Energy 36 (2011) 760e769

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Energy
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Theoretical performance limits of a syngasediesel fueled compression ignition engine from second law analysis
Bibhuti B. Sahoo a, Ujjwal K. Saha b, *, Niranjan Sahoo b
a b

Centre for Energy, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Assam, India Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, India

a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history: Received 16 July 2010 Received in revised form 17 December 2010 Accepted 17 December 2010 Available online 26 January 2011 Keywords: Availability Dual fuel Exergy Syngas Load

a b s t r a c t
The present study is an attempt to investigate a syngasediesel dual fueled diesel engine operation under varying load conditions from the second law point of view. The fuel type in dual fuel operation is achieved by varying the volumetric fractions of hydrogen (H2) and carbon monoxide (CO) content in syngas. It is revealed that increasing the hydrogen quantity of syngas increases the cumulative work availability and reduces the destroyed availability. This enhancement is due to a better combustion process and increased work output when a high amount of H2 quantity is employed. At lower loads, the in-cylinder combustion temperatures are reduced in case of the dual fuel combustion. Hence, the destruction availability is increased due to poor combustion and reduced heat transfer availability losses. When the engine is operated beyond 40% load, the destroyed availability reduced due to higher combustion temperature and pressure. The increase in the both exhaust gas and cooling water availabilities are reected in an increase in second law efciency with increasing load. The dual fuel cumulative work availability is increased at higher loads and thus, the exergy efciency is increased. 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The use of new, alternative, and clean-burning fuels as primary energy resources in internal combustion (IC) engines is a global interest now-a-days to achieve lower pollutant emissions and higher fuel economy. Towards this, the compression ignition (CI) engine of the dual fuel type has been employed to utilize various alternative gaseous fuel resources in place of conventional diesel engines [1]. In a CI dual fuel diesel engine operation, the gaseous fuel is mixed with air in the inlet manifold. The high octane index gas and air mixture is sucked and compressed like in a conventional diesel engine. However, the compressed airegas mixture does not autoignite due to lack of good enough ignition quality of gaseous fuel. Hence, it is red by combustion of a pilot diesel fuel spray and the mixture undergoes a multi-point ignition inside the cylinder [2]. The most common gaseous fuels used in a CI dual fuel diesel engine are: natural gas (NG), liqueed petroleum gas (LPG), hydrogen (H2), biogas, landll gas, sewage gas, digester gas and syngas etc. Among these fuels, syngas is ideally a mixture of two diatomic molecules H2 and carbon monoxide (CO) produced by gasifying a solid fuel feedstock (such as coal or biomass). Over the

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 91 361 2582663; fax: 91 361 2690762. E-mail address: saha@iitg.ernet.in (U.K. Saha). 0360-5442/$ e see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2010.12.045

years, depending on how it is formed, the gaseous mixture of CO and H2 has had many names such as producer gas, town gas, water gas, synthesis gas, and syngas etc. to name a few. In principle, syngas can be produced from any hydrocarbon feedstock such as NG, naphtha, residual oil, petroleum coke, coal and biomass [3]. Mixtures of H2 and CO could serve as an alternative spark ignition (SI) fuel due to their high anti-knock behavior [4,5]. However, the addition of H2 to CO tends to increase combustion temperature which increases nitric oxide (NO) emissions under stoichiometric SI combustion [6]. Hence, the use of H2 and CO mixtures is more appropriate in lean burn conditions where combustion temperatures are moderated by excess air like in a CI diesel engine. Also, these mixtures could serve in dual fuel mode that operates under CI using a pilot injection of diesel fuel [7]. Again, in their published work, Garnier et al. [8] have suggested the use of syngas in diesel engines with dual fuel mode for mechanical and electrical applications. To apply syngas as a regular fuel, it is crucial to assess its effect on a dual fuel engine, and its performance with that of a traditional diesel engine from the second law viewpoint. Whether it is an IC engine or not, the application of traditional rst law theory to a thermodynamic system fails to give the best insight into the engines operation [9e11]. Therefore, the second law analysis should be coupled to the rst law one. The second law analysis provides the knowledge of when and where the available energy is lost or destroyed in the engine system. Evaluation of

