TERMINOLOGY

AND

THE

classifying fine grained sedimentary rocks, simply, but inevitably entails the problem of terminology. It is the usage of imprecisely defined terms that has often led to confusion, and

CLASSIFICATION OF FINE GRAINED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS is there a difference between a claystone, a mudstone and a shale? A.D. WILKINS
Department of Geology and Petroleum Geology, University for Aberdeen

frustration, when trying to describe and discuss fine grained sediments. This report will identify where confusion has arisen, and determines the type of terminology and classification that will be used in future works.

Summary Fine grained sedimentary rocks, both clastic and carbonate, are believed to be the most abundant rock type on the Earths surface (Picard, 1971; Blatt, 1982). Fine grained rocks appear to constitute somewhere in the region of 70% (Holmes, 1937) and 80% (Clarke, 1924) of all the sediment ever produced. In sedimentology the size grade scale most commonly used is that which was introduced by Udden in 1898, modified by Wentworth in 1922 and then converted into a logarithmic form by Krumbien in 1934. For a single particle, the sand-silt boundary, which is the distinction between coarser grained

TERMINOLOGY PROBLEMS?

WHAT

ARE

THE

In the literature there is a plethora of names for fine grained sedimentary materials argillaceous, argillite, clay, claystone, dust, hydrolysate, loam, lutite, ooze, marl, micrite, micstone, mud, mudrock, mudstone, pelite, phyllite, physilite, silt, siltite, siltstone, slate, wacke, and of course, the ubiquitous term, shale. Definition and usage of the word shale The term shale has been around for a few centuries. The first recorded use of the written word shale appears in Hoosons The Miners Dictionary, published in 1747; within which the term shale was meant as an indurated, laminated, clayey rock. Tourtelot (1960) gives a good summary on the origin and use of the world shale, and by outlining its historical use as i) a general term for describing laminated clayey rock; ii) as a formation name, e.g. the Pierre Shale; and iii) its widespread use as a bucket term for the entire class of fine grained rocks (whether they are laminated or not) - he has shown quite clearly just how entrenched the word shale is in geological literature. Therefore, is it any wonder that confusion arises given that

materials and those which are fine grained, is placed at 1/16 mm (63 microns or +4 ). For a given rock the proportion of material containing particles less than 63 microns in size is normally greater than 50% to satisfy the classification criteria of being fine grained. Despite their abundance, fine-grained sedimentary rocks, to date, have not been satisfactorily classified. Perhaps this is because they are not well exposed in the field compared to their coarser grained, more weather resistant counterparts, the sandstones (Pettijohn, 1975; Spears, 1980); perhaps it is due to their fine grained nature that makes their study more testing (Krumbien, 1947; Potter et al., 1980; MacQuaker & Adams, 2003); or perhaps, as noted by Rodgers (1950) the problem of

Page 1 of 12

Terminology and Classification of Fine Grained Sedimentary Rocks

geologists often to prefer to use ambiguous words? (Weaver, 1990, p.6) Regardless of how the question is presented it is doubtful that there will ever be unanimous agreement on the use of the word shale, in fact Selly (1988, p288) went as far as to say that The term shale, however, could perhaps be usefully abandoned by geologists, except when communicating to engineers or management ! Definition of the word clay Various size terms are in common use and have been adopted by geologists, but due to the lack of standardisation, the terms often mean different things to different people. For example, in the original restricted definition of the word shale, i.e. a clayey rock, what is the meaning, in quantitative terms, attached to the word clay? Ignoring the compositional connotation and just purely concentrating on its textural significance, what is the size limit placed on the clay grade itself? Even something as seemingly simple as defining the upper size limit of clay is fraught with difficulty due to its duplicitous nature. Hopkins (1899) defined the clay/silt boundary at 1 micron, a value which is commonly used today by colloid chemists as determining clay-sized materials (Burgess, 2006). According to Simonson (1999) it was Atterberg in 1903 who decided that the upper size limit for clay should be 2 microns, a value that is widely accepted today in Europe and currently being applied by engineering

most particularly of North America, stems from the works of Udden (1914) and Wentworth (1922) which places the division between silt and clay grade at 1/256mm or 3.9 microns. According to Wentworth (1922), Diller in 1902 and others such as Grabau (1913) place the upper size boundary limit of clay-size particles at 5 microns. Some workers have even placed the limit at 20 microns (Correns, 1969). Even the clay minerals themselves vary significantly in size, see Figure 1.

