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(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 3.1 Turbine blades for jet engines, manufactured by three different methods: (a) conventionally cast; (b) directionally solidied, with columnar grains, as can be seen from the vertical streaks; and (c) single crystal. Although more expensive, single-crystal blades have properties at high temperatures that are superior to those of other blades. Source: Courtesy of United Technologies Pratt and Whitney.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 3.2 The body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells. Common bcc metals include chromium, titanium, and tungsten. Source: After W.G. Moffatt.
2R
a a
FIGURE 3.3 The face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells. Common fcc metals include aluminum, copper, gold and silver.Source: After W.G. Moffatt.
FIGURE 3.4 The hexagonal close-packed (hcp) crystal structure: (a) unit cell; and (b) single crystal with many unit cells. Common hcp metals include zinc, magnesium and cobalt. Source: After W.G. Moffatt.
(b)
(a)
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 3.5 Permanent deformation of a single crystal under a tensile load. The highlighted grid of atoms emphasizes the motion that occurs within the lattice.(a) Deformation by slip. The b/a ratio inuences the magnitude of the shear stress required to cause slip. Note that the slip planes tend to align themselves in the direction of pulling. (b) Deformation by twinning, involving generation of a twin around a line of symmetry subjected to shear. Note that the tensile load results in a shear stress in the plane illustrated.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
T T
max 1 2 x a 3 4 5
Shear stress:
2x = max sin b
T
Leads to:
G max = 2
FIGURE 3.6 Variation of shear stress in moving a plane of atoms over another plane.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 3.7 Schematic illustration of slip lines and slip bands in a single crystal subjected to a shear stress. A slip band consists of a number of slip planes. The crystal at the center of the upper drawing is an individual grain surrounded by other grains.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
She stre ar ss
Work:
!max a x " 2 Tensile stress
max Work =
Leads to:
max = E E a 10
FIGURE 3.8 Variation of cohesive stress as a function of distance between a row of atoms.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Crystal Defects
Self-interstitial atom Vacancy
FIGURE 3.9 Various defects in a singlecrystal lattice. Source: After W.G. Moffatt.
FIGURE 3.10 (a) Edge dislocation, a linear defect at the edge of an extra plane of atoms. (b) Screw dislocation, a helical defect in a three-dimensional lattice of atoms. Screw dislocations are so named because the atomic planes form a spiral ramp.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Screw dislocation
(a)
(b)
Slip plane
FIGURE 3.11 Movement of an edge dislocation across the crystal lattice under a shear stress. Dislocations help explain why the actual strength of metals is much lower than that predicted by atomic theory.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
FIGURE 3.12 Schematic illustration of the various stages during solidication of molten metal. Each small square represents a unit cell. (a) Nucleation of crystals at random sites in the molten metal. Note that the crystallographic orientation of each site is different. (b) and (c) Growth of crystals as solidication continues. (d) Solidied metal, showing individual grains and grain boundaries. Note the different angles at which neighboring grains meet each other. Source: After W. Rosenhain.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Average stress
FIGURE 3.13 Variation of tensile stress across a plane of polycrystalline metal specimen subjected to tension. Note that the strength exhibited by each grain depends on its orientation.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Stress
Grain Sizes
ASTM No. Grains/mm2 Grains/mm3 -3 1 0.7 0 8 16 3 64 360 5 256 2,900 7 1,024 23,000 9 4,096 185,000 12 32,800 4,200,000
TABLE 3.1 Grain sizes.
N = 2n1 Y = Yi + kd 1/2
Hall-Petch Equation:
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Stress
100% Bi
Strain
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 3.14 Embrittlement of copper by lead and bismuth at 350C (660F). Embrittlement has important effects on the strength, ductility, and toughness of materials. Source: After W. Rostoker.