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Nomenclature

Abbreviations A availability, kW A/F mass airefuel ratio BHP brake horse power, hp BTDC bottom dead centre CA crank angle cc cubic centimeter, cm3 LHV lower heating value, kJ/kg Notations specic heat, kJ/kg-K Cp _ m mass ow rate, kg/h ambient pressure, bar P0 exhaust gas pressure out from engine, bar Pego exhaust gas constant, kJ/kg-K Reg

T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 Symbols d pd g eg w cw in i o

ambient temperature, K cooling water inlet temperature, K cooling water outlet temperature, K calorimeter water inlet temperature, K calorimeter water outlet temperature, K calorimeter exhaust gas inlet temperature, K calorimeter exhaust gas outlet temperature, K

diesel pilot diesel gas exhaust gas water cooling water input in out

available energy determines the maximum possible performance of a thermodynamic system [12]. In addition, impact of process change in the system in terms of system losses is also assessed. These ndings help in reducing the availability loss to improve the performance of the engine in terms of efciency and power output [13]. In an IC engine operation, availability analysis reveals the engine processes and subsystems where the capability of working medium to produce useful mechanical work is: (a) destroyed due to thermodynamic irreversibilities, such as combustion, heat transfer, mixing, throttling, friction, etc., and (b) lost due to undesirable availability (exergy) transfers, such as heat transfer to the cylinder walls and loss of thermal energy to the exhaust [14]. These system losses data are used to develop an explanation of why engine performance is changed by the variation of design and operating parameters like speed, load and type of fuel etc. Availability analysis from the second law application is not a new technique [15]. This type of analysis has used for many years for evaluating stationary systems [16,17] and automotive engines [10,18e23]. Alkidas [24] presented availability balance equations for a diesel engine on an overall basis. Various Cummins Engine Company researchers [10,19,25,26] presented a quantication of engine irreversibility. They reported the throttling and thermal mixing losses along with the well established combustion irreversibility. In contrast, Van Gerpen and Shapiro [11] performed a detailed theoretical analysis for the closed part of the cycle bringing in focus the controversial term of chemical availability. The chemical availability is shown to be signicant and necessary to obtain an accurate estimate of the irreversibility. A different type of study, the combined energy and exergy analysis can be used to determine an optimum engine condition. In this context, the energy efciency found maximum at a speed of 2040 rpm whereas maximum exergy efciency found at a speed of 2580 rpm for a SI engine operation [22]. In another study, Sahoo et al. [23] selected the optimum engine speed of a diesel engine for a given throttle opening position under a single loading condition using second law analysis. A thermodynamic cycle simulation was used to obtain the availability characteristics as functions of speed and load for a SI engine [27]. The availability destroyed (as a percentage of the fuel availability) by the combustion process resulted in the range between 5 and 25%. This fraction found lowest for the highest speed and load. The author also investigated the effects of compression ratio (CR) and expansion ratio (ER) on second law parameters for a SI engine [28,29]. This study examined the cases of part load and wide open throttle condition at different CRs and ERs. In another paper,

Chavannavar and Caton [30] studied parametrically the destruction of availability at constant pressure, constant volume, and constant temperature combustion processes for isooctane vapor and air mixtures. The results of this work showed that the availability destruction decreased with increasing reactant temperatures. The effect of the reactants mixture pressure on availability destruction showed less pronounced. Recently, Rakopoulos and co-workers are carrying out their signicant effort on availability analysis research in IC engines using of various alternative fuels including syngas. Rakopoulos and Kyritsis [31] developed a method for computing both combustion irreversibility and working medium availability in a diesel engine cylinder. They calculated analytically combustion irreversibility as a function of fuel reaction rate using the second law analysis and a chemical equilibrium hypothesis. The fuels methane and methanol showed better competence as compared with dodecane fuel. The same authors [32] studied the availability balance computationally using a zero-dimensional model during combustion of hydrogenenriched natural and landll gases in engine cylinders. From the second law point of view, hydrogen combustion showed qualitatively different from the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels. Rakopoulos and Michos [33] developed a multi-zone combustion model for prediction of SI engine performance and NO emissions. They also presented an availability analysis of the same engine with varying load by using syngas as fuel [34]. The computed NO emissions from the multi-zone model for various engine loads found to be in good agreement with the respective experimental ones. 1.1. Availability concept The concept of availability (also called exergy) is introduced by the second law of thermodynamics. The availability of a thermodynamic system is dened as the maximum useful mechanical work that can be produced when the system is brought to thermal, mechanical and chemical equilibrium with its environment through reversible processes. It is an extensive property of the system and depends on both the state of the system and on the properties of the environment. The state of the environment is referred to as the dead state, dened by the environmental temperature, pressure and composition. In availability analyses of thermal systems, it is customary to divide the availability content of a system into two parts [9]: i. The thermo-mechanical availability: It refers to the maximum useful mechanical work extractable as the system comes into

