ELEC 6341 Antennas Project Fall 2012 Instructor : R.

Paknys

submitted by
Kiran Phalak Sudhanshu Chaudhary Oussama Alaoudatallah 6514081 6299598 5530830

1. To find the antenna beam orientation to get maximum advantage of atmosphere : In this particular case, we are concerned about propagation of signal at 3.5 MHz. At this frequency radio propagation is dominated by sky wave propagation. Earth has thick layer of atmosphere around it which has important layer of ionosphere. Ionosphere consists of ionized gases which results in refraction of electromagnetic waves. Detailed discussion about

ionosphere and bending of waves through ionosphere is discussed in later part. When transmission signal is bent down from this ionosphere, propagation can be said to be at the maximum advantage if it travels the information signal to farthest point.

figure 1 : Sky wave propagation indicating grazing angle[1] The ionosphere is modelled as a spherical reflecting surface at virtual height from earth's surface. A signal launched at elevation(grazing) angle gets refracted and bent down if it makes angle(i) with normal which is greater than that of m, where m is minimum angle permitted for usable frequency. The single hop distance between transmitter and receiver points is a function of grazing angle. The maximum value of the single hop distance occurs for grazing angle = 0 or horizontal launch of transmit signal.[2] Therefore, we need antenna beam which is as close to horizontal launch as possible to take maximum advantage of atmospheric reflection.

2. Design of antenna having antenna beam in desired direction From first part we know that transmitter antenna beam should point towards horizon as much as possible. Therefore our aim is design an economical antenna which will offer maximum possible gain in least elevation angle possible. One of the important constraint is about space available. Due to FSI problem antenna must be designed over 100 ft X 20 ft area. When we consider frequency of 3.5 MHz . It is low end of HF frequency therefore wavelength is very long. Vee dipole antenna to be effective should have length of at least few wavelengths. With FSI problems this is not feasible. As antenna of approximately 1000 ft is required. Quarter wave monopole antenna with modified radials is designed for the solution as shown below :

figure 2 : Isometric view of monopole antenna with modified radials Top view and side view shown below figure 3 indicates that antenna satisfies FSI criteria.

figure 3 : View of antenna from (a) left hand side (b) top This antenna gives the directive radiation pattern as shown below :

figure 4 : E plane pattern of the designed monopole antenna

As seen from radiation pattern this antenna gives the maximum gain of 1.740 = 2.408 dB. And one of the most interesting thing in our point of view is it has directional beam with elevation angle of just 14o from ground. In addition to that it has front to back level of - 2.7 dB. 3. Assessment of effect of ground surrounding These antennas operate at lower end of HF frequency. Effect of ground surroundings is studied on antenna performance by changing the material relative permittivity and by carrying the thickness of the wall. It is being observed that change in material of walls or construction does not affect the antenna performance by much deal. On the other hand, it is observed that thickness of wall affect the antenna performance by big deal having thick walls improves the beam direction of antenna by small margin. This happens because walls absorb more radiations and reflections of the waves. When antenna performance for the shape of roof is analyzed, it is observed shape of the roof alters the performance of the antenna. But on the ground line it should be always considered that designing the surrounding of antenna which suits performance is not the best option but the designing the antenna which works satisfactorily irrespective of surroundings is design criteria.

4. Effect of ground conductivity on antenna performance In the line of sight communication, only one path is assumed to be present between transmitter and receiver for propagation of electromagnetic waves. But when transmitter antenna radiates, some of radiated energy is in the direction of ground plane. The energy gets reflected back upwards fulfilling the conditions of reflection from the surface. The amount of reflection depends on various factors such as angle of incidence, polarization of wave, electrical properties.

Ground conductivity also known as soil conductivity is important electrical property which decides the strength and direction signal. We know perfect electrical conductor reflects all the energy, similarly ground plane conductivity affect the radiation characteristics of antenna. Ground conductivity is measured in siemens per meter. Typically ground conductivity value varies from 10-5 to 5. [3] Therefore effect of effect of ground plane conductivity on elevation (grazing) angle and gain of one dipole antenna designed for 3.5 MHz is figured through graph below :

Gain(dB)
3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 5.50E-06 1.70E-05 5.50E-05 1.70E-04 5.50E-04 1.70E-03 5.50E-03 1.70E-02 5.50E-02 1.70E-01 5.50E-01 1.70E+00 5.50E+00 25 20 15 10 5 0

Elevation Angle (degrees)

figure 5 : Variation in (a) gain and (b) elevation angle with respect to ground conductivity This figure 5 indicates there is typical value of 1.7 mS/m below which ground conductivity adversely affect the radiation pattern of antenna.

