Ba-332 Intro - To Information Technology

BA-332 INTRO.
TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
What is Information Technology?.............................................................1-1 Hardware..................................................................................................1-2 Software....................................................................................................1-3 Communication........................................................................................1-3 System Components.................................................................................1-3 Types of Software.....................................................................................1-4 Communication Medium..........................................................................1-4
UNIT 2: TYPES OF COMPUTERS..............................................2-1

2.1 Microcomputers........................................................................................2-2 2.1.1 Types of PCs..................................................................................2-2 2.1.2 Configuring a PC...........................................................................2-3 Network Computers..................................................................................2-3 Workstations.............................................................................................2-4 Mainframes...............................................................................................2-5 Supercomputers........................................................................................2-5
2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
UNIT 3: INPUT DEVICES.............................................................3-1

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Introduction..............................................................................................3-2 Keyboard..................................................................................................3-2 Mouse.......................................................................................................3-2 Touch Panel..............................................................................................3-2 Scanners....................................................................................................3-2 3.5.1 Optical Character Recognition.......................................................3-3 3.5.2 Optical Bar Recognition.................................................................3-3 3.5.3 Optical Mark Recognition..............................................................3-3 Pointing Devices.......................................................................................3-3 Magnetic Stripes.......................................................................................3-4 Smart Card................................................................................................3-4 Sound Input...............................................................................................3-4 Digital Camera..........................................................................................3-4
3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10
UNIT 4: OUTPUT DEVICES.........................................................4-1

4.1 4.2 Introduction..............................................................................................4-2 Monitors....................................................................................................4-2 4.2.1 Monitor Size...................................................................................4-2 4.2.2 Monitor Resolution........................................................................4-2 4.2.3 Flat Panel Monitors........................................................................4-3 4.2.4 Touch Screen Monitors..................................................................4-3 Printers......................................................................................................4-3
4.3
4.4 4.5
4.3.1 Introduction....................................................................................4-3 4.3.2 Dot Matrix Painters........................................................................4-3 4.3.3 Laser Printers.................................................................................4-4 4.3.4 Ink-Jet Printers...............................................................................4-4 4.3.5 Plotters...........................................................................................4-4 LCD Projectors.........................................................................................4-5 Sound Output............................................................................................4-5
UNIT 5: PROCESSORS.................................................................5-1
5.1 5.2 Introduction..............................................................................................5-2 Components of a CPU..............................................................................5-2 5.2.1 The Control Unit............................................................................5-2 5.2.2 The Arithmetic and Logic Unit......................................................5-2 5.2.3 The Memory...................................................................................5-3 Serial and Parallel Processing...................................................................5-3 Platform....................................................................................................5-4
5.3 5.4
UNIT 6: STORAGE DEVICES......................................................6-1

6.1 6.2 6.3 Introduction..............................................................................................6-2 Magnetic Computer Tapes........................................................................6-2 Magnetic Computer Disks........................................................................6-2 6.3.1 Introduction....................................................................................6-2 6.3.2 The Diskette...................................................................................6-3 6.3.3 Hard Disks.....................................................................................6-3 Optical Disks............................................................................................6-3 Data Files..................................................................................................6-4
6.4 6.5
UNIT 7: TECHNOLOGY TRENDS..............................................7-1

7.1 7.2 7.3 Hardware Trends......................................................................................7-2 Implications of Increased Computerisation..............................................7-2 Emerging Technologies............................................................................7-3 7.3.1 Emerging Technologies for All the Senses....................................7-4 7.3.2 Emerging Technologies for the Internet Explosion.......................7-5 7.3.3 Emerging Technologies for the Wireless Revolution....................7-5 7.3.4 Emerging Technologies for Personal Life.....................................7-5
UNIT 8: APPLICATION SOFTWARE - PRODUCTIVITY.....8-1

8.1 8.2 Types of Software.....................................................................................8-2 Word Processing.......................................................................................8-2 8.2.1 Introduction....................................................................................8-2 8.2.2 Features..........................................................................................8-3
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8.3
8.4
Spreadsheets.............................................................................................8-4 8.3.1 Introduction....................................................................................8-4 8.3.2 How a Spreadsheet Works.............................................................8-4 8.3.3 Application of Spreadsheets...........................................................8-5 Databases..................................................................................................8-5
UNIT 9: APPLICATION SOFTWARE - OTHERS....................9-1