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thermal and mechanical equilibrium with the surrounding atmosphere. The mass of the system is not permitted to pass or chemically react with the environment. The thermal and mechanical equilibrium are achieved when both the temperature and pressure of the system are equal to that of the environment. This specic state of the system is called the restricted dead state. ii. The chemical availability: One part of the chemical availability of a system concerns only the systems species that are also present in the environment, known as diffusion availability. Whereas, the other part, called reactive availability, concerns the amount of work developed by allowing species of the system to chemically react with substances of the environment in order to form also environmental species [30]. The system achieves the chemical equilibrium when any of its components unable to interact in any way with those of the environment in order to produce work.

1.2. Research objectives The rst and second law analysis should be coupled together in order to complete the theoretical treatment of an IC engine operation. In this way, the analysis provides both general performance calculations with the details of the overall thermodynamics of engine operation. The present work will apply the thermomechanical availability analysis to a four-stroke, direct injection (DI) and constant speed CI diesel engine operation using syngas as fuel under a dual fuel mode. In this work, the effects of various combinations of H2/CO volumetric ratio rich syngas on the dual fuel engine performance are examined from the second law perspective. Finally, the outcomes of dual fuel mode are compared to that of diesel mode. Specically, the effects of fuel type on all existing availability terms: brake power output, coolant heat transfer, exhaust losses, exergy efciency, airefuel ratio, and irreversibility, are explored by both rst and second law of thermodynamics. 2. Experimental investigation 2.1. Test engine and measuring devices The rst law and second law analyses are applied to a Kirloskar TV1 Make diesel engine fueled with diesel and variable H2/CO volumetric composition syngas. It is a single-cylinder, constant speed, water-cooled, four-stroke, and DI diesel engine. The main engine specications are: bore 87.5 mm, stroke 110 mm, compression ratio 17.5, displacement volume 661 cc and maximum power (with diesel fuel) 5.2 kW (7 BHP) at 1500 rpm. The engine load is varied with an eddy current type dynamometer. The engine features with a conventional fuel injection system with the static diesel fuel injection timing of 23 BTDC. The injection nozzle features three holes of 0.3 mm diameter with a 120 spray angle. The engine is provided with a hemispherical combustion chamber. Engine cooling is accomplished by circulating water through the jackets of the engine block and the cylinder head. A piezoelectric pressure transducer is mounted in ush with the cylinder head surface to measure the cylinder pressure. The liquid fuel is supplied to the engine injection pump from fuel tank under gravity feed. The air ow into the engine is monitored by passing the intake air through an air box with orice meter and manometer. Two individual ow meters are also inbuilt with the engine data acquisition system to control the water ow through the engine and calorimeter to cool them. For combustion diagnostics, the in-cylinder pressure is measured using a piezo sensor (PCB Make) mounted on the engine cylinder. The

