PHY583 Note 2c Nuclear Models NUCLEAR MODELS

Three models have been proposed to help us understand various features of nuclear experimental data & the mechanisms responsible for binding energy. 1. Liquid-Drop Model Proposed by Weizs cher in 1935, that treats the nucleons as though they were molecules in a drop of fluid. Explain the spherical shape of most nuclei & helps predict the binding energy of the nucleus.

The nucleons interact strongly with each other & make frequent collision as they move around within the nucleus.

This motion of the nucleus is analogous to the motion of thermally agitated motion of molecules in a drop of fluid.

Major effects that influence the binding energy of nucleus in this model:

a) The volume effect. The total binding energy of nucleus A Vnucleus

Contribution to binding energy = C1A, where C1 = adjustable constant

b) The surface effect. Because nucleons on the surface of the drop have fewer neighbours than those in the interior, surface nucleons reduce the binding energy by an amount proportional to the number of surface nucleons.

No of surface nucleons

4r2; from eqn. 13.1, r2

A2/3 1

PHY583 Note 2c Nuclear Models Contribution to binding energy = C2A2/3, where C2 = constant

c) The Coulomb repulsion effect.

Each proton repels every other proton in the nucleus. However, because electrostatic repulsion will only exist for more than one proton, Z2 becomes Z(Z 1). The reduction in binding energy due to Coulomb effect = where C3 = constant

d) Excess neutrons for heavy nuclei.

Correction to binding energy =

, C4 = constant

Total binding energy for nucleus,

PHY583 Note 2c Nuclear Models ..............13.7

Eqn. 13.7 referred to as Weizs cher semiempirical binding formula, because it has some theoretical justification but has four constants adjusted to fit this expression to experimental data.

Eqn. 13.7 together with the four constants, fits the known nuclear binding energy very well. Liquid drop model also can provide a qualitative description of nuclear fission.

However, liquid-drop model does not account: Some finer details of nuclear structure, such as certain stability rules & angular momentum

Fig. 13.2 Steps leading to fission according to the liquid drop model of the nucleus.

Independent-Particle Model 3

PHY583 Note 2c Nuclear Models Independent-Particle Model (shell model) is based upon the assumption that each nucleons moves in a well-defined orbital state within the nucleus in an average field produced by other nucleons. Similar to the shell model of atoms except for the character of the force terms.

The nucleons exist in quantised energy states & few collisions between nucleons, which differ greatly from liquid drop model. The quantized states occupied by the nucleons can be described by a set of quantum numbers. Because protons & neutrons have spin-1/2, we can apply Pauli exclusion principle to describe the allowed states. i.e. each orbital state can contain only 2 protons (or two neutrons) having opposite spin (Fig. 13.13)

PHY583 Note 2c Nuclear Models

Since, nuclear energy levels exist & they fill according to Pauli exclusion principle, it is possible to explain the tendency for N to equal Z in stable, light nuclei. To achieve maximum stability for a given A, all the nucleons must be packed sequentially into the lowest energy level, leaving no gaps in filled levels. Since any energy state is filled when it contains 2 protons (or 2 neutrons), another proton (or neutron) added to the nucleus produces an increase in energy & a decrease of stability of the nucleus. It is necessary to include nuclear spin-orbit effect, in order to understand the observed characteristics of nuclear ground state, such as its angular momentum & the high stability of magic-number nuclei. The spin-orbit effect for nucleons in a nucleus is due to the nuclear force (spinorbit effect for an electron in an atom is magnetic in origin). The spin-orbit effect for nucleons in a nucleus is much stronger than in the atomic case & has opposite sign, so that in nuclei, spin-orbit split states with higher angular momentum lie lower in energy. When the nuclear spin-orbit effect is added to a spherical finite potential, the magic numbers are predicted. The spin-orbit interaction substantially raises the energy levels containing 9, 21, 29, 51, 83, & 127 nucleons, hence making the levels that contain 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126 nucleons unusually stable. 5

PHY583 Note 2c Nuclear Models The exclusion principle prevents nucleon collisions within the densely packed nucleus at low energy & justifies the shell model approach.

Collective Model Combine some features of liquid-drop model & independent particle model. The nucleus is considered to have an extra nucleons moving in quantized orbits in addition to the filled core of nucleons. The extra nucleons are subject to the field produced by the core, as in the independent-particle scheme. Deformations can be set up in the core as a result of a strong interaction between the core & the extra nucleons, thereby initiating vibrational & rotational motions, as in the liquid-drop model. The collective model has been very successful in explaining many nuclear phenomena.