5. Evaluation of propagation conditions using propagation prediction software tool By using the program W6EL , which is used to predict the wave propagation between Montreal and Rochester, and observing the results over 10 consecutive days .we have figured out the propagation conditions related to the solar flux and the K index. By using the universal time (UTC) as a reference . we have observed the results summarized in the following table :

5.50E-06 1.70E-05 5.50E-05 1.70E-04 5.50E-04 1.70E-03 5.50E-03 1.70E-02 5.50E-02 1.70E-01 5.50E-01 1.70E+00 5.50E+00

Date

SFI

K Index

Availability 75-100%

Availability 50-75% 0130 0530 0830 1130

Availability 25-50% 0930 1030

Availability 1-25%

13-11-2012

146

0000 0100 0600 0800 1400 2330

14-11-2012

142

0600 0830 1130 2330

0000 0530 0900 1100 0130 0530 0830 0900 0400 0530 0130 0330 0830 1100 0500 0530 0130 0430 0900 1030 0500 0800 0130 0430 0830 1100 0400 0530 0130 0330 0830 1100 0930 1000

15-11-2012

141

0000 0100 0600 0800

16-11-2012

138

0000 0100 0600 0800

17-11-2012

138

0000 0100 0600 0800

18-11-2012

135

0000 0100 1130 2330

19-11-2012

141

0000 0100 0600 0800 1100 2330

20-11-2012

141

0000 0100 0600 0730 1200 2300

0100 0130 0400 0530

0200 0330 0800 0830 1130 1200

0900 1100

21-11-2012

141

0000 0030 0600 0800 1130 2330

0400 0530 1100 1130

0100 0330 0930 1030

0130 0300 0930 1100

22-11-2012

128

0000 0030 0630 0800 1200 2330

0530 600 0800 0830

0030 0100 0330 0500

0130 0300 0930 1100

Table 1 : Propagation prediction for 3.5 MHz between Montreal and Rochester

It can be observe, In general, the frequency 3.5 MHz can propagate with availability 75-100 % from 00:00 to 01:00 & 11:00 to 23:30, regardless of the SFI and K indices. The availability 50-75 % is in the period 01:00 05:30 depending on SFI and K indices The availability 25-50% is in the period 01:30 to 03:30 when the SFI is about141 and K is about 2, while the availability is in the periods 02:00 03:30 & 08:00 08:30 &11:30 12:00 when the K index is 4. The availability 1-25% appears when K index is 4 in the period 09:00 11:00 ,while it appears in the periods 01:30 -03:00 & 09:30 11:00 when K index is 1.

6. Study about D-layer and propagation with the help of D-layer The ionosphere layers are consisted of The layers D , E ,F1 , F2 which extend from a height of about 50 km to over 500 km. The ionosphere layer is ionised by radiation of the Sun. This layer is so important for HF, where the radio waves are bent due to this layer , in other words, the waves are reflected back to earth. The higher ionized layer density ,the higher the frequencies that can be reflected.

figure 6: D, E ,F layers during day and night [5]

These layers are not constant because they depend on the sunlight and the day time .during the day four layers may be existed D, E, F1 and F2 layers. Their approximate height ranges are: D layer 50 to 90 km, E layer 90 to 140 km, F1 layer 140 to 210 km, F2 layer over 210 km. [5] The solar condition affects the presence of the layer, for example the layers F1 and F2 may consist F layer. At night the D, E and F1 become slightly ionized , which means only F2 layer is available for communications. The layers E, F1 and F2 refract HF waves, while D layer does not, That makes D layer so important for HF Communications Due to the possible reflection at D layer , long communication paths can be achieved ,which cannot be made without reflection. Since the ionosphere layer is not constant, using the same frequency is not possible over 24 hours, and it depends on the solar cycle. The solar cycles have period of 9 - 14 years. Depending on the cycle, HF frequencies can be implemented. During low level solar activity period, only the lower frequencies can be used, while higher frequencies can be successful when the activity is high. that is because of the high radiation of the sun which makes the ionization high and hence the more reflection. The communications in HF frequencies are affected by flare occurring. Flares emit radiation to earth, and that causes ionization of D layer which means increasing in absorption. Since D layer is present at day time, all communications take place in daylight will be affected. When a flare occurs HF waves are absorbed, this phenomenon is called short wave fade out.[5]

figure 7 : E ,F1, F2 maximum frequencies during the day[5]