Figure 1. Relative sizes and thicknesses of common clay minerals (After Cerato, 2001)

CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES Any undertaking of a study on fine grained sedimentary rocks will ultimately involve the classification and naming of the materials in question. A fine grained sedimentary rock

classification will be a useful tool when using accepted, standard terminology that will

provide a clear and consistent means of communication between those with different backgrounds, i.e. between managers and scientists, either academic or industrial.

geologists and civil engineers that have to adhere to the European Standard EN ISO 14689-1 (ISO, 2003) for size grade scales when dealing with rock descriptions. The generally accepted value most commonly used by sedimentologists and geology students,

Defining classification schemes Given the confusion surrounding even the simplest of sediment scalar properties

Page 2 of 12

Terminology and Classification of Fine Grained Sedimentary Rocks

which could be used for classification, i.e. particle size boundary placement, it is not surprising that there have been multiple attempts to create an ultimate/universal

1) Texture (Particle size) 2) Degree of Induration 3) Stratification 4) Fissility 5) Chemical Composition 6) Clay Mineralogy 7) Mineral Composition 8) Tectonic Association 9) Environment of Deposition

classification of fine grained sedimentary material. Despite numerous attempts to classify these materials, none appear to have gained general widespread acceptance within the scientific geological community: as Twenhofel (1939, p297) stated Classification of clays and silts and their indurated equivalents on almost any basis gives little satisfaction to other than the classifier and often not even to him. Is the difficulty in classifying fine grained sedimentary materials in part due to the confusion surrounding the used, or more simply due to the fact that they are geological materials formed from a complex mixture of many different properties that could be used for classification purposes? Usually in classifications the aim is to group objects of concern into classes of similarly defining properties, properties which are meaningful and significant, and that facilitate giving those divided classes a name. More simply classification is the naming and grouping together of phenomena that have something in common (Blatt et al., 1980, p 13). Currently only one, two or three fine grained sedimentary rock properties are ever chosen for classification. The measurable properties that any one sedimentary fine grained rock may possess runs into the tens of numbers, historically classifications of finegrained sediments and sedimentary rocks have been based on the limited combinations of several main, perhaps considered by some to be fundamental (Griffiths, 1967, p31), been

The first seven criteria have commonly used in descriptive classifications,

whereas the final two criteria are of use in genetic classification systems which group geological materials of a similar origin together. It must be noted that all properties have some relevance but there will be those that have a particular relevance to some workers depending upon their field of research or industrial application, but the same said properties may be notably less relevant to other workers and will be of less use to them for classificatory purposes. The following brief summaries of the various classification schemes are used to illustrate the highly vacillating, and sometimes recondite, nature of fine grained rock

classification.

Descriptive Field Classification For the field description and

classification of rocks perhaps texture, in terms of particle size, is the most significant property. When quantitatively describing a single particle, it is very clear where that particle should be placed on the size grade scale. e.g. a sand particle lies between 63microns and 2mm. However, when it comes to describing

properties which include:

Page 3 of 12

Terminology and Classification of Fine Grained Sedimentary Rocks

the particle size distribution of rocks it becomes more difficult as they are effectively a mixture, an aggregate, of various sized particles of differing proportions. In effect there are no sharp boundaries that exist to divide between different kinds of sedimentary rocks but a gradational variation: nevertheless, it should be noted that in general terms of particle size, clay is finer grained than mud, see Figure 2.

readily during repeated wetting and drying cycles. This classification yet again sees the use of shale as a bucket or reconnaissance term before detailed identification work is

undertaken. Alling (1945), Ingram (1953) and McKee and Weir based (1953) primarily all created the

classifications

upon

layering properties of fine grained layered rocks, be it fissility or stratification, see Tables 2 and 3.
Amount of silt and clay Silt predominates No connotation as to relative amounts Clay predominates No connotation to breaking characteristics Siltrock Mudrock Clayrock Fissile Siltshale Mudshale Clayshale Massive Siltstone Mudstone Claystone

Figure 2 a) silt b) mud c) clay. Relative change in particle size going from the coarsest (silt) to the finest grained (clay).

