0 ln 2 356

To find the doubling time, rearrange (8.27):

C tot to double current 750 GtC =

750 GtC C 0 r Td
=
(e 1)
AF = 0.4
r

(750 /0.4)(0.014)
1
1 (750 /0.4)r
Td = ln
+ 1 =
ln
+ 1 = never!
r
6.0
6.0
0.014

(B)

r = 1.5 + 1.5 - 0.2 + 0.4 = 3.2%/yr

C tot =

C0 r T
6.0GtC/yr 0.032/yr x 70 yr
e 1)=
1)= 1574 GtC
(
(e
0.032
r

(CO 2 ) =

750 GtC + C tot x AF 750 + 1574 x 0.5GtC

=
= 725 ppm
2.12 GtC/ppmCO 2
2.12 GtC/ppmCO 2

Pg. 8.10

T =

CO
2
T2x
725
2
= 2.05o C
ln
ln
=

ln
2
356
ln 2
CO
( 2 )0

750
750
r
0.032
1
1
AF
0.5

Td = ln
+1 =
ln
+ 1 = 69 yrs
0.032

r
6.0
6.0

(C)

r = 1.4 + 1.0 - 1.0 - 0.2 = 1.2%/yr

C0 r T
6.0 GtC/yr 0.012/yr x 70 yr
e 1)=
1)= 658 GtC
(
(e
0.012
r
750 GtC + C tot xAF 750 + 658 x 0.5 GtC
=
= 509 ppm
(CO 2 ) =
2.12 GtC/ppmCO 2
2.12 GtC/ppmCO 2
CO 3
509
T
o
2
ln
T = 2x ln
=
= 1.55 C
ln2
(CO 2 )0 ln2 356
C tot =

750
750
r
0.012
1
1
AF
0.5

Td = ln
+1 =
ln
+ 1 = 116yrs
0.012

r
6.0
6.0

8.24 With 1990 6.0 GtC/yr + land use 2.5 GtC/yr and the following growth rates to 2100

Population growth rate dP/dt = 0.8%

Per capita GDP growth rate d(GDP/P)/dt = 1.3%
Final Energy per GDP growth rate =d(FE/GDP)/dt = - 0.7%
Primary Energy to Final Energy growth rate d(PE/FE)/dt = 0.1%
Carbon per unit of Primary Energy growth rate d(TC/PE)/dt = -0.2%
Carbon Sequestration growth rate d(C/TC)/dt = 0.0%
Total growth rate = 0.8 + 1.3 0.7 + 0.1 0.2 + 0.0 = 1.3%/yr
a. The carbon emission rate in 2100
From energy C = C0e rt = 6.0e 0.013x110 = 25.1 GtC/yr
Including land use: Total emission rate = 25.1 + 2.5 = 27.6 GtC/yr
b. Total carbon emissions:
Ctot (energy ) =

6.0 0.013x110
C0 rT
e 1)=
1)= 1467 GtC
(
(e
0.013
r

Ctot (land use and industry) = 110 yrs x 2.5 GtC/yr = 275 GtC
Total emissions = 1467 + 275 = 1742 GtC

Pg. 8.11

c. The increase in CO2 concentration with A.F. = 0.5:

CO 2 =

1742 GtC x 0.5

= 410 ppm CO 2
2.12 GtC/ppmCO 2

d. Estimated 2100 CO2 concentration = 360 + 410 = 770 ppm

e. With T2X = 2.8oC, the global equilibrium temperature increase 2100
Te =

8.25

(CO ) 2.8
770
T2X
o
2
ln
ln
=
= 3.1 C

ln
2
360
ln 2
CO
(
)

2 0

Identification of the halocarbons:

a. C3HF7 is an HFC (no Cl), 3 1 7 - 90 = 227,
b. C2H3FCl2 is an HCFC,

2 3 1 - 90 = 141,

c. C2F4Cl2 is a CFC, 2 0 4 - 90 = 114,

HFC-227
HCFC-141

CFC-114

d. CF3Br is a Halon, H-1301

8.26

a. HCFC-225, 225 + 90 = 315 (3C, 1H, 5F), 8 sites - (1+5) = 2 Cl,

C3HF5Cl2

b. HFC-32, 32 + 90 = 122 (1C, 2H, 2F), 4 sites, 0 Cl,

CH2F2

c. H-1301, (1C, 3F, 0Cl, 1Br)