FIGURE 3.15 Plastic deformation of idealized (equiaxed) grains in a specimen subjected to compression, such as is done in rolling or forging of metals: (a) before deformation; and (b) after deformation. Note the alignment of grain boundaries along a horizontal direction.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Crack
Sheet
FIGURE 3.16 (a) Illustration of a crack in sheet metal subjected to bulging, such as by pushing a steel ball against the sheet. Note the orientation of the crack with respect to the rolling direction of the sheet. This material is anisotropic. (b) Aluminum sheet with a crack (vertical dark line at the center) developed in a bulge test. Source: Courtesy of J.S. Kallend, Illinois Institute of Technology.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Strength
Ductility
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Recrystallization
Strength and hardness Strength and hardness Increasing temperature Increasing reduction
FIGURE 3.18 Variation of strength and hardness with recrystallization temperature, time, and prior cold work. Note that the more a metal is cold worked, the less time it takes to recrystallize, because of the higher stored energy from cold working due to increased dislocation density.
0.4
Recrystallized grain size (mm)
0.3
0.2
FIGURE 3.19 The effect of prior cold work on the recrystallized grain size of alpha brass. Below a critical elongation (strain), typically 5%, no recrystallization occurs.
0.1
10 20 30 Elongation (%)
40
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Failure
Barreling Cracks
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
FIGURE 3.21 Schematic illustration of types of failure in materials: (a) necking and fracture of ductile materials; (b) buckling of ductile materials under a compressive load; (c) fracture of brittle materials in compression; (d) cracking on the barreled surface of ductile materials in compression. (See also Fig. 6.1b)
FIGURE 3.22 Schematic illustration of the types of fracture in tension: (a) brittle fracture in polycrystalline metals; (b) shear fracture in ductile single crystals (see also Fig. 3.5a); (c) ductile cup-and-cone fracture in polycrystalline metals (see also Fig. 2.2); (d) complete ductile fracture in polycrystalline metals, with 100% reduction of area.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 3.23 Surface of ductile fracture in low-carbon steel, showing dimples. Fracture is usually initiated at impurities, inclusions, or preexisting voids in the metal. Source: K.H. Habig and D. Klaffke. Photo courtesy of BAM, Berlin, Germany.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Fibrous
FIGURE 3.24 Sequence of events in necking and fracture of a tensile-test specimen: (a) early stage of necking; (b) small voids begin to form within the necked region; (c) voids coalesce, producing an internal crack; (d) rest of cross-section begins to fail at the periphery by shearing; (e) nal fracture surfaces, known as cup-(top fracture surface) and-cone (bottom surface) fracture.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Effect of Inclusions
Void Matrix Inclusion Soft inclusion (a) Before deformation Hard inclusion
Voids
or Hard inclusion
of deformed metal
FIGURE 3.25 Schematic illustration of the deformation of soft and hard inclusions and their effect on void formation in plastic deformation. Note that hard inclusions, because they do not comply with the overall deformation of the ductile matrix, can cause voids.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Ductility, toughness
300
200
30
150
20
100 a 0 d 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 True strain, !
FIGURE 3.26 Schematic illustration of transition temperature. Note the narrow temperature range across which the behavior of the metal undergoes a major transition.
FIGURE 3.27 Strain aging and its effect on the shape of the true-stress-true-strain curve for 0.03% C rimmed steel at 60C (140F). Source: A.S. Keh and W.C. Leslie.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 3.28 Typical fracture surface of steel that has failed in a brittle manner. The fracture path is transgranular (through the grains). Compare this surface with the ductile fracture surface shown in Fig. 3.23. Source: Courtesy of Packer Engineering.
FIGURE 3.29 Intergranular fracture, at two different magnications. Grains and grain boundaries are clearly visible in this micrograph. The fracture path is along the grain boundaries. Source: Courtesy of Packer Engineering.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 3.30 Three modes of fracture. Mode I has been studied extensively, because it is the most commonly observed in engineering structures and components. Mode II is rare. Mode III is the tearing process; examples include opening a pop-top can, tearing a piece of paper, and cutting materials with a pair of scissors.