Twenhofel

(1937)

created

classification, see Table 1, based upon composition, degree of induration and level of metamorphism. Mudstone was used by

Table 2. Nomenclature of mudrocks containing more than 50% silt and or clay (After Ingram, 1953) Stratification Terms Very thickly bedded Thickly Bedded Thin bedded Very thinly bedded Laminated Thinly Laminated Splitting Terms Massive Blocky Slaby Flaggy Shaly Papery

Thickness >120cm 60-120cm 5-60cm 1-5cm 2mm-1cm <2mm

Twenhofel as a general term to include all fine grained detrital rocks; whereas shale was specifically an indurated, fissile, non-

metamorphosed, mud.
Unindurated Indurated Mudstone Silt Mud Clay Siltstone Shale (fissile) Claystone Argillite After Incipient Metamorphism

Table 3. Comparison of quantitative terms used in describing layered rocks. (After McKee and Weir 1953)

Stratification

is

syndepositional

sedimentary structure, i.e. layering that forms or is constructed during sedimentation within a sedimentary bed; whereas fissility is the tendency of a rock to split along relatively smooth surfaces which are believed to parallel to the bedding (Pettijohn, 1975; Tucker, 1991, p91). Stow (1980) also uses particle size and fissility as a means of mudrock classification, see Table 4.

Table1. Twenhofels 1937 classification of fine grained sediments

On the basis of texture and composition alone, Shrock (1948) proposed a field

classification where a fine grained rock of unknown composition and indeterminable fine grained size is designated shale; and a mudstone, which is a subset of shale along with claystone and siltstone, is a partly indurated argillaceous rock which slakes

Page 4 of 12

Terminology and Classification of Fine Grained Sedimentary Rocks

Particle size & proportions 4-63m, >66% <63m, no proportions <4m, >66%

Fissile Silt-shale Mud-shale Clay-shale

Non-fissile Siltstone Mudstone Claystone

genetic element by distinguishing between different hydrodynamic regimes, i.e. lines can be used to delineate energy gradients between those of a lower energy (i.e. clay dominated mud) to higher energy levels where silt dominated mud occurs .

Table 4. Classification of mudrocks (After Stow, 1980)

Tucker (1991, p91) only states that a mudstone is a blocky non fissile rock and that a shale is usually laminated and fissile. Krynine (1948) determined that fine grained rocks were either siltstones or shales, with the rocks being either gritty or unctuous to the touch respectively. There have been many textural

classifications for recent, unconsolidated fine grained sediments which are based on ternary diagrams, for example see Figures 3 and 4, whose end-points are clay, silt and sand (Trefethen, 1950; Shepard, 1954; Folk, 1954; Krumbien and Sloss, 1963; Folk et al, 1970 and Flemming, 2000). Although Shephard has no name for a sand-silt-clay mixture of roughly equal proportions, others such as Flemming call this mixture of particle sizes mud and unlike the previous multi parameter
Figure 4. Hydrodynamic nomenclature based on sand-siltclay ratios (After Flemming, 2000)

Very few of the sediment ternary diagrams to extend the terminology to the sediments respective indurated equivalents: however, Folk (1974) and MacQuaker and Adams (2003) both successfully achieve this, see Figures 5 and 6.

classifications given in Tables 2 to 4, the ternary diagram is a single parameter

classification based upon particle size.

Figure 3. Sediment nomenclature based on sand-silt-clay ratios. (After Shepard, 1954)

Flemming (2000) believes that his textural classification also incorporates a

Figure 5. Nomenclature of fine grained rocks (After Folk, 1974)

Page 5 of 12

Terminology and Classification of Fine Grained Sedimentary Rocks

It is worth noting that whist Folk sees a distinction between a claystone, a siltstone and mudstone, each still contain up to 10% sand. On the other hand MacQuaker and Adams note that all rocks (those with greater than 50% of materials being 63microns or less in size) which contain a mixture of clay, silt and sand are mudstones.

unknown.

Picards laboratory classification

builds upon the field-based textural terms supplementing them using clay mineralogy and modal analysis of mineral composition.