9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 Desktop Publishing...................................................................................9-2 Electronic Mail.........................................................................................9-2 Digital Image Processing..........................................................................9-2 Voice Processing......................................................................................9-3 Presentation Software...............................................................................9-3 9.5.1 Select a Template...........................................................................9-4 9.5.2 Create an Outline for a Presentation..............................................9-4 9.5.3 Compile and Create Other Nontext Resources..............................9-4 9.5.4 Integrate Resources........................................................................9-4 9.5.5 Add Special Effects........................................................................9-4 9.5.6 Add Notes......................................................................................9-4 9.5.7 Make the Presentation....................................................................9-4
UNIT 10: SYSTEM SOFTWARE................................................10-1

10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Introduction............................................................................................10-2 The Operating System............................................................................10-2 Objectives of the Operating System.......................................................10-3 Graphical User Interface.........................................................................10-4 10.4.1 Text-based Software....................................................................10-4 10.4.2 Graphical-based Software............................................................10-4 Utilities...................................................................................................10-5 10.5.1 Introduction..................................................................................10-5 10.5.2 Functions of Utilities....................................................................10-5
10.5
UNIT 11: COMPUTER LANGUAGES......................................11-1

11.1 11.2 Introduction ...........................................................................................11-2 What is a 4GL?.......................................................................................11-3
UNIT 12: METHODS OF SOFTWARE ACQUISITION.........12-1

12.1 12.2 Introduction............................................................................................12-2 Custom Developed Software..................................................................12-2 12.2.1 Introduction..................................................................................12-2 12.2.2 Advantages...................................................................................12-2 12.2.3 Disadvantages..............................................................................12-2
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12.3
Packaged Software.................................................................................12-3 12.3.1 Introduction..................................................................................12-3 12.3.2 Advantage....................................................................................12-3 12.3.3 Disadvantages..............................................................................12-4
UNIT 13: COMMUNICATION MEDIUM.................................13-1

13.1 13.2 The Communication Channel.................................................................13-2 Communication Media: Wire and Wireless...........................................13-2 13.2.1 Twisted Pair Wire........................................................................13-2 13.2.2 Coaxial Cable...............................................................................13-3 13.2.3 Fiber Optics Cable.......................................................................13-3 13.2.4 High Speed Wireless....................................................................13-4 13.2.5 PCs Communicating Without Wires............................................13-5 Common Carriers...................................................................................13-5 Data Transmission in Practice................................................................13-6
13.3 13.4
UNIT 14: NETWORKS................................................................14-1

14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 14.9 Introduction............................................................................................14-2 Network Topology..................................................................................14-2 Types of Networks..................................................................................14-2 Local Area Networks..............................................................................14-2 Advantages of Networks........................................................................14-3 Wide Area Networks..............................................................................14-4 Value-Added Networks..........................................................................14-4 Metropolitan Area Networks..................................................................14-4 Tiny Area Networks...............................................................................14-4
UNIT 15: TELECOMMUNICATION........................................15-1

15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 Introduction............................................................................................15-2 Communication Hardware......................................................................15-2 The Modem.............................................................................................15-2 Network Interface Cards.........................................................................15-3 Special Function Communication Devices.............................................15-3 Network Configuration Factors..............................................................15-4
UNIT 16: TELECOMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT...............16-1

16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 Overview................................................................................................16-2 Telephone...............................................................................................16-2 PABX......................................................................................................16-2 Voice Service..........................................................................................16-3 Fax..........................................................................................................16-3 Telex.......................................................................................................16-3
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
UNIT 17: PROCESSING TECHNIQUES..................................17-1

17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 17.7 Online Processing...................................................................................17-2 Real-Time Processing.............................................................................17-2 Configuration for Real-Time System.....................................................17-3 Interface of Online Systems...................................................................17-3 Batch Processing.....................................................................................17-3 Procedure for Batch Data Processing.....................................................17-3 Validation...............................................................................................17-4
UNIT 18: GOING ONLINE.........................................................18-1

18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 The Internet.............................................................................................18-2 Going Online..........................................................................................18-2 The World Wide Web.............................................................................18-3 Who Controls the Internet?.....................................................................18-3 Connecting to the Net.............................................................................18-3 Retrieving and Viewing Information......................................................18-4
UNIT 19: SOFTWARE INTERFACES......................................19-1

