Chapter 1

Conduction
(Material presented in this chapter are based on those in Chapters 2 & 3,
Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Fifth Edition by Incropera and
DeWitt)
1.1 Introduction to conduction
Transport of energy in a medium due to temperature gradient is called con-
duction. The medium can in general be solid, liquid or gas. The mechanism
that governs the conduction process is the random movement of atoms and
molecules.
1.2 Fouriers law
Conduction is governed by Fouriers law. Fouriers law provides a relationship
between the heat transfer ux and the temperature gradient, that is the
manner by which the temperature varies in the medium. Fouriers law is
developed based on the observed phenomena and not from rst principles.
Consider the system shown in Fig. (1.1) where the temperature at one
end of the control volume (say A) is T
1
and at the other end (say B) is
T
2
with T
1
T
2
. If the heat transfer rate is q
x
and the cross-sectional area
of heat transfer is A, intuition suggests that the heat transfer rate has to
be proportional to the cross-sectional area and the temperature dierence
across the control volume and inversely proportional to the length of the
9
10 CHAPTER 1. CONDUCTION
Figure 1.1: 1-D heat conduction cartoon
control volume. Hence,
q
x
A
T
x
(1.1)
As x 0 and if the proportionality constant is k, which is the thermal
conductivity in W/(m.K), then,
q
x
= kA
T
x
(1.2)
Note that the minus sign in Eq. (1.2) signies the heat ow along the negative
temperature gradient (see Fig. (1.2).
1.2.1 Heat ux
Often heat ux is required for estimating the extent of heat transfer. Heat
ux is dened as the heat transfer rate per cross-sectional area of heat trans-
fer, that is, the area in the direction normal to the heat transfer. (In general,
heat ow is typically normal to the constant temperature surface.) Heat ux
is given by
q

x
=
q
x
A
= k
T
x
(1.3)
1.2. FOURIERS LAW 11
Figure 1.2: Direction of heat transfer.
Heat ux need not necessarily be isotropic. Therefore, for heat transfer
through a 3-D cartesian co-ordinate system,
q

= kT = k
_

i
T
x
+

j
T
x
+

k
T
z
_
=

iq

x
+

jq

y
+

kq

x
(1.4)
or, in general, for any arbitrary geometry, if n is the outward normal, then
q

n
= k
T
n
(1.5)
We have so far assumed that the thermal conductivity, k is independent of
position, that, the medium is isotropic. This is not always the case. So, if
the system is anisotropic, then k
x
, k
x
, k
z
exists.
1.2.2 Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity of solids is larger than that of liquids and that of liquids
is larger than that of gases, that is,
k
solid
> k
liquid
> k
gas
(1.6)
12 CHAPTER 1. CONDUCTION
Solid state
The thermal conduction in solids consists of electronic component and lattice
component. Accordingly, the thermal conductivity can be written as
k
solid
= k
e
+k
l
(1.7)
where k
e
is the electronic component which is inversely proportional to the
electrical resistivity and k
l
is the lattice component.
In case of pure metals, k
e
k
l
and hence the lattice component is not
important. However, in case of non-metals, k
l
can be important and depends
on the lattice arrangement.
Insulating systems
Insulating systems prevent/minimize transfer of heat through is and therefore
require materials of low thermal conductivity. Several multi-phase systems
such as those with solid and air media can be used for insulation purposes.
For example, foams, akes etc. The eective thermal conductivity, k
eff
of
an insulating systems is proportional to the thermal conductivity of solid k,
radiative properties of the second phase, volume fraction.
Fluid state
Molecules more random than in solids. Thermal energy transport lesser than
in solids. Kinetic theory of gases to explain thermal conductivity dependence
on temperature, pressure and chemical species.
k
gases
n c (1.8)
where n is the number of particles/unit volume, c is the mean molecular
speed, and is the mean free path.
As the temperature increases, the k
g
increases, whereas, as molecular
weight increases, the k
g
decreases. As n P,
1
P
. Therefore k
g
is
independent of pressure.
Non-metallic liquids
k decreases with increase in T.
1.3. HEAT DIFFUSION EQUATION 13
1.2.3 Thermal diusivity
Thermal diusivity, denoted usually by is the ability of a material to con-
duct thermal energy relative to its ability to store the energy, that is,
=
k
C
p
(1.9)
1.3 Heat diusion equation
1.3.1 Cartesian coordinates
Consider the dierential element shown in Fig. (1.3) in cartesian co-ordinates.
Appropriate in and out heat transfer rates are depicted in the gure (Fig.
(1.3)).
Figure 1.3: Dierential element in cartesian coordinates for heat balance.
The energy balance for the element is
q
x
+q
y
+q
z
q
x+dx
q
y+dy
q
z+dz
+ qdxdydz = C
p
T
t
dxdydz (1.10)
where, q is the rate at which heat is generated per unit volume, is density
of the medium and C
p
is the specic heat of the material.
After algebra and substituting Fouriers law in all three dimensions, Eq.
(1.10) will take the form