However, the final resultant name becomes all rather confusing when the textural root is then followed by conventional sandstone

compositional terms which in turn is preceded by clay mineral terms e.g. a silty mudstone, illite-sublitharenite.

Descriptive Laboratory Classifications Lewan (1979) attempts a laboratory classification of very fine grained (less than 5 microns) material only which is based purely upon textural and compositional criteria. Mudstones contain 65% to 45% by volume of microscopic material; whereas shales contain more than 65% by volume. Shales are further subdivided claystones,
Figure 6. Nomenclature of mudstones (After MacQuaker and Adams, 2003)

into

named

subclasses and

of

marlstones

micstones

depending upon the silicate content of the rock. The root names, i.e. mudstone or shale derivative, are given a preceding primary adjective based upon mineral composition e.g. calcitic marlstone. Spears (1980) classification is based upon the percentage of quartz and fissility, see Table 5.
% quartz >40 30-40 20-30 10-20 <10 Fissile Flaggy siltstone Very coarse shale Coarse shale Fine shale Very fine shale Non-fissile Massive siltstone Very coarse mudstone Coarse mudstone Fine mudstone Very fine mudstone

Lundegard and Samuels (1980) devised a simple classification for fine grained rocks based upon particle size and the presence, or otherwise, of stratification. Mudstones are described as non-laminated rocks containing between 33% and 66% silt; whereas shale, is reserved as a suffix for laminated rock materials containing 66% to 33% silt,

(mudshale) and 33% or less of silt (clayshale). Picard (1971) presented both a field classification and a laboratory classification of fine grained sedimentary rocks. In the field Picard proposes to use textural criteria, namely

Table 5 Classification of fine grained rocks (After Spear,

particle size. In the field a mudstone is specifically a rock composed of a mixture of clay, silt and sand. Under no circumstances is the term mudstone to be used as a general term for materials for which the size distribution is

1980)

In this classification particle size data is an uncertain quantity and it is far better to use the quartz content directly as determined by X-

Page 6 of 12

Terminology and Classification of Fine Grained Sedimentary Rocks

ray diffraction (XRD). He summarises simply that shale is a fissile or laminated rock, whereas a mudstone is neither fissile nor laminated. Weaver (1980) was dissatisfied with the poor definition of rock names and the inconsistency of terms such as shale and mudstone, and so did away with both terms and proposed a simple classification based upon particle size and the percentage of phyllosilicates (physils), i.e. clay minerals, determined by XRD, see Table 6.
Particle size & proportions 4-63m., >50% <4m, >50% >50% Physils Physil Siltstone Physil Claystone <50% Physils Physilic Siltstone Physilic Claystone

Selley (1988), like Weaver, is also unhappy that the terms mudstone and shale are so poorly defined in literature and alternatively uses a composition ternary diagram where the apices represent pure carbonate, pure clay minerals and pure organic matter to determine the nomenclature to be used for fine grained sedimentary rocks, see Figure 7. Moore (2005) using a combination of particle size data, pore size data and a

petrographic

observations

devised

classification which suggests that fine grained rocks are either a) floc-dominated whose structure is supported by the clay matrix or b) silt or sand-rich mudrocks whose structure is supported by a silt/fine sand framework.

Table 6. Classification of fine grained rocks (After Weaver, 1980)

Genetic Classifications Although very straight forward Weavers simple and logical classification is problematic and does not correspond easily to usage: for example what would happen in the situation where a fine grained rock containing more than 50% siliclastic material, less than 63 microns in size, is actually a three component aggregate of clay, silt and sand, where neither clay nor silt were in excess of 50% - how would it be classified? Some classification systems have

utilised both descriptive and genetic criteria such as Grabau (1913) where he devised an elaborate classification system using particle size and composition but also went further to further subdivide the classes based on the agent of formation or environment of

deposition. Krumbien (1947) who divided fine grained rocks based upon their aerial extent, uniformity and lithological associations

produced a tectonic classification of fine grained materials into platform and basin types. Other classifications which are genetic, but not specific to fine grained rocks, include the works of Trowbridge (1914); Weeks (1952) and Doeglas (1968).