19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 Human-Computer Interaction.................................................................19-2 Commands..............................................................................................19-2 Menus.....................................................................................................19-2 Form Display..........................................................................................19-2 Dialogue..................................................................................................19-2 Graphical User Interface.........................................................................19-3 19.6.1 Introduction to Windows.............................................................19-3 19.6.2 Using Windows............................................................................19-3 19.6.3 Advantages...................................................................................19-3 Ergonomics.............................................................................................19-4 Multimedia..............................................................................................19-5
19.7 19.8
UNIT 20: TELECOMMUNICATIONS CONCEPTS...............20-1

20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9 20.10 Importance of Telecommunications.......................................................20-2 Type of Communication Networks........................................................20-2 Data Encryption......................................................................................20-2 Bandwidth, Speed and Cost of Transmission.........................................20-2 Communications Standards....................................................................20-3 Videotex/Viewdata.................................................................................20-3 Teletext...................................................................................................20-3 Comparing Videotex and Teletext..........................................................20-4 Videoconferencing..................................................................................20-4 Telecommuting.......................................................................................20-4
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UNIT 21: DATA FILES & DATABASES...................................21-1

21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 21.7 21.8 21.9 21.10 21.11 Introduction............................................................................................21-2 File Organisation....................................................................................21-2 Redundancy in Data Files.......................................................................21-3 Databases................................................................................................21-3 DBMS.....................................................................................................21-4 Data Dictionary.......................................................................................21-5 Advantages of Databases........................................................................21-5 Disadvantages of Databases...................................................................21-5 Creating a Database Environment..........................................................21-5 Physical and Logical Records.................................................................21-6 File Structures for Interrelating Data......................................................21-6
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UNIT 1 Introduction to Information Technology
Copyright 1995 by Thames Management Centre International. All right reserved. No part of this lecture notes may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without the permission in writing from Thames.
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1.1
What is Information Technology?
Most successful companies, collect, process and store data. Data are raw facts and everyday, we generate an enormous amount of data. Information is data that has been collected and processed into a meaningful form. Information is necessary for the smooth operations of a successful company and for planning and control. With the large amounts of data that a company has to deal with, a less labour intensive and more efficient method of managing information is required. This is where the technology of the computer is used. Thus, Information Technology refers to the integration of computing technology and information processing. A more formal definition of IT is: The acquisition, processing, storage and dissemination of vocal, pictorial textual and numeric information through the use of computer technology and telecommunication. In an information society, knowledge workers focus their energies on providing a myriad of information services. The knowledge workers job function revolves around the use, manipulation and dissemination of information. Combining the technology of the computer and communication, information can be managed more efficiently. Using IT in business leads to the following benefits: Cheaper Faster More accurate
The technology itself can be divided into computer hardware and software and communications.
1.2
Hardware
Hardware is the physical, tangible equipment that is part of a computer system. Hardware can be classified into the following components, according to the type of work it performs. Input Output Processing Storage
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UNIT 2 Types of Computers
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2.1
Microcomputers
Microcomputers, also called Personal Computers (PC), are the most recent type of computer to be developed. In 1981 IBM introduced the PCs. They are the smallest types of computers. Conventional PCs have a full keyboard, a monitor, and can function as stand-alone systems. 2.1.1 Types of PCs PCs can be categorised as: Pocket PCs
These are light, compact and highly portable. They have batteries and can operate with or without an external power source. The pocket PC, sometimes called a palmtop, can literally fit into a pocket or a handbag. Laptop PCs
These, at about 3 kilograms, are slightly heavier than the pocket PC. Often called a notebook PC because they are about the size of a thick notebook. The power of the PC may not be related to its size. Some user conveniences must be sacrificed to achieve portability. For instance, input devices, such as keyboards and point-and-draw devices are given less space in portable PCs and may be more cumbersome to use. The display screen on some pocket PCs is monochrome (as opposed to colour) and may be difficult to read under certain lighting situations. Portable computers take up less space and therefore have a smaller capacity for permanent storage of data and programs. Laptop battery life can be as little as a couple of hours for older models to 20 hours for state-ofthe-art rechargeable lithium batteries. Desktop PCs Tower PCs
