BIOL 215 4/3/13 Regulation of Metabolism What are the four sources of glucose used by cells?

Diet Catabolism of endogenous storage molecules Biosynthesis Autotrophic Synthesis What happens to the glucose after we get it? Use in respiration or storage (glycogen and starch) or fermentation

Glycolysis Glucogenolysis Gluconeogenesis Glycogenesis

a. reaction process that converts glucose into pyruvate b. metabolic process that results in the production of glycogen c. metabolic process that results in the production of glucose d. reaction process that ends with the breakdown of glycogen

What process does the cell use when it needs energy? What does this process produce? Glycolysis; breaks down glucose to make ATP/ carry out aerobic respiration When the cells energy needs are met, what process will the cell use? Glycogenesis; makes glycogen molecules What is the enzyme that controls this shift? Phosphoglucomutase; Glucose-1-phosphate (glycogenesis) to glucose-6-phosphate (glycolysis) Fermentation When do we use fermentation? In anaerobic conditions What are the two main types of fermentation? Ethanol fermentation, lactate fermentation When would we (AKA mammals) use fermentation? After strenuous activity, the lungs and circulatory systems cannot keep up with the high metabolic activity of the muscles which creates an anaerobic condition.

What is this process? Fill in the empty boxes.

Describe the Warburg effect. How can the Warburg effect be used in cancer diagnosis/treatment? Observed that cancer cells have high rates of glycolysis and lactic acid fermentation Rates are high even in the presence of O2

Where do molecules enter the metabolic cycle? Proteins: Carbs: Fats:

Describe the process of beta-oxidation of fatty acids. Explain why naturally-produced fatty acids always have an even number of carbons.

Photosynthesis Write a general chemical equation for the final products of oxygenic photosynthesis. 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 Where does photosynthesis occur in plants? Chloroplast Label the parts of the chloroplast.

What are the other types of plastids?

Name where each of the following is located in the plant cell: a) Energy transduction complexes: thylakoid membrane b) H+ ions are pumped into the thylakoid lumen c) Site of oxygen production: thylakoid lumen d) H+ flow through the ATPase into the chloroplast stroma e) Site of ATP production by the chloroplast ATP synthase: chloroplast stroma f) Calvin Cycle: chloroplast stroma Fill in the Blanks Each chlorophyll molecule has a central __porphyrin__ ring with a strongly hydrophobic __phytol__ side chain attached. The alternating __double bonds__ in the ring are responsible for absorbing visible light. The ring contains a __magnesium__ ion that affects electron distribution in the ring. How does photoexcitation work in pigment molecules? How does this relate to photochemical reduction? When a photon is absorbed by a pigment such as chlorophyll the energy of the photon is transferred to an electron, which is energized from its ground state in a low-energy orbital to an excited state in a high-energy orbital. A photoexcited

electron is not stable and must either return to its ground state or undergo transfer to a relatively stable high-energy orbital, usually in a different molecule. The transfer of the photoexcited electron to a high-energy orbital in another molecule is called photochemical reduction.
Photosynthesis What happens to the electrons in non-cyclic flow (aka _Z-scheme__)? Once light is funneled through chlorophylls in PSII (P680), electron gets elevated to an excited state. At this state, electron wants to give up its electron and it is given to phiophitin because its higher in EN. It is then transferred through various other molecule that have higher EN (its moving with a gradient) It moves through Cytochrome-6f (proton channel) and when electrons moves through, protons moves across this channel through the thylakoid membrane and in to the thylakoid lumen Electron ends up in PSI and another light absorption takes place and eletron is elevated and cascades down to ferrodoxin than accepted by NADP+ as the final acceptor to for NADPH. Concentration gradient is formed by the movement of electron to synthesize ATP. ATP and NADPH is used to power the Calvin Cycle/Dark Reaction. What are the products of light reaction? ATP, NADPH, and O2 .