Figure7. Nomenclature based upon composition (After Selley, 1988)

Page 7 of 12

Terminology and Classification of Fine Grained Sedimentary Rocks

Discussion The original question asked is there a difference between a mudstone and a shale? Well its clear that it depends upon who you ask, as there is no consensus. Rodgers (1950) felt that the term mudstone has been used in so many senses that it should be abandoned. Whereas it is felt by Selley (1988) that the term shale could perhaps be usefully abandoned by geologists. Since geologists cannot agree on which terms to preserve and retain, it could be a reason why Carr and Hibard (1991) did not include any fine grained rocks in their open-ended rock classification. The classification is based upon a rocks textural characteristics and mineralogical composition. It allows a neural network computer algorithm to accesses a very limited database and compare it to any given unknown sample: but by their own admission if someone was to examine the database rocks such as shales/clays, and siltstones are absent altogether. Not a very practical classification for fine grained rocks. Despite the lack of agreement upon rock names, it would appear that particle size is being used for classification to the greatest extent, with indurated rocks having the same particle size as the unconsolidated materials from which their name has been derived from, e.g. silt and siltstone. Although this will work adequately for material such as sand and sandstone, it would appear that not much thought has gone into the significant textural changes that clay-mineral rich fine grained materials undergo during burial diagenesis, i.e. the particle size becomes coarser. Clay-sized clay minerals notably increase in size and become silt-sized and with pressure an increase during in

(Weaver, 1990, p10). Put simply, rocks can be clay-mineral rich but not clay sized. Also, there seems to be a general consensus by most that shale is a fissile fine grained sedimentary rock and that mudstones are non-fissile. If fissility was taken as a

defining characteristic of fine grained rocks there is still contention regarding its

applicability. As Aplin and MacQuaker (2010) state The word shale...should be used with caution as it implies fissility. It is believed by some that that fissility is a derived property determined by the degree of weathering and water content (Ingram, 1953). As all rocks are massive when subjected to overburden

pressure, it stands to reason that rocks commonly do not develop fissility until they have been brought to the surface and weathered to some degree. Therefore shales, in the common sense, do not exist in the subsurface (Weaver, 1990) but laminated fine grained rocks such as mudstones may be potential shales. Wadell sedimentological foundation developed incomplete, of a (1938) noted that the nomenclaturelacks rational and

logically in an

classification, truncated,

resulting and

inconsistent

nomenclature. This is well demonstrated in the aforementioned non-exhaustive list of classifications for fine grained sedimentary rocks. Pettijohn (1957, p239) stated The argillaceous group of sediments is a hybrid class A satisfactory classification of the materials (has) yet to be worked out. Over 50 years later and a universal classification has still not been worked out. Perhaps there will never be a uniform classification of fine grained sedimentary

temperature

burial

Page 8 of 12

Terminology and Classification of Fine Grained Sedimentary Rocks

rocks. Various classification schemes have been and will continue to be created to meet the specific individual needs of an

Weaver (1980) the presence of fissility will not be used as criteria for classification, as the materials being dealt with are from the subsurface and have not been subjected to any weathering per se. The terms for sedimentary stratification which will be applied, are given below in Table 7, and are based upon the

investigation, be it for a given region, basin or stratigraphic unit (Schieber and Zimmerle, 1998) rather than a single universal solution.

Conclusions For the purposes of future study all fine grained sedimentary rocks that contain more than 50% of material finer grained than 63 microns will have the generic group term argillaceous rocks applied: using the definition of argillaceous to mean clay-mineral rich (Millot, 1970, p35). Ideally any classification should be comprehensive, scientifically sound,

works of Ingram (1954) and Hallsworth and Knox (1999). Thickness of Layer (mm)
No apparent internal structure

Term Massive Very thick bedded Thick bedded Medium bedded Thin bedded Very thin bedded Thick laminated Medium laminated Thin laminated Very thin laminated

>1000 300-1000 100-300 30-100 10-30 5-10 1-5 0.5-1 <0.5

unambiguous, practically oriented, easy to use and avoids unclear, undefined terminology. The advantages of such a classification are the standardisation in the reporting of results and their effective communication between users. We believe that particle size is the most important parameter to be used for describing and classifying argillaceous rocks. Therefore the classification scheme proposed here

Table 7. Terminology for sedimentary stratification in argillaceous rocks.

subdivides argillaceous rocks into subclasses of siltstone, mudstone or claystone, based upon the following particle size definitions and proportions, see Figure 8.