Fade-outs can be avoided by using a higher frequency. The duration of fade-outs takes time between about 10 minutes to several hours. During the day a higher frequency can be used .When the sun rises, the radiation of the sun causes ionization in ionosphere, hence frequencies increase till noon, then the frequencies drop. At night The layers D, E, F1 disappear, which means communications during night occurs by the layer F2, at this time the attenuation is low, and the MUF decreases until just before dawn when this frequency reaches a minimum value. When solar flares occur, ionization in D layer is increased which means increase in absorption of HF radio waves. If the radiation of the flares reach high level, HF communications can be unusable for a period of time which causes fade-outs. Salient features of fade-outs are: [5] the circuits existed in daylight sectors will be affected, while the circuits existed in darkness will not be affected. Fade-outs may last from a few minutes to a few hours, depending on the duration and the size of the flare. The magnitude of the fade-out depends on the size of the flare and the relative position between the Sun and the point where the signal goes through the D layer. The lower frequencies, the higher absorption, so the lower frequencies are more affected, and higher frequencies are less affected and may still be usable .

figure 8: fade out effect vs frequency[5]

7. Sunspots and 11 year solar cycle

HF frequencies propagation depends on three factors related to the sun. The three factors are solar flux , and Ap and Kp indices.[6] The ionosphere can be considered as number of layers. These layers are ionized due to effect of sunlight .This ionization affects the radio waves according to the state of ionization. Depending on the frequency, incident angle, and ionization level, the wave can reflect to escape to the outer space. The variation in the level of ionization in ionosphere causes different behaviours of HF frequencies .when the ionization is high , the ionosphere is able to bent the waves, which means high MUF can be used. The level of ionization is a function of many variables such as the time of the day and the season and the sunspot cycle which has a period of 11 years. The higher sunspot, the higher radiation of the sun. The sun emits many particles which have magnetic field. when the emission is high ,we can predict two effect, the first one is disturbing the magnetic field of the earth and the second one is increasing the ionization of the ionosphere. As a result a blackout in HF communications occurs.[6] Solar flux is a measure to estimate the level or radiation of the sun. The solar flux unit(SFU) is the radio noised emitted by the sun at a frequency of 2800 MHz. Since there is a close relation between solar flux and the level of ionization, the conditions for long distance can be predicted during the peak of sunspot cycle the index can reach the value of 200.[6] The indices A and K are used to determine the geomagnetic activity. These factors can tell how much is the magnetic fluctuation, in other words, the disturbance to the ionosphere. The A factor takes values up to 100,while during a magnetic storm it can reach 200. The K factor takes values, 2 - 4. However this value can reach 6 during a minor magnetic storm and 9 during a major magnetic storm, in this case a blackout in HF communications may occur.

8. Observation of the signal strength variation of a AM radio station WHAM on 1180KHz from Rochester NY Observation of signal strength of channel WHAM at 1180 kHz is done using a CORA AM/FM projection clock radio (Model # crx-6750) as shown in the figure 9 :

figure 9 : CORA AM/FM radio used for observation of signal strength This radio is manually operated AM/FM bands and for the best result, it is had been matched with big music system which is having digital operated AM/FM band. Radio channel WHAM at 1180 kHz is listened for around 10 days and observation of the signal strength variation from day to day and day to night is noted down. The results can be summarized as shown in table 2:

Days

Time 9am 1pm

Signal Quality Poor Poor Average No signals(only noise) No signal(only noise)

Notes

13-Nov-12

9pm

Signal + Noise(noise disturbance and interference in the signal) Signal + Noise(very less disturbance but some time interference) No signal(only noise) No signal(only noise) Signal + Noise(noise disturbance and interference ) Signal + Noise(very less disturbance but some time interference) No signal(only noise) No signal(only noise) No signal(only noise) Signal + Noise(noise disturbance and interference in the signal) No signal(only noise) No signal(only noise) Signal + Noise (very less disturbance but some time interference) Signal + Noise(noise disturbance and interference) No signal(only noise) No signal(only noise) No signal(only noise) Signal + Noise(noise disturbance and interference in the signal)

