Geochemical Surveys Geochemical surveys analyze soil samples collected from archaeological sites for subtle physical and

chemical variations. These variations can often suggest archaeological and anthropogenic activities, and complement both excavated evidence and geophysical surveys. Geochemical survey directly measures the levels of heavy metals deposited into the environment. The technique can be used to identify areas over which metalworking was occurring and can also be used to identify, map and interpret discrete features/areas. Geochemical survey works in a spatial dimension (analogous to geophysics) and on an intra- site basis, not on a landscape scale. The technique requires the removal of soil samples (c. 5g of soil) from the soil profile and subsequent analysis of the concentrations of heavy metals. Soil samples should always be taken below the topsoil. Detailed high resolution work requires small sample intervals mainly of 1m or 2m. By using small sample intervals the location and extent of features related to metalworking can be accurately mapped and defined. In addition larger sample intervals (up to 5m as a maximum) can be used to locate large scale metalworking remains such as Romano-British slagheaps. The results of the geochemical survey can also give information on the process that was occurring, for example, where copper impurities are found within an ironsmelting site. Geochemical analysis can be used as both a prospection tool and to further our understanding of excavated archaeological sites. The systematic collection of topsoil samples across a survey area can identify previously unknown features and zones suggestive of archaeological remains using phosphate and magnetic susceptibility analysis. For post-excavation research, geochemical analysis can be used to determine the possible function of a feature from individual soil samples, by identifying important diagnostic indicators which are not often appreciable to the naked eye. These include the ability to detect refuse dumping, cess-pits, metallurgical and industrial activity, cooking sites and animal husbandry.

Gravity Surveys Stateoftheart gravity meters can sense differences in the acceleration (pull) of gravity to one part in one billion. Measurements taken at the Earths surface express the acceleration of gravity of the total mass of the Earth but because of their high sensitivity the instruments can detect mass variations in the crustal geology. For example a high angle, basin and range type fault will have older consolidated rocks on one side and relatively unconsolidated valley fill sediments on the other side of the fault. Mass is volume x density, and there is a density contrast in the order of 0.5 gm/cc across the basin and range fault, therefore the gravity field will express the position of the fault, in the high gradient zone, between the mountain and the valley. The amplitude of the variation from the high to the low of the gravity gradient zone is a function of the displacement on the fault. In addition to providing insights to fault problems, gravity methodology applies to any geologic problem involving mass variations.

Electromagnetic (EM) Surveys Electromagnetic induction (EM), as the name implies, uses the principle of induction to measure the electrical conductivity of the subsurface. A primary alternating electric current of known frequency and magnitude is passed through a sending coil creating a primary magnetic field in the space surrounding the coil, including underground. The eddy currents generated in the ground in turn induce a secondary current in underground conductors which results in a alternating secondary magnetic field, that is sensed by the receiving coil. The secondary field is distinguished from the primary field by a phase lag. The ratio of the magnitudes of the primary and secondary currents is proportional to the terrain conductivity. The depth of penetration is governed by the coil separation and orientation. Unlike conventional resistivity techniques, no ground contact is required. This eliminates direct electrical coupling problems and allows much more rapid data acquisition. For shallow profiling (up to 20 feet), a Geonics, Inc. EM-31 Terrain Conductivity meter is used. One person can collect as many as 10,000 data points per day with this instrument. An EM-34 is used for depths of investigation between 30 and 180 feet. This instrument requires two people to operate, and up to 500 data points per day can be collected under good conditions. These tools are extremely

sensitive and accurate, capable of detecting variations in conductivity of as little as 3%. Data are automatically stored in an electronic data logger for later transfer to a computer. The EM-61 instrument is a high resolution, time-domain device for detecting buried conductive objects. It consists of a powerful transmitter that generates a pulsed primary magnetic field when its coils are energized, which induces eddy currents in nearby conductive objects. The decay of the eddy currents, following the input pulse, is measured by the coils, which in turn serve as receiver coils. The decay rate is measured for two coils, mounted concentrically, one above the other. By making the measurements at a relatively long time interval (measured in milliseconds) after termination of the primary pulse, the response is nearly independent of the electrical conductivity of the ground. Thus, the instrument is a super-sensitive metal detector. Due to its unique coil arrangement, the response curve is a single well defined positive peak directly over a buried conductive object. This facilitates quick and accurate location of targets. Conductive objects, to a depth of approximately 10 feet can be detected. The EM 31 uses an alternating electromagnetic field, which fills the space, below and above ground, surrounding the transmitting coil. When the electromagnetic field couples with a conductor, for example a steel pipe under the ground, AC eddy currents are induced to flow in the pipe. This generates a secondary magnetic field, which is sensed by the coplanar (12 offset) receiver coil. Due to phase lag the computer on board can discriminate between the primary and secondary fields and outputs the measurements of the secondary field (thus, a conductive zone is sensed by the induced secondary magnetic field).

Magnetics This is an efficient and effective method to survey large areas for underground iron and steel objects such as tanks and barrels. Magnetic measurement of the Earths total magnetic field and local magnetic gradients are usually made with proton precession magnetometers at points along a line which should be oriented at a high angle to the suspected trend of structures. For local surveys, the Earths ambient field may be considered uniform. Local geological and cultural magnetic materials will then express their distribution by local perturbations in the Earths field. In general, sedimentary rocks are non magnetic while igneous and metamorphic rocks are magnetic.

The Magnetometer -This instrument senses objects having magnetic properties. Basically, the method works on the premise that the world has a relatively static magnetic field, and cultural (and some natural) forces interrupt that field. Magnetometer surveys measure the irregularities in the magnetic field in a given area. The Gradiometer- This instrument has two flux gate magnetic fixed sensors that are passed closely to and over the ground. When it passes over a buried iron or steel object so that the field is significantly different at the two sensors, and locally there is a high magnetic gradient, the instrument emits a high frequency sound. The frequency is a function of the gradient between the two sensors.