What is the purpose of cyclic flow? What happens to the electron? To generate more ATP, higher concentration gradient in thylakoid lumen is generated by cyclic flow. From PSI (PS700), electrons get photoexcitied like during noncyclic flow. Instead of donating the electrons to NADP+, it goes to ferrodoxin and the electron flows back to cytochrome 6f, generating more protons to move across the thylakoid membrane and in the thylakoid lumen. More ATP is generated b/c of the higher [H+] concentration

In the mitochondria, ATP synthesis through ATP synthase is known as oxidative phosphorylation. During light reaction, this process is known as photophosphorylation. [H+] is higher in the thylakoid lumen and [H+] is lower in the stroma. Light reaction occurs in the thylakoid lumen and the dark reaction (aka Calvin Cycle) occurs in the stroma. When do dark reactions occur (i.e. do they occur in the dark)? As the light reactions occur, protons are driven into the thylakoid lumen, causing the pH of the stroma to increase. Therefore, Calvin Cycle enzymes will be activated by a high pH.

Do dark reaction occur in the dark? No, its called dark b/c light isnt directly used. What powers the dark reaction/Calvin Cycle? ATP and NADPH What happens to CO2 in the Calvin Cycle? Describe the 3 main stages. -The CO2 comes in and it is reduced in the Calvin Cycle. -CO2 is fixed into RuBP (Rubulose bis 6 phosphate 5C molecule) -The initial fixation is catalyzed by enzyme Rubsico and end up with 3-C intermediate -The ATP (from light reaction) phosphorylate the 3-C intermediate and NADPH reduces to form triose phosphate (G3P), which leaves the cycle to form sugar (glucose, sucrose, or starch). -3CO2 (total of 3 C) comes in and attaches to 3 RuBP (15C total) to form 6 3-C intermediate (18 C total). 1triosphosphate (3C) comes out leaving 5 triose phosphate (15C) in to regenerate 3 RuBP (15C) -in summary3 Phases: 1) carbon fixation (by rubsico), 2) reduction (by NADPH), and 3) regeneration of RuBP

What are four ways in which the dark reactions can be regulated? Changes in pH enzymes in the dark reaction is regulated by high pH, which only happens when light reaction occurs to build a high [H+] in the thylakoid lumen. Increasing ATP positive regulators it provides E to drive Calvin Cycle Increasing NADPH positive regulators - it reduces the carbon in Calvin Cycle Presence or absence of light indirectly regulates it. Presence of light (+ regulator) drives the light reaction to produce ATP and NADPH.

What are some other ways to regulate the dark reaction? -genes for enzymes (like enzymes for Calvin Cycle) are only expressed in photosynthetic tissue -The enzymes in Calvin Cycle are activated by the movement of electrons in the thylakoid membrane. When there is light, it reduces ferrodoxin, which triggers an enzyme to reduce thioredoxin and break the disulfide bond (S-S) to sulfhydryl (SH) groups and there is a conformation change. This conformation change triggers enzymes in the Calvin cycle to be activated by breaking their SS bonds.

Usage/Transport/Storage of Photosynthate What are sources and sinks? -Sources: where carbon dioxide fixation occurs. Photosynthetic tissue (like leaves) -Sinks: where sugars are stored and used

What happens to triose phosphate (aka Glyceraldehyde-3-Phopshate)? 1) Can live the stroma and into the cytoplasm for glycolysis (if the cell needs E). 2) Convert it to sucrose (after G3P goes to cytoplasm) if other parts of the plant need E 3) Converted to starch if E need is met The first regulation point in the biosynthetic pathway of sucrose is the enzyme fructose 1,6-bisphosphatasecytwhich changes fructose-1,6- BP into Fructose-6-P and Pi. How is the functioning of fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase a regulation point? -If there is an accumulation of fructose-6-phosphate because the E need IS met in other parts of the cell, this enzyme combines the Pi back to F6P to form fructose 2,6 phosphate and acts as a negative feedback to tell the enzyme to slow down the production of F6P.