11pm 8:30am 1pm 14-Nov-12 9pm 11:30pm 9am 1pm 15-Nov-12 4pm 1am 11am 3pm 16-Nov-12 8pm 11pm 10am 2pm 17-Nov-12 6pm 10pm

Average/Good Poor Poor Average Average/Good Poor Poor Poor Average Poor Poor Average/Good Average Poor Poor Poor Average

8am 11:30am 18-Nov-12 4pm 11pm 9am 1pm 19-Nov-12 4pm 10:30pm 8:30am 1:30pm 20-Nov-12 5pm 11pm 9am 1:30pm 21-Nov-12 9:30pm

Poor Poor Poor Average Poor Poor Poor Average/Good Poor Poor Poor Average/Good Poor Poor Average/Good

No signal(only noise) No signal(only noise) No signal(only noise) Signal + Noise(noise disturbance and interference in the signal) No signal(only noise) No signal(only noise) No signal(only noise) Signal + Noise(very less disturbance but some time interference) No signal(only noise) No signal(only noise) No signal(only noise) Signal + Noise(very less disturbance but some time interference) No signal(only noise) No signal(only noise) Signal + Noise(very less disturbance but some time interference) Signal + Noise(noise disturbance and interference in the signal)

12:30am

Average

Table 2 : Signal strength variation of WHAM 1180 kHz from 13 to 21 november 2012 It is being observed that the signal strength from 13thNov to 21stNov at 1180KHz varies with time. In day time, nothing can be heard but noise, during night the signal starts coming and at around 8:30pm to 10pm mixed signals are heard like signals from 1180KHz radio station mixed with noise but sometimes interference occur due to other signals. One thing is noticed that during interference signal can be identified but cannot be understood. Sometimes, very clear signal is heard but that is for very less time approximately only for 1 minute otherwise always mixed with noise is heard.

9. Impact of noise sources: In the context of our text, Noise sources refer to the sources by which the AM radio signal get affected i.e. disturbance in the signal or distortion in the signal. There are many appliances in residential places like TV, Vacuum cleaner, Hair drier, etc. which affect the AM radio signals. The motors in these appliances cause interference in AM radio signals. Little sound coming after interference is same as the sound of the motor itself. Very fuzzy noise is observed due to a table lamp which operates by human touch, when radio under test is kept near the lamp. Not fuzzy but kind of high pitch repetitive noise signal is observed when mobile phone is kept dialed from near vicinity of the radio under the test. In the night, time when the signals are average/good (i.e. Signal + Noise (very less disturbance but some time interference) are less susceptible to the influence of some noise source than day time when nothing except the noise heard. In conclusion, YES the noise sources in my home influence the results and audibility of AM radio signal. 10. Propagation prediction at 1180 kHz frequency Propagation prediction at any frequency level can be done if propagation at these frequency is modeled. 1180KHz frequency lies in Medium frequency(MF) band which ranges from 300 to 3000KHz. Radio-wave propagation prediction models, that can be used for engineering analysis of communication systems, determine the basic transmission loss between a communications transmitter and receiver. The propagation of radio waves in MF depends on both a surface wave and a sky wave and is quite different from propagation at any other frequency. [7] A] Ground wave propagation prediction method: The ground wave includes the direct line-of-sight space wave, the ground-reflected wave, and the Norton surface wave that diffracts around the curvature of Earth. For small distances between transmitter, radio wave propagates mainly as a surface wave, because the direct and ground-reflected waves in the space wave cancel each other and as a result the surface wave is the only wave that is left. This cancellation is takes place due to the fact that the elevation

angle is zero and the two waves (direct and reflected) are equal magnitude and opposite in phase. This is the condition that exists for the LF and MF band[7]. Surface are predominantly vertically polarized as horizontal component is shorted by ground conductivity. Surface waves are guided by earth's surface. Charges are induced in earth's surface. Earth carrying these charge flow can be modeled as leaky capacitor. Therefore characteristic of earth as conductor can be represented as parallel RC circuit, where conductivity is modeled as resistor and dielectric constant is modeled as capacitor. This resistor results in attenuation of wave as it travels. The attenuation function is the ratio of electric field over lossy earth to that of over perfectly flat surface. [8] Electric field strength at distance d can be given as : [8] = 0

where E0 is electrical field over earth's surface at small distance at few wavelengths away from transmitting antenna. Berry[9] and stewart[10] give thesmooth-0earth model. The smooth earth attenuation function used for line of sight propagation when distance is small and earth can be considered as flat. And electric field is given by : = 9.487 ()

where d is distance in km and PE is effective radiated power in watts and A() is flat earth attenuation function. which given by following equations : [11]

figure 10 : flat earth surface model [7]