Desktops and tower PCs are not portable because they rely on an outside power source and are not designed for frequent movement. Typically the desktop PCs monitor is positioned on top of the processing component. The processing component of the tower PC is designed to sit upright. The tower may be placed in any convenient location like the floor, nearby shelf or on the desk. One person at a time uses a PC. The user turns on the PC, select the software to be run, enters the data, and request the information. The PC like other computers is very versatile and has been used for everything from communicating business colleagues to controlling household appliances.
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Unlike the large computers, the processor is contained on one silicon chip, instead of a combination of chips. This processor in a PC is called a microprocessor. The common microprocessors today are the 80486 and the Pentium chips manufactured by Intel. 2.1.2 Configuring a PC: Putting the pieces together A typical multi-media configured PC includes the following A microcomputer (the processor and other electronic components) A keyboard for input A point and draw device for input (usually a mouse) A monitor for soft copy (temporary) output A printer for hard copy (printed) output A permanently installed high capacity hard disk drive for permanent storage of data and programs A floppy disk drive into which an interchangeable diskette, or floppy disk is inserted A CD-ROM drive into which an interchangeable CD-ROM is inserted A microphone (audio input) A set of speakers (audio output)
A PC system is configured by linking a wide variety of peripheral devices to the processor component.
2.2
Network Computers
In contrast to the conventional PC, the network computer or NC is designed to function only when it is linked to a server computer (normally an organisations internal network of computers). The NC looks similar to a PC but with several major configuration differences. First it has a relatively small processor and considerably less RAM than modern personal computers. Second, it does not have a permanent installed disk. And of course, it is less expensive than a stand alone PC. The NC depends on a central network server computer to do much of the processing and for permanent storage data and information.
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Here is the way an NC works. The network user has access to a wide range of applications. However, the software applications are downloaded as they are needed to the NC from a networks central computer. Whether or not to buy into the NC concept is one of major debates in the information technology community. Exchanging PCs for NCs will eliminate the expensive and time-consuming task of installing and maintaining PC-based software, but it will make all NCs dependent on the server computer. If the server goes down, all NCs depending on it go down. In the server computer of the NCs, the processor is much larger than the microcomputers and consists of more than one silicon chip. Similarly, the size of the RAM is significantly larger. The increased size of the CPU enables the server to be used by a number of NC at the same time, perhaps up to fifty. As technology improves, this number will increase. Along the larger processor, the server will employ hard disks with even larger storage capacity as backing storage and will often be used with faster printers.
2.3
Workstations
A workstation looks like a PC except that it is very fast. Speed is one of the characteristics that distinguish workstations from the PCs. In fact, some people talk of workstations as souped-up PCs. The PC was fine for word processing, spreadsheets and games, but for real power users engineers doing computer-aided design or CAD, scientist and researchers who do a lot of number crunching, graphic designers, multimedia content developers, and so on the PC sometimes falls short. The workstations input/output devices also set it apart from a PC. A typical workstation will sport a large-screen colour monitor capable of displaying highresolution graphics. For pointing and drawing, the workstation user can call on a variety of specialised point and draw devices that combine the precision of a gun sight with the convenience of a mouse. Add-on keypads can expand the number of specialised key available to the user. The capabilities of todays high-end PCs are very similar to those of low-end workstations. In a few years, the average PC will have workstation capabilities. Eventually the distinction between the two will disappear and we will be left with a computer category that is a cross between a PC and a workstation.
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2.4
Mainframes
Until the late 1960s, all computers were mainframe computers and they were expensive. Large companies shell out $1.5 million and more for mainframe computers with less power than todays $1,000 PCs. In the late 1960s computer vendors introduced smaller computers that were more affordable for smaller companies. These were called minicomputers. This term is seldom used today. Instead they are called midsized computers. Mainframe computers are designed specifically for the multi-user environment, in contrast to PCs and workstations, which frequently are used as stand-alone computers. The amount of work that can be performed by the mainframe computer system is limited primarily by the speeds of the input/output and storage devices. Mainframe computers have very large processors with several hundred Megabytes of RAM. This allows them to be used by many users at the same time, maybe 200 or more. This type of computer would usually be used with very large and fast peripheral devices and with many hard disk units. Since the number of users can be so high, there is quite a large processing task to control the flow of data between the computer and all the terminals. For this reason, most mainframe computers use a minicomputer to handle this activity, thereby leaving the mainframe free to process the data. In these circumstances, the minicomputer is referred to as a Front End Processor (FEP).
2.5
Supercomputers
Supercomputers are used to process very large amounts of data very quickly. The speed of the supercomputer may be 100 times that of a large mainframe computer. These are representative supercomputer applications: Enable the simulation of airflow around an airplane at different speeds and altitudes. Auto manufacturers use supercomputers to simulate auto accidents on video screens. Meteorologist employ supercomputers to study how oceans and the atmosphere interact to produce weather phenomena. Hollywood production use supercomputers to create the advanced graphics used to create special effects for movies and TV commercials.
The CRAY T90 supercomputer is one of the most powerful general-purpose computers.
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1.3
Software
Hardware only becomes useful when it is instructed to perform activities. Software comprises the set of instructions which tell the hardware what to do. The purpose of software is to cause the computer to provide the user with the data processing facilities required. These instructions are usually combined in a sequence. A set of such instructions is called a program. Software are divided into: System Software Application Software
1.4
Communications