x
_
k
x
T
x
_
+

y
_
k
y
T
y
_
+

z
_
k
z
T
z
_
+ q = C
p
T
t
(1.11)
14 CHAPTER 1. CONDUCTION
If we assume isotropic properties for the medium, then Eq. (1.11) reduces
to
k
_

2
T
x
2
+

2
T
y
2
+

2
T
z
2
_
+ q = C
p
T
t
(1.12)
that is,

2
T +
q
k
=
1

T
t
(1.13)
If the heat transfer is only in one direction, that is, if it is a 1-D problem
then Eq. (1.12) reduces to

2
T
x
2
+
q
k
=
1

T
t
(1.14)
1.3.2 Cylindrical coordinates
The heat ux in cylindrical coordinates is
q

r
= kT = k
_

i
T
r
+

j
1
r
T

+

k
T
z
_
(1.15)
The heat balance cylindrical coordinates similar to that in cartesian co-
ordinates (Eq. (1.12) is
_
1
r

r
_
kr
T
r
_
+
1
r
2

_
k
T

_
+

z
_
k
T
z
__
+ q = C
p
T
t
(1.16)
1.3.3 Spherical coordinates
The heat ux in spherical coordinates is
q

r
= kT = k
_

i
T
r
+

j
1
r
T

+

k
1
r sin
T
z
_
(1.17)
The heat balance spherical coordinates similar to that in cartesian coor-
dinates (Eq. (1.12) is
_
1
r
2

r
_
kr
2
T
r
_
+
1
r
2
sin
2

_
k
T

_
+
1
r
2
sin

_
k sin
T

__
+ q = C
p
T
t
(1.18)
1.4. 1-D STEADY STATE CONDUCTION 15
1.3.4 Boundary conditions
Three dierent types of boundary conditions may be imposed on the heat
balance.
Dirichlet boundary condition: T(0, t) = T
S
where is T
S
is the constant
surface temperature.
Constant or nite ux boundary condition (Neumann boundary con-
dition):
Finite heat ux
k
T
x
|
x=0
= q

s
Adiabatic or insulated surface
T
x
|
x=0
= 0
Convection surface conditions (Mixed or robin):
k
T
x
|
x=0
= h[T

T(0, t)]
, that is, ux at the boundary is equal to the ux at heat exchanged/entering
at the boundary.
1.4 1-D Steady state conduction
1.4.1 Plane wall
Consider the plane wall shown in Fig. (1.4). Assume steady state conditions
and the temperature at x = 0 to be T
s,1
and x = L to be T
s,2
and the
corresponding bulk temperature to be T
,1
in the hot uid and T
,2
in the
cold uid. Assume the corresponding convection heat transfer coecients to
be h
1
and h
2
.
Assuming no heat generation, that is q = 0, the heat balance will
read
d
dx
_
k
dT
dx
_
= 0 (1.19)
16 CHAPTER 1. CONDUCTION
Figure 1.4: Heat transfer through a plane wall.
and the associated boundary conditions are
T(0) = T
s,1
& T(L) = T
s,2
(1.20)
After solving Eqs (1.19 - 1.20), the temperature along the plane wall is
given by
T = (T
s,2
T
s,1
)
x
L
+T
s,1
(1.21)
and the heat transfer rate is given by
q
x
= kA
dT
dx
=
KA
L
(T
s,1
T
s,2
) (1.22)
Fig. (1.4) shows the temperature prole in the wall (obtained using Eq.
(1.21)).
1.5 Thermal resistance
Thermal resistance is the resistance oered by a system to heat ow. A
general framework for detecting the thermal resistance for a given system is
1.5. THERMAL RESISTANCE 17
developed here. Note that thermal resistance concept developed here can be
used only when the heat transfer rate is constant.
A thermal resistance concept is useful for solving complex problems and
the associated thermal resistance networks ease the design calculations.
1.5.1 Thermal resistance oered by the wall
The resistance oered by the wall for heat ow is call the thermal resistance.
It is dened as the temperature dierence divided by the heat transfer rate.
In mathematical form,
R
t,cond
=
T
s,1
T
s,2
q
x
=
L
kA
(1.23)
1.5.2 Comparison with electrical resistance
Heat conduction has an analogy with the electrical conduction, which can
be realized by looking into the underlying resistances. Electrical conduction
resistance is given by
R
e
=
E
s,1
E
s,2
I
=
L
A
(1.24)
where, I is the current, E the voltage and the electrical resistivity.
Electrical resistance in Eq. (1.24) is the of same form as the thermal
conduction resistance in Eq. (1.23).
1.5.3 Thermal resistance oered on either ends
At either boundaries of the plane wall, the wall is exposed to hot or cold
uid. The heat transfer (due to convection) from and to the hot or cold uid
to and from the plane wall is governed by Newtons law of cooling:
R
t,conv
=
T
s
T