crank angle (CA) measurement is sensed by an optical sensor and the data are acquired on a Personal Computer (PC). The various temperatures are measured using K-type thermocouples tted on respective positions. For performance analysis purpose the engine is facilitated with Enginesoft software. A few additional components such as gas mixer, ow meter, non-return valve, pressure regulator and gas carburetor etc. are incorporated into the original diesel engine setup for executing the dual fuel operation. The schematic of dual fuel engine is shown in Fig. 1. A two-stage pressure relief valve reduces the high pressure of individual gases (H2 and CO) supply from the storage cylinder to gas mixer through non-return valves and ow meters. The gas mixer blends a mixture of individual gas components H2 (99.99% purity) and CO (99.95% purity) to prepare simulated syngas. In order to achieve a better mixing of H2 and CO, the turbulence is generated by feeding individual gas at an angle into the gas mixer. The pressure of syngas ow inside the gas mixer is reduced by providing wire mesh in the path of gas ow. A gas carburetor is fastened in between engine intake manifold and air suction side. The inlet pressure of syngas into the carburetor from the gas mixer is kept at atmospheric condition as that of air through a single stage pressure regulator. The simulated syngas is supplied through an oblique protruding designed gas nozzle with an angle of 30 to the horizontal axis of carburetor. This ensures a homogeneous airesyngas mixture because the required venturi of the carburetor is created by this design approach. 2.2. Fuel type In this study, both liquid and gaseous fuels were served as dual fuel in a diesel engine, namely, standard diesel as liquid and simulated syngas as fuel-gas. The diesel oil was used as the pilot fuel in dual fuel operation. While the primary fuel, syngas, was simulated by mixing two pure gases, namely, H2 and CO in the gas mixer. The fuel-gas quality is determined by the H2 and CO content, expressed in percentage (%) by volume. Table 1 summarizes important properties of fuels utilized in the experiments. The lower heating value (LHV) of syngas was calculated theoretically from the each elementary gas LHV. In this experimental work, a total of four different types of syngas fuels were tested in dual fuel mode. The volumetric fraction of H2 content in fuel-gas was varied to 100, 75, 50 and 0% of the total H2 and CO contained syngas. Hence, the balance was the CO content in the syngas fuel. 2.3. Engine test procedure In order to establish the basis for comparison of dual fuel estimated results, a baseline test with 100% diesel fuel was also conducted. To ensure the consistency of the observations, engine tests were conducted as per experimental design as given in Table 2. The engine was operated at different load levels ranges from a minimum of 20% load to a maximum of 100% load with an interval of 20% for both diesel and dual fuel mode. The complete experimental matrix was repeated for at least three times to record average experimental data for analysis purpose. The engine was tested for baseline results followed by dual fuel experiments. The baseline experiment was carried out with the engine operating on diesel fuel only. Engine operation was started with diesel fuel and run for few minutes at 1500 rpm under no-load condition to warm up and reach stable operating conditions. The water ow was adjusted to 250 and 70 l/h for the engine cooling and calorimeter respectively according to the engine supplier instructions. Then, as per experimental design a load level was set for engine operation. Once the engine reached the steady-state condition, air and fuel ow rates along with the various temperature readings were

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Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the dual fuel engine setup.

recorded and inserted manually to the computer software program. The data were converted into engineering units and, are updated and displayed on a monitor at every second. Now, for dual fuel operation, the H2 and CO gases were supplied from respective high pressure cylinder to an outlet pressure of 1e2 bar using two-stage pressure relief valves. The simulated syngas was specied as per its H2 and CO volumetric composition, for an example H2:CO ratio of is 1:1 for H2:COT50:50 syngas. The proportion of H2 and CO in syngas was controlled throughout the dual fuel operation by adjusting the individual gas ow rate. The required ow rates of H2, CO and syngas, were achieved by manual adjustment of the control valves, and were measured separately using calibrated ow meters. For stable operating conditions, at a set engine load, the syngas fuel valve was opened slowly and allowed the fuel-gas to enter from mixer to gas carburetor. The homogeneous airegas mixture from carburetor was then sucked into the cylinder to take part in the dual fuel combustion. The syngas ow was increased till engine shows signs of knock. This decided the maximum gas ow for the dual fuel operation. During the process, engine speed increased due to added extra chemical energy from gaseous fuel. To maintain the constant engine operating speed of 1500 50 rpm and also, same power output as of diesel mode, supply of diesel to the engine was reduced by adjusting diesel cut-off valve. Finally, the cut-off valve was locked manually at the rated engine speed. Now, for a steady-state operation, again the same input manual parameters, as described for baseline tests, were inserted into the computer software program for the dual fuel results. Once all the necessary test readings were sorted out, the normal diesel oil operation of the engine was restored by shutting syngas ow and adjusting diesel
Table 1 Physical and chemical fuel properties. Properties Chemical composition Density (kg/m3) Caloric value (MJ/kg) Cetane number Stoichiometric A/F ratio Energy density (MJ/Nm3) Diesel C12H26 850 42 45e55 14.92 2.82 Syngas 100% H2 0% CO 0.085 119.81 e 34.3 2.87