Today, telecommunications is intimately bound with information technology. Essentially, for maximum performance, computers must be linked to each other in order to exchange information. This can be done by cabling (if the computers are located close to each other), or, more commonly, by using the telephone network to transmit data.
1.5
System Components
A computer system is made up of 4 hardware components, namely input, processing, output and storage. Input Device A device which transfers data and programs to the internal memory. Output Device A device which receives the results of processing from the processor. Processor The main unit of a computer system. It accepts data from a input device, executes instructions and performs operations on data as specified by the internally stored program and outputs the results to an output device. Storage Device A computers auxiliary bulk storage device providing for the storage of data and programs until required for processing activities.
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1.6
Types of Software
System Software The system software takes control of the computer on start up and then plays a central role in all interactions with the computer components. Application Software This is designed and created to perform specific personal, business or scientific processing task.
There are many different types of software, but are put into 2 main groups:
1.7
Communication Medium
In the global village, we can communicate with people electronically as easily as we might have a conversation with a neighbour. Depending on the distance between the computers, we may use one or more of the following medium: a) Computer Cables Within the home or company premises, computers can be connected directly to each other or in a network. b) Telephone Network Outside the home or company premises, we use the national telephone network or link across countries through one or more telephone systems. c) Undersea Cables and Satellite Systems Over longer distances or across oceans, the undersea cables and satellite systems may be used.
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UNIT 3 Input Devices
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3.1
Introduction
Computers are electronic devices which operate in a way not easily understood by humans. It is necessary to have equipment that will convert the signals used by computers into a form that can be used by humans and vice-versa. This is the role of input and output devices. Input devices make it easier for non-technical, untrained users to input data accurately and quickly. Over time different forms of such devices have been introduced to suit varying requirements.
3.2
Keyboard
Probably the most familiar of the input devices is the keyboard. Generally this resembles the QWERTY type keyboard common on most typewriters. Unlike the typewriter keyboard, however, the computer is extended to contain up to 102 keys, which include a number pad, a series of special function keys and some keys to control the cursor on the screen.
3.3
Mouse
The mouse is a small, plastic device which is connected to the computer by a small cable. It can be moved across a tabletop and the cursor will move across the screen in the same way. The cursor is a light square or line which appears on the screen. Where the cursor is in the same position on the screen as a desired item, the item can be selected by pressing a button on the mouse. This saves the user having to type in the desired selection.
3.4
Touch Panel
Another device to assist selection of items on a screen is the touch panel. This is a touch sensitive plastic sheet which is placed on the screen and connected to the computer. The user can select items by touching the part of the touch pad at the location where the described item is on the screen. This will cause the touch pad to send an electrical signal to the computer and select the desired item.
3.5
Scanners
A scanner can be used to capture an image of a document or a picture and store this in the computer. In this way, both graphics and text can be stored and retrieved. Stored images can be used for a number of purposes. Graphics can be incorporated into reports and newsletters. Scanned documents can be retrieved easily and reprinted, instead of having to search through the registry. In the retail sector, source data automation is made possible by the use of scanners. Laser scanners could be mounted on checkout counters, in handheld consoles or penbased. Scanning technology has made the following possible: 3.5.1 Optical Character Recognition (OCR) This is the ability of the scanners to read text information into a computer system. It captures pre-determined format (like a typed letter) or non-determined format (like your handwriting). OCR captures information and put it into an editable format. 3.5.2 Optical Bar Recognition (OBR) Reading of bar codes is one of the most widely used scanner technologies. Bar codes represent alphanumeric data by varying the size of adjacent vertical lines. There are a wide variety of bar coding systems. Information must be in a predetermined format. 3.5.3 Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) The scanner detects the presence or absence of a mark in a pre-determined place. The information must exist in pre-determined format on paper.
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3.6
Pointing Devices
There is a wide variety of pointing devices similar to the mouse. Trackball The trackball is a ball inserted in a small external box near the keyboard. The ball is rolled with the fingers to move the mouse cursor. Some people like to think of the trackball as an upside-down mouse with a bigger ball at the bottom.
Trackpad The trackpad has no moving parts. One simply moves a finger about a small touch sensitive pad to move the mouse cursor.
Trackpoint Trackpoints are usually positioned in or near a laptops keyboard. They function like miniature joysticks but are operated with the tip of the finger.
Joystick The joystick is a vertical stick that moves the mouse cursor in the direction the stick is pushed. Joysticks are commonly used in video arcade games.
Digitizer tablet and pen The digitizer tablet and pen has a pen and a touch sensitive tablet whose X-Y coordinates correspond with those on the computers screen display.
3.7
Magnetic Stripes
The magnetic stripes on the back of charge cards and badges are another example of data entry at the source. The magnetic stripes are encoded with data appropriate for specific applications. For example, account numbers and identification numbers are encoded on a card for automatic teller machines. Magnetic stripes hold more data than the printed bar codes. Since they are also not read easily, they are perfect for storing confidential data.
3.8
Smart Card
The smart card looks like any other charge card except it has a an embedded microprocessor with up to 32 KB of non-volatile memory. Because the smart card can hold more information, has processing capability and is almost impossible to duplicate, smart cards may replace cards with magnetic stripes. A stored value card is an example of the smart card.
3.9
Sound Input
A microphone captures data that originate in audio form. The sound data can be reproduced later or converted to text using a speech recognition system.
3.10 Digital Camera