CF3Br

d. CFC-114, 114 + 90 = 204 (2C, 0H, 4F), 6 sites - 4 = 2 Cl,

C2F4Cl2

8.27. Finding climate sensitivity and varying feedback factor g.

a. From (8.35) and (8.40) using T2X = 2.5 oC.

o
2.5
T2X
=
= 0.595 C
W m2
4.2
4.2

g = 1-

0.27
0.27
B
= 1
= 1
= 0.546
0.595

If g = 0.1 + 0.546 = 0.646, then

B
1 g

0.27
= 0.763 o C (W m2 ),
1 0.646
Pg. 8.12

T2 X = 4.2 = 4.2x0.763 = 3.2 oC

b. For T2X = 3.5 oC

o
3.5
T2X
=
= 0.833 C
W m2
4.2
4.2

g =1-

0.27
0.27
B
= 1
= 1
= 0.676
0.833

If g increases to 0.776, then

0.27
= 1.205 o C (W m2 ),
T2 X = 4.2 = 4.2x1.205 = 5.1o C
1 g 1 0.776
Notice T2X becomes more sensitive as the feedback factor increases (0.7oC increase when g
changes from 0.546 to 0.646 versus 1.9oC increase when g changes from 0.676 to 0.776).

8.28

Using Figure 8.39:

a. The AS probability that T2X is less than 2.5oC. Answer: 20%
b. The WR probability that T2X is greater than 3oC. Answer: 40%
c. The AS probability that T2X is between 3oC and 4oC. Answer: 50%
d. The WR probability that T2X is between 3oC and 4oC. Answer: 35%

Pg. 8.13

8.29. Radiative forcing for N2O,

F = k2 ( C C0 )
k2 =

C C0 )

0.14

( 311

275

= 0.133

If N2O reaches 417 ppb, added forcing would be:

F = k2 ( C C0 ) = 0.133( 417 311) = 0.37W / m 2
8.30

a. Combined radiative forcings from 1850 to 1992

FCO2 = 6.3 ln

[(CO )] = 6.3 ln 356

2

[(CO ) ]
2 0

( CH

FCH4 = 0.031

FN2 O = 0.133 N 2 O

278

= 1.558 W/m

(CH 4 ) 0 )= 0.031( 1714

(N2 O)0 )= 0.133(

700 ) = 0.463 W/m2

311 275 = 0.140W / m 2

FCFC11 = 0.22[(CFC 11) (CFC 11)0 ] = 0.22(0.268 0) = 0.059 W / m 2

FCFC12 = 0.28[(CFC 12) (CFC 12 )0 ]= 0.28(0.503 0 ) = 0.141 W / m 2

Pg. 8.14

Combined forcing = 1.558 + 0.463 + 0.140 + 0.059 + 0.141 = 2.36 W/m2

b. From 1992 to 2100:
FCO2 = 6.3 ln

[(CO )] = 6.3 ln 710

(CO2 )0

( CH

356

= 4.35 W/m

(CH 4 ) 0 )= 0.031(

3616 1714 )= 0.581W / m

FN2 O = 0.133 N 2 O

(N2 O)0 )= 0.133(

417 311) = 0.370W / m 2

FCH4 = 0.031

FCFC11 = 0.22[(CFC 11) (CFC 11)0 ] = 0.22(0.040 0.268) = 0.050 W / m 2

FCFC12 = 0.28[(CFC 12) (CFC 12 )0 ]= 0.28(0.207 0.503) = 0.083 W / m 2
Combined forcing = 4.35 + 0.581 + 0.370 - 0.050 - 0.083 = 5.17 W/m2
c.

From 1850 to 2100

710
F = 6.3 ln
+ 0.031( 3616 700 )+ 0.133 417 275
278
+ 0.22x0.040 + 0.28x0.207 = 7.53 W/m2
(alternatively: F = 2.36 + 5.17 = 7.53 W/m2)

8.31

From Prob. 8.30 for 1850 to 2100:

710
F = 6.3 ln
+ 0.031( 3616 700 )+ 0.133 417 275
278
+ 0.22x0.040 + 0.28x0.207 = 7.53 W/m2
Ts = F = 0.57 oC/(W/m2) x 7.53 W/m2 = 4.3 oC

20

8.32

Using

RCO 2 (t )dt 13.2 yrs;