cut-off valve to original position. The engine is now in a position for a change in engine loading or use of different type of syngas fuel for another set of experimental results starting from baseline readings. This above experimental measurement procedure was repeated as per the experimental design. At the end of whole experimental design, syngas ow rate was ceased completely and the engine was made to run at a steady-state condition using only diesel at no-load condition before shut down. 3. Thermodynamic analysis Initially, the rst law analysis is presented for both the diesel and dual fuel modes. This analysis is shown in order to assist the comprehension of the second law analysis to follow. 3.1. First law analysis The energy input (Qin) in any IC engine is contained in its fuel. This amount of input energy is then converted into other forms [20,35]. In an engine, the input chemical energy of fuel is usually converted to the following forms [23]: (a) (b) (c) (d) Useful work output or shaft energy (Pshaft); Energy transferred to cooling water (Qcw); Energy transferred to the exhaust gases (Qeg); and, Uncounted losses (Quncounted) due to friction, radiation, heat transfer to surroundings, operating auxiliary equipment, etc.

The amount of each of these energies stated above evaluated on the basis of the rst law of thermodynamics is now described. The

75% H2 25% CO 0.38 23.09 e 8.075 2.38

50% H2 50% CO 0.67 14.81 e 4.58 2.70

0% H2 100% CO 1.9 10.112 e 2.45 3.79

764 Table 2 Experimental design for data collection. Mode of operation Diesel fuel Fuel 100% Standard diesel Primary: syngas (H2:COT100:0) Pilot: diesel Primary: syngas (H2:COT75:25) Pilot: diesel Primary: syngas (H2:COT50:50) Pilot: diesel Primary: syngas (H2:COT0:100) Pilot: diesel Designation of operation Baseline test Engine operation

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Dual fuel

Dual fuel 1

Speed: 1500 50 rpm Load: 20, 40, 60, 80, 100% Injection timing: 23 BTDC - do -

Dual fuel

Dual fuel 2

- do -

Dual fuel

Dual fuel 3

- do -

Dual fuel

Dual fuel 4

- do Fig. 3. Availability distribution with varying fuel input as a function of load (dual fuel 1).

3.2. Second law analysis input energy (Qin) to the diesel engine is the amount of fuel energy content in the supplied fuel and it is given by, For a diesel mode, The second law analysis indicates various forms of energy that have different levels of ability to do useful mechanical work. This ability to perform useful mechanical work is dened as availability [35]. In an IC engine, the availability input (Ain) which contained in its chemical availability of fuel is converted into other exergy forms [20]. In an engine, the input availability in fuel energy is converted to the following forms [23]: i. ii. iii. iv. Useful work output or shaft availability (Ashaft); Availability transferred to cooling water (Acw); Availability transferred to the exhaust gases (Aeg); Uncounted availability destructions (Adestroyed) due to friction, radiation, heat transfer to surroundings, operating auxiliary equipment, etc.

Qin

_ d =3600 LHVd ; kW m

(1)

For a dual fuel mode,

Qin

h

i  _ g =3600 LHVg ; kW _ pd =3600 LHVpd m m

(2)

The energy converted to shaft output,

Pshaft Brake power output; kW

by,

(3)

The heat loss from the engine block to the cooling water is given

Qcw

_ w =3600 Cpw T2 T1 ; kW m _ eg =3600 Cpeg T5 T6 ; kW m

(4)

The energy wasted in form of exhaust gas losses is evaluated by,

Qeg

(5)

The amount of each of these availability transfers evaluated on the basis of the second law of thermodynamics is now explained. Chemical availability of fuel or input availability, For diesel mode [10],

The physical property of the exhaust gas (Cpeg) is determined from the energy balance of exhaust gas calorimeter. The variation of Cpeg with exhaust gas temperature is considered here for the more accurate analysis. The amount of the uncounted losses is determined by performing an energy balance and is given by,

_ d =3600 LHVd ; kW Ain 1:0338 m

For dual fuel mode,

(7)

i h Ain Apd Ag ; kW

(8)

Quncounted

i h  Qin Pshaft Qcw Qeg ; kW

(6)

_ pd =3600 LHVd ; kW, Ag 0:985 where, Apd 1:0338 m _ g =3600 LHVg ; kW (for the only H2 content gaseous fuels m _ g =3600 HHVg ; kW (for the comp[36]); and, Ag 0:95 m licated structure gaseous fuels [37])

Fig. 2. Availability distribution with varying fuel input as a function of load (diesel fuel).

Fig. 4. Availability distribution with varying fuel input as a function of load (dual fuel 2).

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Fig. 5. Availability distribution with varying fuel input as a function of load (dual fuel 3).

Fig. 7. Availability input distribution at different engine load.