A digitised image is captured when a digital camera is used. This image may be stored into a diskette or on board flash memory.
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UNIT 4 Output Devices
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4.1
Introduction
New technology has resulted in the development of different output devices that serve a variety of purposes. The quality of the output has improved at a continually reducing cost. In this chapter, we shall review various output methods and devices.
4.2
Monitor
The most familiar of all output devices is the Monitor or the Visual Display Unit (VDU). When the terms screen or display are used, we refer to the part of the monitor where the output is shown. The graphic adapter is the device for the monitor. All display signals en route to the monitor pass through the graphics adapter, where the digital signals are converted to analog signals compatible with the monitors display capabilities. Most existing graphics adapters have their own RAM called video RAM or VRAM, where they prepare monitor-bound images for display. The size of the VRAM is important in that it determines the number of possible colours and resolution of the display, as well as the speed at which signals can be sent to the monitor. A minimum of 2 MB of video RAM is recommended. The newer AGP graphics adapters enjoy much better performance by using the PC systems RAM directly.
4.2.1
Monitor Size
Display screens vary in size from 5 to 30 inches (measured diagonally). The monitor size of desk top PCs is up to 17 inches.
4.2.2

Monitor Resolution
Monitors vary in quality of output or resolution. Resolution depends on: The number of pixels that can be displayed The number of bits used to represent each pixel The dot pitch of the monitor
Pixels is the smallest addressable point on the screen. Most monitors can be set at a resolution ranging from 640 by 480 to 1600 by 1200. Each pixel can be assigned a colour. Most colour monitors mix red, green and blue to achive a spectrum of colours and are called RGB monitors. When each pixel is 8-bit mode, there are possible 256 colours. The 16-bit mode has 65,536 possible colours. The dot pitch is the distance between the centers of adjacent pixels. Any dot pitch equal or less than .28 mm provides a sharp image.
4.2.3
Flat Panel Monitors
Laptop PCs use flat panel monitors. The most common technology uses Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) using millions of transistors.
4.2.4
Touch Screen Monitors
Touch screen monitors permit input as well as output.
4.3
Printers
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4.3.1
Introduction
Printers produce hard copy outputs, such as management reports, academic term papers, cash register receipts, labels, memos, check, etc. There are various types of printers available which give a variety of different results. There are two main categories of printer: Impact printer
Dot matrix printers Non-impact printer
Laser printer Ink-jet printers
4.3.2
Dot Matrix Printers
The dot matrix printer is the most inexpensive printer. This is an impact printer. Most impact printers used in the office today are dot matrix printers. The dot matrix printer form images one character at a time as the printer head moves across the paper. The dot matrix uses from 9 to 24 tiny pins to hit an ink ribbon and paper much as a typewriter does. The dot matrix printer arranges printed dots to form characters and all kinds of images. Dot matrix printers print up to 450 cps (characters per second). Most dot matrix printers can accommodate both cut sheet paper and fanfold paper. The tractor feed that handles fanfold paper is standard with most dot matrix printers. Impact printers, unlike nonimpacts, touch the paper and can produce carbon copies along with the originals. The greater the density of pins, i.e. the greater the number of pins in the matrix, the better the definition of the letter will be, resulting in a higher printer quality. It follows that the more pins in the matrix, the more the printer will usually cost.
4.3.3
Laser Printers
The Laser printer is the most common type of non-impact printer. These printers use a laser to mark the parts of the page where the text or image is to be formed. The paper is passed through a toner solution where the marked areas pick up the toner and the text becomes visible. Laser printers print on standard letter size paper. These printers print at 4 to 32 pages per minute for text printing. Most of the laser printers in use print shades of grey, however, colour laser printers are becoming increasingly popular as their price continues to drop. Printing in colour or graphic images may slow down output to about 25% of the text and non-colour speed. The resolution of the low-end desktop printer is 600 dots per inch (dpi). High-end printers, which are sometimes called desktop typesetters are capable of at least 1200 dpi. The dpi is the number of dots that can be printed per linear inch horizontally and vertically. Laser printers are quiet but are the most expensive.