FIGURE 3.31 Typical fatigue fracture surface on metals, showing beach marks. Most components in machines and engines fail by fatigue and not by excessive static loading. Source: Courtesy of Packer Engineering.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Fatigue
MPa 500 0 10 800 Fine polishing Polishing Grinding Fine turning
Roug h turnin
1000
1300
483 Stress amplitude, S (MPa) 414 Shot peened 345 276 207 Machined 138 Al 7050-T7651 Ti-6Al-4V
70 60 50 40 30 20 ksi
20 30 40 50 60 70
As c
as
Polished
104 50 100 150 Ultimate tensile strength (psi x 103) (a) 200
108
FIGURE 3.32 Reduction in fatigue strength of cast steels subjected to various surface-nishing operations. (a) Effect of surface roughness. Note that the reduction is greater as the surface roughness and strength of the steel increase. Source: After J.E. Shigley and L.D. Mitchell. (b) Effect of residual stress, as developed by shot peening (see Section 4.5.1). Source: After B.J. Hamrock, S.R. Schmid and B.O. Jacobson.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
60 40
80 60 40
200
% elongation 20
Elongation (%)
0.2
0.8
0 1.0
FIGURE 3.33 Effect of carbon content on the mechanical properties of carbon steel.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
240-290
55-60
210-290
55-60
240-310
25-35
275
20-30
TABLE 3.4 Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties and Typical Applications of Annealed Stainless
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Cold work
D2, A2, A9, S2, S5, S7 H11, H12, H13 Zinc alloys, 4140 steel, cast iron, epoxy composites, A2, D2, O1 W1, O1, cast iron, A2, D2 Carbides, high-speed steels, ceramics, diamond, cubic boron nitride
TABLE 3.5 Typical Tool and Die Materials for Various Processes.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Turbine blades Ni alloy Accessory section Al alloy or Fe alloy Inlet case Al alloy
FIGURE 3.34 Cross-section of a jet engine (PW2037) showing various components and the alloys used in making them. Source: Courtesy of United Aircraft Pratt & Whitney.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Aluminum Alloys
Alloy (UNS) 1100 (A91100) 1100 1350 (A91350) 1350 2024 (A92024) 2024 3003 (A93003) 3003 5052 (A95052) 5052 6061 (A96061) 6061 7075 (A97075) 7075 8090 Temper O H14 O H19 O T4 O H14 O H34 O T6 O T6 T8X Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) 90 125 85 185 190 470 110 150 190 260 125 310 230 570 480 Yield Strength (MPa) 35 120 30 165 75 325 40 145 90 215 55 275 105 500 400 Elongation in 50 mm (%) 35-45 9-20 23 1.5 20-22 19-20 30-40 8-16 25-30 10-14 25-30 12-17 16-17 11 4-5
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
A B D A-B
A A B B
TABLE 3.8 Manufacturing Properties and Typical Applications of Wrought Aluminum Alloys.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Magnesium Alloys
Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) 260 290 380 255 365 Yield Strength (MPa) 200 220 380 255 365 Elongation in 50 mm (%) 15 15 7 8 11
Alloy AZ31B
AZ80A 8.5 0.5 0.2 HK31A 0.7 ZK60A 5.7 0.55 HK31A also contains 3%Th.
Typical Forms Extrusions Sheet and plates Extrusions and forgings Sheet and plates Extrusions and forgings
TABLE 3.9 Properties and Typical Forms of Various Wrought Magnesium Alloys.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
85.0 Cu 15.0 Zn 80.0 Cu 20.0 Zn 61.5 Cu, 3.0 Pb, 35.5 Zn 60.0 Cu, 39.25 Zn, 0.75 Sn
270-72
70-435
55-3
300-850 340-470
80-450 125-310
55-3 53-18
380-610
170-455
50-17
TABLE 3.10 Properties and Typical Applications of Various Wrought Copper and Brasses.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Wrought Bronzes
Type and UNS Number Architectural bronze (C38500) Phosphor bronze, 5% A (C51000) Free-cutting phosphor bronze (C54400) Low-silicon bronze, B (C65100) Nickelsilver, 65-18 (C74500) Nominal Composition (%) 57.0 Cu, 3.0 Pb, 40.0 Zn 95.0 Cu, 5.0 Sn, trace P 88.0 Cu, 4.0 Pb, 4.0 Zn, 4.0 Sn 98.5 Cu, 1.5 Si 65.0 Cu, 17.0 Zn, 18.0 Ni Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) 415 325-960 300-520 Yield Strength (MPa) 140 (as extruded) 130-550 130-435 Elongation in 50 mm (%) 30 64-2 50-15
Typical Applications Architectural extrusions, storefronts, thresholds, trim, butts, hinges. Bellows, clutch disks, cotter pins, diaphragms, fasteners, wire brushes, chemical hardware, textile machinery. Bearings, bushings, gears, pinions, shafts, thrust washers, valve parts. Hydraulic pressure lines, bolts, marine hardware, electrical conduits, heatexchanger tubing. Rivets, screws, zippers, camera parts, base for silver plate, nameplates, etching stock.