The availability associated with the shaft work,

4. Results and discussion

Ashaft Brake power output; kW

The availability associated with the cooling water,

(9)

Acw Qcw

_ w =3600 Cpw T0 lnT2 =T1 ; kW m

(10)

The availability associated with the exhaust gas is given by,

Aeg Qeg Reg

_ eg =3600 T0 Cpeg lnfT0 =T5 g m ln P0 =Pego ; kW

(11)

Considering the complete combustion of fuel, rst, the molecular weight (MW) (kg/kmol) of products of combustion is calculated. Then, the specic gas constant of the exhaust gas (Reg) is determined from the thermodynamic relation, Reg Ru/MW, (kJ/ kg-K), where, Ru is the Universal gas constant (8.314 kJ/kmol-K). The uncounted availability destruction is determined from the availability balance as,

i h  Adestroyed Ain Ashaft Acw Aeg ; kW

(12)

The exergy efciency (hII) is the ratio of total availability recovered from the system to the total availability input into the system. The recovered availability includes Ashaft, Aeg and Acw.

hII Availability recovered=Availability input

  1 Adestroyed =Ain (13)

A detailed presentation of the syngasediesel dual fuel performance compared with diesel mode has been provided in Ref. [38,39]. The experimental observation data are retrieved here for the second law analysis purpose. The availability balance for each one of the ve fuel types used during both the diesel and dual fuel operations as a function of engine load are presented in Figs. 2e6. This is a balance between the various terms of the second law analysis described by Eqs. (7)e(13), namely, fuel availability input, work availability, availability exchange through cooling water and exhaust gas, availability destroyed, and exergy efciency. During the engine operation, as load increases, the richer fueleair mixture increases combustion temperature. Therefore, increased work availability and reduced heat transfer availability losses are obtained, as percentages of the fuel chemical availability. For this, an increase in the exergy efciency is resulted at higher loads for all the tested fuels. Specically, the dual fuel operations are favored thermodynamically at higher loads since their exergy efciencies improve signicantly as compared to low load conditions. Because of the improved combustion syngas at higher loads, (mainly) the exhaust gas availability and cooling availability (although of small quantity) are increased. In addition, the shaft availability of the fuels is increased for an increased load. Therefore, when load is increased, the added cumulative availabilities increased the exergy efciency. However, this efciency is decreased slightly after the 80% load due to the poor combustion of fuels where the oxygen availability diminished. On the contrary to exergy efciency trend,

Fig. 6. Availability distribution with varying fuel input as a function of load (dual fuel 4).

Fig. 8. Shaft availability distribution at different engine load.

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Fig. 9. Cooling water availability distribution at different engine load.

Fig. 11. Destroyed availability distribution at different engine load.

after the 80% load, the destroyed availability is increased due to the raised heat transfer from the engine. Fig. 7 depicts the availability distribution on the basis of kW of available energy input to the diesel and dual fuel operations. When load is raised to maintain a higher power output at higher loads, the supply of fuel chemical energy in to the engine cylinder is increased. In the process, at higher engine loads, the shaft availability is calculated against the amount fuel exergy input. The quantity of fuel exergy input for the engine operation at a given load mostly depends on the energy content of the fuel type and effective combustion of the fueleair mixture. Although some tested gaseous fuels seem to have higher energy content than diesel fuel, however, at lower loads of 20e40%, all the tested dual fuel operations required higher fuel exergy input as compared to diesel mode. This is because of their poor combustion characteristics in the low temperature environment. As the load was increased, the differences in fuel exergy input reduced under dual fuel modes as opposed to diesel mode for their improved combustion. Again, at high temperature zone of 100% load, the chemical energy requirement increased for the dual fuel operations due to the diminishing of oxygen availability needed for the complete combustion. Figs. 8e11 present the diesel and dual fuel mode comparison of shaft, cooling water, exhaust gas and destroyed availability with load with respect to their respective fuel chemical availability. As discussed earlier, the shaft work produced at different loads of both diesel and dual fuel modes are same. But the shaft availability as a % fuel input for the fuels is different due to the difference in fuels