4.3.4
Ink-Jet Printers
To the naked eye there is little difference between the print quality of some ink-jet printers and laser printers. Resolutions for the typical ink-jet printers are about similar to that of the laser printers. Printing speed range from 4 to 12 page per minute (ppm). Ink-Jet printers are also able to print on normal paper. They work by spraying ink directly onto the appropriate parts of the paper using small jets. The quality of ink-jet printers is generally high and use of different colour inks can be made for more complex prints. One major advantage is that inkjet printers can print on a wide variety of surfaces, in addition to paper, which makes them quite versatile. Bubble-jet printers are ink-jet printers. The colour ink-jet printer is emerging as the choice of budget-minded consumers.
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4.3.5
Plotters
Laser, ink-jet and dot matrix printers are capable of producing page-size graphic output, but are limited in their ability to generate large-scale, high quality perfectly proportioned graphic output. Architects, engineers, graphic artists, city planners, and others who routinely generate highprecision, hard copy output of widely varying sizes use another hard copy alternative called plotters. Plotters use ink-jet technology to print on roll-feed paper up to 4 feet wide and 50 feet in length. Plotters are used in large printing needs such as commercial posters and blueprints. They can be used to produce continuous output such as charts and earthquake activities.
4.4
LCD Projector
Computer generated graphics can be recreated on paper and transparency acetates with printers. Graphic images can also be captured on 35-mm slides, displayed on a monitor or projected onto a large screen. The projection of images on the large screen uses the LCD projector. The LCD projectors use their own built-in lens and light source to project the image onto the screen.
4.5
Sound Output
The recording and playback of audio messages in a telephone message sometimes makes it seem like we are talking to the computer. This is an example of the voice response system. Like monitors, voice response systems provide temporary soft copy output. The recording converts sounds into digital data stored on disk or memory chips. When output occurs, a particular sound is converted back into analog before routed to a speaker. All you need to produce speech and sound on a PC are sound expansion card and speakers (or headsets) and appropriate software.
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UNIT 5 Processors
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5.1
Introduction
The processor component of the personal computer system is a microprocessor or the CPU. The processor runs the show and is the nucleus of any computer system. It can be thought of as the brains of the computer, where the actual processing (thinking) is executed. The CPU varies from fingernail size to a postage stamp size.
5.2
Components of a CPU
a. b. c. The control unit; The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU); The memory
The CPU is made up of 3 main parts:
These parts are linked to each other and to the peripheral devices, such as input and output devices, through circuitry.
5.2.1
The Control Unit
The control unit is the part of the CPU that controls the activities of the rest of the components both within and outside the CPU. It has three primary functions: Read and interpret program instructions Direct the operation of internal processor components Control the flow of programs and data in and out of RAM
5.2.2
The Arithmetic and Logic Unit
The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) is the part of the CPU which actually performs all computations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) and all logic operations (comparisons). Examples of computations include payroll, inventory levels, and banking services. The logic operation compares two pieces of data, either alphanumeric or numeric. Based on the result of the comparison, the program branches out to one of several alternative sets of program instructions. For example, in an inventory system each item in stock is compared to a reorder point at the end of each day. If the inventory level falls below the reorder point, a sequence of program instructions is executed that produces a purchase order.
5.2.3
The Memory
The memory is used for the direct storage of information. Data and programs are held in the memory for the period that it might be used for processing. There are two kinds of memory, namely: a. b. RAM (random access memory) ROM (read only memory)