q
=
1
hA
(1.25)
where h is the convection heat transfer coecient. h can also be an eective
constant for both convection and radiation. Similarly, separate h may exist
for convection and radiation.
18 CHAPTER 1. CONDUCTION
As there is no heat generation, the heat transfer rate throughout
the system will remain constant. Therefore,
q
x
=
T
,1
T
s,1
1/(h
1
A)
=
T
s,1
T
s,2
L/(kA)
=
T
s,2
T
,2
1/(h
2
A)
(1.26)
The overall temperature gradient in the system (starting from the hot
uid plane wall cold uid) is T
,1
T
,2
. Hence,
q
x
=
T
,1
T
,2
R
tot
(1.27)
where the total resistance, R
tot
is given by
R
tot
=
1
h
1
A
+
L
kA
+
1
h
2
A
(1.28)
Thermal resistance concept developed here can be used only when the
heat transfer rate is constant.
1.5.4 Thermal resistance network for plane wall
A thermal resistance network for the plane wall (Fig. (1.4)) can be con-
structed as shown in Fig. (1.5) using the expressions derived in Eqs (1.23),
(1.25). The resistances due to cooling on either sides of the wall and due to
Figure 1.5: Thermal resistance network for a plane wall.
thermal conduction in the solid wall can be constructed in series. The total
resistance will be sum of the individual resistances.
1.6 Composite walls
Consider the composite wall shown in Fig. (1.6a) consisting of three walls,
viz. A, B, and C. The temperature prole, which is linear with respect to x
1.6. COMPOSITE WALLS 19
Figure 1.6: (A) Schematic of a composite plane wall. (B) Thermal resistance
network for the composite wall.
in each of the walls and relevant heat transfer coecients are presented in the
gure. A resistance network can be constructed to mimic the heat transfer
through the composite wall as shown in Fig. (1.6b). The heat transfer rate
is given by
q
x
=
T
,1
T
,4
R
tot
(1.29)
where the total resistance, R
tot
is given by
R
tot
=
1
h
1
A
+
L
A
k
A
A
+
L
B
k
B
A
+
L
C
k
C
A
+
1
h
4
A
(1.30)
and A is the cross-section area.
Note that all the resistances are in series. In principle, resistances can
also be in parallel depending upon the conguration of the parallel wall.
(Note that the heat transfer rate can also be expressed in terms of the
resistance in each element similar to that presented in Eq. (1.26) for a plane
wall.)
1.6.1 Overall heat transfer coecient
Similar to the heat transfer coecient in Newtons law of cooling, a overall
heat transfer coecient U for conduction can be dened. The heat transfer
20 CHAPTER 1. CONDUCTION
rate in terms of the U is
q
x
= UAT (1.31)
where,
U =
1
R
tot
A
=
1
1
h
1
+
L
A
k
A
+
L
B
k
B
+
L
C
k
C
+
1
h
4
(1.32)
In general,
R
tot
= R
t
=
T
q
=
1
UA
(1.33)
1.6.2 Contact resistance
So far, we assumed that the interface between the surfaces oer negligible
resistance. This assumption may not be valid under all situations, especially
during heat transfer via non-planar surfaces. In order to account for the
resistance oered by the interface between walls A and B (Fig. (1.7)), contact
resistance can be dened as
R
t,contact
=
T
A
T
B
q
contact
(1.34)
Figure 1.7: Contact between two non-planar surfaces.
Contact resistances are mainly due to surface roughness and there exists
no good theory to predict these.
1.7. ALTERNATIVE CONDUCTION ANALYSIS 21
1.7 Alternative conduction analysis
In all the earlier discussions, we considered situations where the heat transfer
rate and heat ux were constant along the direction in which the energy is
transferred. This is due to the fact that the cross-sectional area remained
constant throughout the system, the thermal conductivity was assumed con-
stant and there was no heat generation in the medium. In this section, we
will consider the cases in which the heat transfer rate is constant and the
ux is not as surface area varies and the thermal conductivity varies with
temperature and with no heat generation. The heat transfer rate is now
given by
q
x
= kA
dT
dx
= k(T)A(x)
dT
dx
(1.35)
If we assume no source and sink and steady-state, then the heat transfer
rate is constant whereas the heat ux is not constant. Heat transfer rate can
be expressed as
q
x
_
x
x
0
dx
A(x)
=
_
T
T
0
k(T)dT (1.36)
1.7.1 Trapezium
Consider the case of a trapezium (see Fig. (1.8)). The cross-section area
A is not constant, that is, A
x
and k(T). The geometry can be much more
complicated than a trapezium.
The heat transfer rate is now given by
q
x
= kA
dT
dx
(1.37)
where area is A = D
2
/4. If we assume D = ax, then
q
x
= k
a
2
x
2
4
dT
dx
(1.38)
If we assume constant thermal conductivity, then Eq. (1.38) can be inte-
grated over the whole domain to obtain
_
x
x
1
4q
x
a
2
x
2
dx =
_
T
T
1
kdT (1.39)
22 CHAPTER 1. CONDUCTION
Figure 1.8: Variable cross-sectional area.