input chemical availability as shown in Fig. 7. At low loads (20% and 40%), the shaft availability of dual fuel mode is very poor as compared to diesel mode. However, this value improved as the load is increased. Generally, increase in the load results the enhancement of the combustion process, increasing the combustion temperatures and the peak cylinder pressure and reducing the combustion duration. The maximum shaft availability recorded at maximum thermal efciency point (Fig. 12) of 80% load and thereafter, it reduced slightly up to 100% load. The shaft availability is found highest in case of diesel mode than all the tested dual fuel modes at all ranges of load. For diesel mode, at 80% load, the shaft availability is found as 20.2%. Whereas, at same loading, this value is gured as 19.8, 17.5, 15.8 and 15.6% for the 100, 75, 50 and 0% H2 syngas dual fuel modes respectively (Fig. 8). The cooling availability of dual fuel operations is very little due to the intensive cylinder wall loss (Fig. 9). Only a maximum of about 1% fuel input cooling availability is accessible from dual fuel operations as compared to about 2e3% to that of diesel mode. This is because, in comparison to the much higher chemical energy input during dual fuel operations to that of diesel mode, the level of increase in engine cooling water temperature of dual fuel modes are less than that of diesel mode. The dual fuel operations of syngas fuels produced about 100  C higher exhaust gas temperatures as compared to diesel mode at all ranges of load (Fig. 13). This is due to the late and inadequate combustion time of gaseous fuels under dual fuel mode [38,39]. This leads to higher exhaust gas availability for the dual fuel modes (Fig. 10). The 100% H2 syngas dual fuel mode produced maximum exhaust gas availability as this operation recorded maximum temperature in its exhaust. The maximum exhaust gas availability

Fig. 10. Exhaust gas availability distribution at different engine load.

Fig. 12. Variation of brake thermal efciency with engine load.

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Fig. 15. Effect of engine load on total raised work availability. Fig. 13. Variation of exhaust gas temperature with engine load.

is found as 17.2% for 100% H2 syngas at 80% load as compared to that of 14.2% for diesel mode. Whereas, for 75 and 50% H2 syngas fuels the maximum of this value is found as 14.3 and 10.6% for respectively at same load condition. However, the maximum exhaust gas availability for 100% CO syngas mode is observed as 9.8% but at 100% load. This is due to the better combustion of CO gas at higher temperature zone. Due to these huge availability losses through exhaust gas, the efciencies of dual fuel operations are lower than that of diesel mode. Therefore, it can be concluded that the exhaust gas available energy loss must be reduced to improve dual fuel engine performance. The amount of destroyed availability (as a percentage of fuel input) is decreased with increasing load. This is due to the fact that, as load increases, greater values of fueleair equivalence ratio cause greater temperatures inside the cylinder and it results better combustion of gaseous fuels. At low loads of 20% and 40%, poor combustion of syngas fuels causes less cooling water and exhaust gas availabilities i.e., higher destroyed availability (Fig. 11). The destroyed availability was found minimum at the maximum efciency condition of 80% engine load. Diesel mode showed the minimum destroyed availability loss (61.8%) among all the tested fuel modes. While at the same loading condition, the minimum of this value was found to be 62, 67.4, 72.3 and 74.8% for the 100, 75, 50 and 0% H2 content syngas operations respectively. The availability balance is affected by the content of the syngas fuel as shown in Fig. 14. The percentage of fuel availability that destroyed is reduced with the increase in H2 content in syngas. These results are in agreement with the results of H2/NG blends reached in Ref. [31]. This decrease with increasing H2 content is due to the entropy generation [40] and more specically, for better airefuel mixture combustion [31,32]. For the 100% H2 syngas mode, the destroyed availability is noticed least as compared to other

syngas fuels. Contrary to the trend of destroyed availability, the second law efciency increased with increasing H2 content. This is a combined effect of reduction of combustion irreversibility and increase in the maximum temperature of the cycle, which caused efciency gains during the operation. Fig. 15 shows the shaft availability (kW) as a function of load, along with the increase in work availability from both the exhaust gas and cooling water for all the tested fuel types. The availability results showed that, as the load increased, the dual fuel operations generated more increase in the cumulative exhaust gas and cooling water availabilities. This allowed the more of the availability accessible for conversion to work availability. The drawback of dual fuel operations due to its poor efciency can be resolved by accessing about 1.5e4 kW of work availability losses through an effective exhaust gas heat recovery system. The increase in the gross work output availability increased the corresponding exergy efciency (Fig.16). At 80% load, the second law efciency is observed highest in case of diesel mode and recorded a maximum of 38.2%. While at same loading condition, when the volumetric fraction of H2 in syngas increased from 0% to 50, 75 and 100%, the maximum second law efciency enhanced from 25.2% to 27.2, 33.6 and 38%, respectively accompanied by a simultaneous reduction in the destroyed availability. For higher H2 content syngas, the energy input into the cylinder increased, and as a consequence, the corresponding cumulative work availability also increased. Moreover, increase in the H2 content in syngas resulted an improvement of the combustion process from the second law viewpoint. Therefore, at higher loads, it can be seen that 75% and 100% syngas combustion give comparative exergy efciency as compared to that of diesel mode. This demonstrates that dual fuel engine operations cannot be ignored on the basis of their lower efciency in a diesel engine which was actually designed for the standard diesel fuel. Therefore, a dual