100

RCO 2 (t )dt 43.1yrs;

500

R (t )dt 138 yrs and forcing

CO 2

ratios of HFC-134a to CO2 of (Fg/FCO2) = 4129 and = 14 yrs. First simplify GWP to

Pg. 8.15

F
GWPg = g
FCO2

t /

F (1 eT / )
= g T
T
F
RCO2 (t)dt CO2 RCO2 (t )dt
0

a. GWP(20) = 4129

14 (1 e

b. GWP (100) = 4129

c. GWP (500) = 4129
8.33

dt

20 /14

) = 3330

13.2
14 (1 e100 /14 )

43
14 (1 e500 /14 )
138

(vs 3300 in Table 8.7)

= 1340 (vs 1300 in table)

= 420 (vs 400 in table)

For a greenhouse gas with = 42 years and a relative forcing of 1630 times that of CO2.

Fg 1 e
From Problem 8.32, GWP =

FCO2 R CO (t )dt
2

a. The 20-year GWP would be

20
42 1 e 42
GWP20 = 1630
= 1965
13.2

b. The 100-year GWP would be

100
42 1 e 42
GWP100 = 1630
= 1440
43.1

c. The 500 year GWP would be

GWP500 = 1630

42 1 e

500 42

138

)= 495

8.34 Applying GWPs from Table 8.7 to the emission rates given:

Pg. 8.16

8.35

Using 100-year GWPs from Table 8.7 with emission rates of 6,000 million metric tons
(Mt) of CO2, 26.6 MtCH4, and 1.2 Mt N2O. gives
6000 x 1(CO2) + 26.6 x 23(CH4) + 1.2 x 296(N2O) = 6967 MtCO2 = 6.967 GtCO2-eq
Adjusting for the ratio of C to CO2 gives
6.967 GtCO2 x (12gC/44gCO2) = 1.9 GtC-eq/yr

8.36

The actual Trealized is estimated to be 0.6oC, which is 75% of the equilibrium T

Trealized = 0.6oC = 0.75 Tequilibrium
so,

Tequilibrium = 0.6/0.75 = 0.8oC

but,

Tequilibrium = Factual = 0.57 x Factual = 0.8

that is, Factual = =

0.8
2
= 1.40W / m
0.57

The direct forcing is 2.45 W/m2, so aerosols etc. are 2.45 - 1.40 = 1.05 W/m2
8.37

Repeating Example 8.12 with the 100-yr GWP for CH4 = 23. With 1.5 MJ of
leakage, 15.3 gC/MJ we get
1.5 MJ x 15.3 gC/MJ x

16 gCH 4 23 gCO 2
x
= 703 gCO 2 eq
12 gC
1 gCH 4

The actual CO2 emissions remain the same at 5525 gCO2

So, with 83.73 MJ of heat to the water, total CO2-eq emissions per MJ gives
703 gCO 2 - eq + 5525 gCO 2
= 74.4 gCO 2 eq /MJ
83.73 MJ heat to water

8.38

Using Table 8.3 for the LHV carbon intensity of coal (25.8 gC/MJ), (3.18) to find
, and (3.20) to find tm, then plotting (3.17) gives for (a):

Q = 200,000 EJ x

25.8 gC 1 GtC 1012 MJ

x 15 x
= 5160 GtC
MJ
10 gC
EJ

Q
5160 GtC
=
= 93.57 yr
Pm 2 22 GtC/yr 2

Pg. 8.17

t m = 2ln

Pm
22 GtC/yr
= 93.57 yr 2 ln
= 150.8 yr
6.0 GtC/yr
P0

1 t t 2
m
then put these into P = Pm exp

2
Putting this into a spreadsheet so it can be plotted yields

8.39

With a carbon tax of $20/mt of C (as CO2):

a. Assuming a capacity factor of 100% (plant operates all of the time):

C emissions =

50 MW 1 MJ/s 3600 s 8760 hr 24 gC 1 mtC

x
x
x
x
x 6
= 1.08x105 mtonC/yr
MW
hr
MJ 10 gC
0.35
yr

Pg. 8.18

Carbon tax = 1.08 x10 5 mtC/yr x

$20
= $2.16 million/yr
mton

b. With carbon sequestering:

Area =

1.08x10 5 mtonC/yr 10 3 kg
x
= 21,600 acres
5000 kgC/yr acre mton

c. Biomass instead of paying the tax:

Forestry could cost =

8.40

$2.16 million/yr
= $100 /yr per acre
21,600 acres

Landfill leaking 10 tonnes (1 tonne = 1 mt = 1000 kg) CH4 per year

a. 20-year GWP for methane = 62 (Table 8.7)
10 tonnes CH4 /yr x 62 = 620 tonnes/yr
b. Burning the methane
CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O
1molCO 2 (12 + 2x12)gCO 2 /mol 10tonneCH 4
x
x
= 27.5tonneCO 2 /yr
1molCH 4 (12 + 4x1)gCH 4 /mol
yr
c. Equivalent CO2 savings = 620 27.5 = 592.5 tonne CO2/yr.
as C : 592.5 tonne CO 2 /yr x

12tonneC
= 161.5 tonneC/yr saved
44tonneCO 2

d. Carbon tax saved = 161.5 tonne C/yr x $20/tonneC = $3232/yr saved

e. Same thing, 592.5 tonne CO2/yr x $5.45/tonneCO2 = $3229/yr saved
8.41

Gasoline C7H15 and 6.15 lbs/gal, fully combusted,

a. Gasoline =

C=

6.15 lbgas
(7x12 = 84) lbsC = 5.22 lbs C/gal
x
gal
(7x12 + 15x1 = 99) lb gas

40,000 miles 5.22 lbsC

x
= 17,394 lbsC that will be released
12 miles/gal
gal

b. 4000 lb car, 10,000 miles/yr

Pg. 8.19

C=

17,394 lbs C 10,000 miles

x
= 4348 lbsC/yr
40,000 miles
yr

4348 lbsC/yr
Carbon/yr
=
= 1.09
Vehicle weight
4000 lbs
the car emits slightly more carbon per year than it weighs!

c. Carbon tax =

5.22 lbsC
$15
x
= $0.039/gal = 3.9/gal
gal
2000 lbsC

d. New car at 40 mpg, for 40,000 miles:

Carbon reduction =17,394 lbsC -

40,000 mi 5.22 lbsC

x
= 12,174 lbs C saved
40 mi/gal
gal

e. Trading in the clunker for the 40 mpg car would save in carbon taxes
Tax savings = 12,174 lbsC x

$15
= $91/car
2000 lbs C

That is, those C offsets would save the utility $91, which they could spend to get
the clunker off the road.
8.42

Electric versus gasoline-powered cars:

a.

Gas car emissions=

5.22 lbsC/gal 1000g

x
= 59.3 gC/mi
40 miles/gal 2.2lbs

b. With the very efficient natural-gas fired power plant:

N - gas plant emissions =

8000kJ 13.8gC MJ kWh

x
x 3 x
= 22.1 gC/mi
kWh
MJ
10 kJ 5mi

c. With the typical coal plant:

Coal plant heat rate =

l kW in
1 kJ/s
3600 s
x
x
= 12,000 kJ/kWhe
0.30 kWe out kW heat in
hr

Coal plant emissions =

12,000kJ 24 gC MJ kWh
x
x
x
= 57.6 gC/mi
kWh
MJ 10 3 kJ 5mi

So, more than half of the carbon can be saved with electric cars when efficient
natural gas power plants are assumed. There is even a slight advantage with an
old, inefficient coal plant.
8.43

NO2 + hv NO + O
From (8.48): E (J/photon) =

306,000
= 5.08x1019 J/photon
23
6.02x10

Pg. 8.20

and from (8.46): max

8.44

hc 6.626 x1034 Js x 2.998x108 m/s

=
=
= 390x109 = 390 nm
19
E
5.08x10 J

O2 + hv O + O (oops same as Example 8.13):

E (J/photon) =

max =

495,000
= 8.22x1019 J/photon
23
6.02x10

hc 6.626 x1034 Js x 2.998x108 m/s

=
= 241.6x109 = 241.6 nm
E
8.22x1019 J

Meant to do photodissociation of ozone, requiring 104.6 kJ/mol:

O3 + hv O2 + O
E (J/photon) =

max =

104,600
= 1.737x1019 J/photon
6.02x10 23

hc 6.626 x1034 Js x 2.998x108 m/s

=
= 1.14x106 m = 1.14 m
19
E
1.737x10 J

Pg. 8.21