275-655 390-710
100-475 170-620
55-11 45-3
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Nickel Alloys
Alloy (Condition) Nickel 200 (annealed) Duranickel 301 (age hardened) Monel R-405 (hot rolled) Monel K-500 (age hardened) Inconel 600 (annealed) Hastelloy C-4 (solution treated and quenched) Principal Alloying Elements (%) None 4.4 Al, 0.6 Ti 30 Cu 29 Cu, 3Al 15 Cr, 8 Fe 16 Cr, 15 Mo Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) 380-550 1300 525 1050 640 785 Yield Strength (MPa) 100-275 900 230 750 210 400 elongation in 50 mm (%) 60-40 28 35 20 48 54
Typical Applications Chemical- and food-processing industry, aerospace equipment, electronic parts. Springs, plastics-extrusion equipment, molds for glass. Screw-machine products, watermeter parts. Pump shafts, valve stems, springs. Gas-turbine parts, heat-treating equipment, electronic parts, nuclear reactors. High-temperature stability, resistance to stress-corrosion cracking.
TABLE 3.12 Properties and Typical Applications of Various Nickel Alloys (All Alloy Names are Trade Names).
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Nickel-Base Superalloys
Alloy Astroloy Hastelloy X IN-100 IN-102 Inconel 625 Inconel 718 MAR-M 200 MAR-M 432 Ren e 41 Udimet 700 Waspaloy Condition Wrought Wrought Cast Wrought Wrought Wrought Cast Cast Wrought Wrought Wrought Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) 770 255 885 215 285 340 840 730 620 690 525 Yield Strength (MPa) 690 180 695 200 275 330 760 605 550 635 515 Elongation in 50 mm (%) 25 50 6 110 125 88 4 8 19 27 35 Typical Applications Forgings for high-temperature applications. Jet-engine sheet parts. Jet-engine blades and wheels. Superheater and jet-engine parts. Aircraft engines and structures, chemical-processing equipment. Jet-engine and rocket parts. Jet-engine blades. Integrally cast turbine wheels. Jet-engine parts. Jet-engine parts. Jet-engine parts.
TABLE 3.13 Properties and Typical Applications of Various Nickel-Base Superalloys at 870C (1600F) (All Alloy Names Are Trade Names)
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Titanium Alloys
Nominal Composition (%) 99.5 Ti 5 Al, 2.5 Sn 6 Al, 4V UNS R50250 R54520 R56400 Condition Annealed Annealed Annealed Temp ( C) 25 300 25 300 25 300 425 550 25 300 25 425 Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) 330 150 860 565 1000 725 670 530 1175 980 1275 1100 Yield Strength (MPa) 240 95 810 450 925 650 570 430 1100 900 1210 830 Elongation (%) 30 32 16 18 14 14 18 35 10 10 8 12 Typical Applications Airframes; chemical, desalination, and marine parts; plate-type heat exchangers. Aircraft-engine compressor blades and ducting; steam-turbine blades. Rocket motor cases; blades and disks for aircraft turbines and compressors; orthopedic implants; structural forgings; fasteners. High-strength fasteners; aerospace components; honeycomb panels.
13 V, 11 Cr, 3Al
R58010
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7