 = 1 0 () 0 = 4

= 4

1 + 2 (1 + ) 2

these dimensions are given according to the figure 10. [7] B. Sky wave propagation prediction method:

Sky wave propagation takes place due to refraction and reflection through ionosphere. D,E layer is responsible for refraction and reflection at medium frequency propagation. Signal is absorbed by D-layer during day time and is not present during night. Whereas E layer is product of not only photo ionization but cosmetic and x-rays. Therefore, E layer predominately reflects the MF signals during night.[12,13] Signal received gets increasingly stronger as distance increases when it is propagated through sky waves because it is product of increasingly lower angle of elevation at transmitter. But this is not the case. The propagation of sky wave depends on latitude but all propagation model did not consider this factor. The models which consider both latitude and actual path length in consideration gives accurate results.[14] The sky wave propagation also depends on distance, time of the day and frequency. field strength dependence on distance given is given by, [15] = 231 35.5 3 + 1000

where field strength is given in dBuV/m and d is distance in km. In modification to this model Wang has developed MF sky wave model giving field strength. Wang equation for field strength is, [16]
2 = 95 20 log [6.28 + 4.95 tan( ) ]

1000

where Fc is field strength in dbuV/m, d is distance in km and m is geometric latitude.

This can be used now for sky wave propagation prediction. When both ground and sky wave models are considered then propagation prediction for 1180 kHz.

References:
[1] http://www.ycars.org/EFRA/Module%20C/EMSkyWave.htm [2] A.R. Harish and M. Sachidananda, 'ANTENNAS and WAVE PROPAGATION', OXFORD University Press,978-0-19568666-1 [3]Http://www.ips.gov.au/Category/Educational/Other%20Topics/Radio%20Communication/In tro%20to%20HF%20Radio.pdf [4] http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter1/ion2.html [5]http://www.ips.gov.au/Category/Educational/Other%20Topics/Radio%20Communication/In tro%20to%20HF%20Radio.pdf [6] Ian Poole G3YWX, 'Understanding Solar Indices', http://www.arrl.org/files/file/Technology/ tis/info/pdf/0209038.pdf [7] Nicholas DeMinco, Medium Frequency Propagation Prediction Techniques and Antenna Modeling for Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) Broadcast Applications.(U.S. department of commerce), NTIA Report 99-368, 1999. [8] F.E. Terman, Electronic and Radio Engineering, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1955, pp. 803-808. [9] L.A. Berry, User's guide to low frequency radio coverage programs, Office of Telecommunications Technical Memorandum 78-247, January 1978. [10] F.G. Stewart, L.A. Berry, C.M. Rush, and V. Agy, An air-to-ground HF propagation prediction model for fast multi-circuit computation, NTIA Report 83-131, August 1983. (NTIS Order No. PB 84-145861). [11] J.R. Wait , Electromagnetic surface waves, in Advances in Radio Research J.A. Saxton (Ed.), London: Academic Press, 1964, pp. 157-217. [12] D.G. Fink and D. Christiansen (editors), Electronic Engineers Handbook, Chapter 18 RadioWave Propagation by R.C. Kirby, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., pp. 18-96 to 18-103, 1989.

[13] K. Davies, Ionospheric Radio Propagation, NBS Monograph 80 (U.S. Government Printing Office), Washington, DC, pp. 2-7, 1965. [14] ITU-R (International Telecommunications Union), (CCIR-International Radio Consultative Committee), Sky-wave field strength prediction method for the broadcasting service in the frequency range 150 to 1600 kHz, Recommendation 435-7, International Telecommunications Union, Geneva, Switzerland, 1992. [15] ITU (International Telecommunications Union), Final Acts of the Regional Administrative MF Broadcasting Conference (Region 2), Rio de Janeiro, 1981 (International Telecommunication Union, Geneva, Switzerland). [16] J.A. Wang, A skywave propagation study in preparation for the 1605 -1705 kHz broadcasting conference, IEEE Trans. $Broadcasting, BC-31, No. 1, pp. 10-19, March 1985.

"We certify that this submission is the original work of members of the group and meets the Faculty's Expectations of Originality."

Kiran Phalak 6514081

Sudhanshu Chaudhary 6299598

Oussama Alaoudatallah 5530830