4q
x
a
2
_

1
x
+
1
x
1
_
= k(T T
1
) T(x) = T
1

4q
x
a
2
k
_
1
x
1

1
x
_
(1.40)
At one of the boundaries, x = x
2
, T = T
2
. Therefore,
q
x
=
a
2
k(T
1
T
2
)
4
_
1
x
1

1
x
2
_ (1.41)
Substituting for the ux q
x
(Eq. (1.41)) into Eq. (1.40) leads to
T(x) = T
1
+ (T
1
T
2
)
_
1
x

1
x
1
1
x
1

1
x
2
_
(1.42)
1.7.2 Radial systems - Cylinder
Consider the case of heat conduction in the radial direction in the wall of an
annulus (see Fig. (1.9a)). Note that the area of heat transfer changes along
the radial direction. However the heat transfer rate remains constant along
the radius whereas the heat ux does not.
1.7. ALTERNATIVE CONDUCTION ANALYSIS 23
Figure 1.9: Heat conduction through a cylindrical geometry.
The heat transfer rate of this system is given by
q
r
= kA
dA
dr
= k(2rL)
dT
dr
(1.43)
The mathematical model that represents the heat conduction in this sys-
tem is
1
r
d
dr
_
2rL
dT
dr
_
= 0
1
r
d
dr
_
r
dT
dr
_
= 0 (1.44)
The corresponding boundary conditions are
T(r = r
1
) = T
s,1
; T(r = r
2
) = T
s,2
(1.45)
Solution for the Eqs (1.44) and (1.45) is
T(r) =
T
s,1
T
s,2
ln
_
r
1
r
2
_ ln
_
r
r
2
_
+T
s,2
(1.46)
The temperature prole inside the annulus is presented in Fig. (1.9b).
Compare this with the prole obtained in a planar wall. Note that the tem-
perature prole in cartesian coordinates is linear whereas that in cylindrical
coordinates is logarithmic.
24 CHAPTER 1. CONDUCTION
Thermal resistance
Heat transfer rate is given by
q
r
=
2Lk(T
s,1
T
s,2
)
ln
_
r
2
r
1
_ (1.47)
and the thermal resistance is given by
R
t,cond
=
ln
_
r
2
r
1
_
2Lk
(1.48)
Thermal resistance network
Heat transfer through the annulus can be represented in a thermal resistance
network. The resistance due to conduction in the annulus is given by Eq.
(1.48) and the resistance due to convection of the uid owing inside and
outside the annulus is given by
R
t,conv,1
= R
t,conv,2
=
1
h
2
2r
2
L
(1.49)
Using these resistances, the overall resistance network can be constructed as
shown in Fig. (1.9c).
The heat transfer rate in terms of the total resistance oered by the
system is given by
q
r
=
T
,1
T
,2
1
h
1
2r
1
L
+
1
h
2
2r
2
L
+
ln

r
2
r
1

2Lk
(1.50)
1.7.3 Composite cylindrical wall
Consider the composite wall shown in Fig. (1.10a). The resistance network
for this composite wall is in Fig. (1.10b).
If U is overall heat transfer coecient for the composite wall, U is given
by
U =
1
1
h
1
+
r
1
k
A
ln
_
r
2
r
1
_
+
r
2
k
B
ln
_
r
3
r
2
_
+
r
3
k
C
ln
_
r
4
r
3
_
+
1
h
4
r
1
r
4
(1.51)
1.7. ALTERNATIVE CONDUCTION ANALYSIS 25
Figure 1.10: (a) Schematic of a composite cylindrical wall. (b) Resistance
network for the system in (a).
1.7.4 Spherical wall
Heat transfer rate in spherical annulus is
q
r
= k(4r
2
)
dT
dr
(1.52)
Integrating Eq. (1.52), we obtain
q
r
=
4k(T
s,1
T
s,2
)
_
1
r
1