References Alling, H.L. 1943. A metric grade scale for sedimentary rocks, J. Geol., 51, 261263. Alling, H.L. 1945. Use of microlithologies as illustrated by some New York

sedimentary rocks. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull,. 56, 737-755 Aplin, A.C. and MacQuaker, J.H.S., 2010. Getting Started in Shales. APPG Data Pages - Getting Started Series. Blatt, H., Middleton, .G.V. and Murray, .R.C.,
Figure 8. Classification of argillaceous rocks.

1980. Origin of Sedimentary Rocks, 2nd Edition, Prentice-Hall Inc., New Jersey

Stratification is also considered to be an important parameter and in agreement with

Page 9 of 12

Terminology and Classification of Fine Grained Sedimentary Rocks

Blatt,

H.,

1982.

Sedimentary

Petrology:

sedimentary-rock Geol., 62, 344-359.

nomenclature.

J.

Freeman, New York Burgess, D.J., 2006. Colloids and Colloid

Folk, R.L., 1965. Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks. 2nd Edition Hemphills

Drug Delivery System. In: Swarbick, .J. (ed) Encyclopaedia of Pharmaceutical Technology. Healthcare. Carr, J. R. & Hibard, M. J., 1991. Open-ended mineralogical/textural classification. Computers rock & 3
rd

Bookstore, Austin. Folk, R.L., 1974. Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks. 3rd Edition Hemphills

Edition,

Informa

Bookstore, Austin. Grabau, A.H., 1913. Principles of stratigraphy. Seiler & Company, New York. Griffiths, J.C., 1967. Scientific method in analysis of sediments New York. Hallsworth, C.R. & Knox, R.W. OB. 1999. BGS Rock Classification Scheme McGraw-Hill,

Geosciences, 17, 1409-1463. Cerato, A.B., 2001. surface area Influence of specific on geotechnical

characteristics of fine-grained soils. Unpublished MSc Thesis, Department of Civil and Environmental of

Volume 3: Classification of sediments and sedimentary rocks. British

Engineering, Massachusetts

University

Geological Research Report RR 99-03: Nottingham. Holmes, A., 1937 The age of the Earth. 2nd of New Edition. Thomas Nelson & Sons Ltd, London. Hooson, W., 1747. The Miners Dictionary. T.

Clarke, F. W., 1924. Data of geochemistry. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull., 770. Correns, C.W., 1969. Introduction

mineralogy. York Doeglas, D.J.,

Springer-Verlag,

1968.

Grain-size and

indices,

Payne, Wrexham. Hopkins, C.G. 1899 A plea for a scientific basis for the division of soil particles in mechanical analysis: US Dept. Agri. Dep. Chem. Bull. 56, 64-66. Ingram, R.L., 1953. Fissility of mudrocks. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 64, 869-878. Ingram, R.L., 1954. Terminology for thickness of stratification and parting units in sedimentary rocks. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 65, 937-938. Krumbien, W.C., 1934. Size frequency

classification

environment.

Sedimentology, 10, 83-100. ISO (International Organization for Standardization), 2003. EN ISO 14689-1:2003,

Geotechnical investigation and testing. Identification and classification of rock - Part 1: Identification and Description. ISO, Geneva, Switzerland, Flemming, B.W., 2000. A revised textural classification of gravel-free muddy sediments on the basis of ternary diagrams. Continental Shelf Research, 20, 1125-1137. Folk, R.L., 1954. The distinction between grain size and mineral composition in

distributions of sediments. J. Sed. Petrol. 4, 65-77. Krumbien, W.C., 1947. Shales and their environmental significance. Petrol. 17, 101-108. J. Sed.

Page 10 of 12

Terminology and Classification of Fine Grained Sedimentary Rocks

Krumbien, W.C. Stratigraphy

& Sloss, L.L., 1963. and sedimentation.