Fig. 14. Exergy efciency and destroyed availability as a function of hydrogen content.

Fig. 16. Comparison of exergy efciency as a function of engine load.

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B.B. Sahoo et al. / Energy 36 (2011) 760e769 [3] Spath PL, Dayton DC. Preliminary screening e technical and economic assessment of synthesis gas to fuels and chemicals with emphasis on the potential for biomass-derived syngas. Report no. TP-510-34929. NREL, http://www.dtic.mil/ cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA436529; 2003. [4] Shudo T, Takahashi T. Inuence of reformed gas composition on HCCI combustion engine system fueled with DME and H2eCOeCO2 which are onboard-reformed from methanol utilizing engine exhaust heat. Transactions of the Japan Society of Mechanical Engineering, Part B 2004;70 (698):2663e9. [5] Shudo T. An HCCI combustion engine system using on-board reformed gases of methanol with waste heat recovery: ignition control by hydrogen. International Journal of Vehicle Design 2006;41:206e26. [6] Li H, Karim GA. Exhaust emissions from an SI engine operating on gaseous fuel mixtures containing hydrogen. 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fuel engine must be provided with its exhaust gas heat recovery system for a better efciency gure along with other benets. 5. Error analysis The uncertainty associated with the dual fuel engine performance calculation is estimated using sequential perturbation techniques [41,42]. It includes contributions from individual uncertainties in measurement mass of diesel, syngas and air ow (1%); water ow (2%); lower heating value calculation (1%); engine speed (0.5%); engine load (0.5%); and temperature (0.5%). Based on the above values, the calculated engine performance is believed to be accurate within 3%. 6. Conclusions A second law analysis was performed on a single-cylinder, constant speed and direct injection diesel engine. The engine was tested for the diesel mode with diesel fuel and dual fuel operations with different types of syngas fuel. Availability equations were applied on varying load experimental results of both diesel and dual fuel modes. The various kinds of availability terms (i.e. shaft, cooling water, exhaust gas and destroyed availability) were compared and discussed.
B

At higher loads, the syngas dual fuel operations are advantageous from the second law perspective. With increasing load, the destroyed availability decreases due to higher combustion temperature and pressure, and therefore, the exergy efciency increases. As load increases, fuel supply into the engine cylinder increases. This added chemical energy from the fuels increases the amount of kW fuel input availability of engine. Thus, increase in load increases the shaft availability (as a percentage fuel input) of all the tested fuels. The exergy efciency of 100% H2 syngas differs by an amount below 0.5% only to that of diesel mode (38.2%) at maximum efciency point. It demonstrates that hydrogen is an effective gaseous fuel in a diesel engine under dual fuel operation. The maximum thermal efciency of 100, 75, 50 and 0% H2 content syngas dual fuel modes were found as 19.8, 18.3, 16.1 and 15.7% respectively at 80% load. However, at this best efciency loading point, the maximum exergy efciencies are found as 38, 33.6, 27.2 and 25.2% for the same syngas fuels respectively. This indicates that dual fuel operations can increase their work availability by accessing, mainly, their exhaust gas availability loss (about 8e17% of fuel input). The cooling water availability from diesel mode is determined as about 2e3% of fuel input at all ranges of load. However, this value is of maximum 1% of fuel input only for dual fuel operations due to the lower cylinder wall loss and higher exhaust gas temperature. At maximum exergy condition of 80% load, increase in the volumetric fraction of H2 in syngas from 0% to 100%, results in an increase of second law efciency about 34%. This increase is accompanied by an increase in the work availability from exhaust gas and cooling water.

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