1
r
2
_ (1.53)
and the thermal conduction resistance is given by
R
t,cond
=
1
4k
_
1
r
1

1
r
2
_
(1.54)
26 CHAPTER 1. CONDUCTION
1.8 Conduction with thermal energy genera-
tion
All the cases we considered so far, we assumed no heat source/sink. En-
ergy generation may be due to absorption of neutrons during a certain nu-
clear/exothermic reaction occurring within the medium. Another source
could be due to electrical heating of the system in which case thermal en-
ergy generation will be due to conversion of electrical to thermal energy.
Generation of heat can strongly aect the conduction of heat in the solid.
In case of electrical energy source, the generation term will be governed
by

E
g
= I
2
R (1.55)
and the generation rate is given by
q =

E
g
V
=
I
2
R
e
V
(1.56)
where, I is the current generated, R
e
the electrical resistance and V the
volume of the system.
1.8.1 Plane wall
Consider a plane wall (Fig. 1.11) of width 2L in which q amount of energy is
generated uniformly. Assume the temperature of the uid owing on either
side is T
,1
and T
,2
and the corresponding heat transfer coecients to be
h
1
and h
2
.
The heat balance for this system is
d
2
T
dx
2
+
q
k
= 0 (1.57)
subject to the boundary conditions
T(L) = T
s,1
; T(L) = T
s,2
(1.58)
Solving Eqs (1.57)-(1.58) gives the temperature prole:
T(x) =
qL
2
2k
_
1
x
2
L
2
_
+
T
s,2
T
s,1
2
x
L
+
T
s,1
+T
s,2
2
(1.59)
1.8. CONDUCTION WITH THERMAL ENERGY GENERATION 27
Figure 1.11: Plane wall with heat generation.
If T
s,1
= T
s,2
= T
s
then Eq. (1.59) reduces to
T(x) =
qL
2
2k
_
1
x
2
L
2
_
+T
s
(1.60)
In many systems, it is of practical importance to estimate the maximal tem-
perature inside the wall. The maximal temperature inside the wall will be
at x = 0 for this problem and is given by
T(0) = T
0
=
qL
2
2k
+T
s
(1.61)
that is,
dT
dx
|
x=0
= 0. Note that this is also the temperature at the symmetry
point or at the adiabatic surface. (The maximal temperature occurring at
x = 0 is due to the similar boundary condition on either boundaries, that
is at x = L. Such a symmetry will be broken when dierent boundary
condition combinations are used.)
Using Eq. (1.61), Eq. (1.60) can be rewritten as
T(x) T
0
T
s
T
0
=
_
x
L
_
2
(1.62)
Relationship between T
s
and T

The temperature of the uid T

is an observable, whereas it is dicult to

measure T
s
. Therefore, for design purposes, it is useful to relate the two
28 CHAPTER 1. CONDUCTION
temperatures. At x = L,
k
dT
dx
|
x=L
= h(T
s
T

) (1.63)
k
_
qL
k
_
= h(T
s
T

) T
s
= T

+
qL
k
(1.64)
1.8.2 Radial systems
Consider a cylinder (Fig. 1.12) in which heat is being generated at a rate
q and the heat from the cylinder is being lost to the surrounding cold uid
which is at a constant temperature T

.
Figure 1.12: Heat conduction through a cylinder with heat generation.
The energy balance for this system leads to the following model equation
1
r

r
_
r
T
r
_
+
q
k
= 0 (1.65)
which is subject to the boundary conditions
dT
dr
|
r=0
= 0; T(r
0
) = T
s
(1.66)
1.8. CONDUCTION WITH THERMAL ENERGY GENERATION 29
The dependence of the temperature on the radial position can be obtained
by solving the model equations (Eqs 1.65 - 1.66) and is given by
T(r) T
s
T
0
T
s
= 1
_
r
r
0
_
2
(1.67)
As T
s
is not a convenient observable, it is useful to relate this temperature
with the uid temperature. Using the overall balance
q(r
2
0
L) = h(2r
0
L)(T
s
T

) (1.68)
the relationship between T
s
and T

is
T
s
= T

+
qr
0
2h
(1.69)
30 CHAPTER 1. CONDUCTION