Potter, P. E., Maynard, J. B. & Pryor, W. A. 1980. Sedimentology of Shale. SpringerVerlag, New York. Rodgers, J., 1950. The nomenclature and classification of sedimentary rocks. Am. J. Sci., 248, 297-311. Selley, R.C., 1988. Applied Sedimentology, Academic Press, London. Schieber, J. & Zimmerle, W., 1998.

Freeman, San Francisco. Krynine, P.D., 1948. The megascopic study and field classification of sedimentary rocks. J. Geol., 56, 130-165. Lewan, M.D., 1978. Laboratory classification of very-fine grained sedimentary rocks. Geology, 6, 745-748. Lundegard, P.D. Field & Samuels, .N.D., 1980. of fine-grained

Petrography of shales: A survey of Techniques. Zimmerle, Mudstones Petrophysics, In: W. Schieber, (eds) II: J. & and

classification

sedimentary rocks. J. Sed. Petrol. 50, 781-786. MacQuaker, J.H.S. and Adams, A.E., 2003. Maximizing information from finegrained sedimentary rocks: an inclusive nomenclature for mudstone. Res. 73., 735-744. McKee, E.D. & Weir, for G.W., 1953. and J. Sed.

Shales

Petrography, and

Geochemistry

Economic Geology. Schweizerbartsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart. Shepard, F.P. 1954 Nomenclature based on sand-silt-clay ratios. Jour. Sed. Petrol. 24, 151-158. Shrock, R.R., 1948. A classification of sedimentary rocks. J. Geol., 56, 118129. Simonson, R.W., 1999. Sources of particle-size limits for soil separates. Soil Survey

Terminology

stratification in

cross-stratification

sedimentary

rocks. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 64, 381-390. Millot, G., 1970, Geology of Clays. Springer, New York. Moore, J., 2005. Integration and of the

Horizons, 40, 50-58. Spears, D.A., 1980. Towards a classification of shales. J. Geol Soc. London, 137, 125129. Stow, D. A.V., 1981. Fine-grained sediments: Terminology. Q.J. eng. Geol. London, 14, 243-244. Stow, D.A.V. and Piper, D.J.W., 1984. Deepwater fine-grained sediments; history,

sedimentological properties of

petrophysical samples.

mudstone

Unpublished PhD Thesis, School of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Pettijohn, F.J., 1948. A preface to the

classification of sedimentary rocks. J. Geol., 56, 112-117. Pettijohn, F.J., 1975. Sedimentary Rocks, 3 Edition, Harper and Row, New York Picard, .M.D., 1971. Classification of finegrained sedimentary rocks. J. Sed. Petr., 41, 179-195.
rd

methodology and terminology. Geol. Soc. London, Special Publications 15, 3-14. Tourtelot, H.A., 1960. Origin and use of the word Shale. Am. J. Sci., 258, 335-343. Trefethen, J.M., 1950. Classification of

sediments. Am. J. Sci., 248, 55-62.

Page 11 of 12

Terminology and Classification of Fine Grained Sedimentary Rocks

Trowbridge, A.C., 1914. A classification of common sediments and some criteria for identification of the various classes. J. Geol., 22, 420 436. Tucker, M.E., 1991. Sedimentary Petrology. Blackwell London. Twenhofel, W.H., 1939. Environments of Origin of Black Shales. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull., 23, 1178-1198. Udden, J.A., 1898. of Library The Wind Mechanical Deposit. 1: Scientific Publications,

Composition Augustana

Publications

Lutheran Augustana Book Concern, Rock Island, Illinois. Udden, J.A., 1914. The mechanical

composition of clastic sediments. Geol. Soc., Am. Bull., 25, 655-744. Waddell, H.K., 1938. and Proper names, J.

nomenclature

classification.

Geol., 46, 546-568. Wentworth, C.K., 1922. A scale of grade and class terms for clastic sediments. J. Geol. 30, 377-392. Weaver, C.E., 1980. Fine-grained rocks: shales or physilites. Sedimentary Geology, 27, 301-313. Weaver, C.E. 1990. Clays, muds and shales. Elsevier: New York. Weeks, L.G., 1952. Factors of sedimentary basin development that control oil occurrence. Am. Assoc. Petroleum

Geologists Bull., 36, 2110-2124.

Page 12 of 12