RAM enables data to be both read and written to memory. RAM is an electronic circuitry and has no moving parts. Most new PCs are equipped with synchronous dynamic RAM (SDRAM). This is able to synchronise itself with the processor, enabling the data transfer at more than twice the speed of the previous RAM technologies. RAM is volatile memory. That is, when the electrical current is turned off, or interrupted, the data is lost. In contrast to permanent storage on disk, Ram provides the processor with only temporary storage for programs and data. All programs and data must be transferred to RAM from an input device (such as a keyboard) or from a disk before programs can be executed and data can be processed. Once a program is no longer in use, the storage space it occupied is assigned to another program awaiting execution.
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The ROM (read only memory) cannot be altered by the user. The content of ROM is hard-wired by the manufacturer and can be read only. When you turn on the PC system, a program in ROM automatically readies the computer system for use and produces the initial display screen prompt. A programmable Read only memory (PROM) is one where the user can load read only programs and data.
5.3
Serial and Parallel Processing
In a single processor environment, the processor addresses the programming problem sequentially, from beginning to the end. The processing speed is therefore limited by the speed of the channel. This is called serial processing. Parallel processing involves having more than one processor and breaking the programming problem into pieces. Work on each of these pieces is then executed simultaneously in separate processors, all of which are part of the same computer system. In parallel processing, one main processor examines the programming problem and determines what portion of the problem can be solved in pieces. Those pieces that can be addressed separately are routed to other processors and solved. The individual pieces are then reassembled in the main processor for further computation, output or storage.
5.4
Platform
A platform defines the standard for which software is developed. Specifically, a platform is defined by two key elements: The processor for example, Intel Pentium II, Intel Pentium III, Intel Celeron, Motorola PowerPC, etc. The operating system for example, windows 2000, Mac OS X, Unix, etc.
Generally, software created to run on one platform is not compatible with any other platform. The dominant PC platform is the Wintel PC. Wintel PCs use the Microsoft Windows control software and an Intel Corporation or Intel compatible processor. The other remaining PCs uses the Apple Macintosh line of computers or the Apple iMac line of computers. The Macintosh uses the Mac OS operating system and the iMac uses Apples next generation operating system, the Mac OS X. Both are powered by Motorola PowerPC processors.
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UNIT 6 Storage Devices
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6.1
Introduction
The memory components of the CPU are quite expensive. Furthermore, they are volatile. For these reasons, it is not practical to use the main memory to store large amounts of data permanently for future usage. In practise, different devices are used for the storage of data over a long period of time. The common storage devices are: a. b. c. Magnetic computer tapes Magnetic computer disks Optical disks
6.2
Magnetic Computer Tapes
In terms of storage devices, tape is quite a cheap medium. However, this medium also has its limitations. If the tape is used to store data which is not required quickly, as a security back-up for example, then it is a cheap means of doing so. If the data has to be easily accessible, irrespective of the order in which it is stored, then tapes will require too much time to find the require data to be efficient. The saving on the cost of the tape will be lose due to the increased cost of retrieving data held on the tape. Magnetic tape has three important functions: Protection against loss of valuable files Archiving files File portability
6.3
Magnetic Computer Disks

6.3.1 Introduction
Disks are more expensive than tapes but have significant advantages. In terms of the speed of retrieving data, disks are much faster than tapes. This is partly because it makes no difference where on the disk surface the required data is stored, since it can be accessed directly. Each disk is divided into tracks and sectors. The main types of disk are: a. b. The diskette The hard disk
6.3.2
The Diskette
Three types of interchangeable disk drives are commonly used in the PCs. They are the traditional floppy disk, the high capacity SuperDisk and Zip disk. The traditional 3.5 inch diskette, or floppy disk, is a thin mylar disk that is permanently enclosed in a rigid plastic jacket. It has 1.44 MB of storage space. The SuperDisk can store 120 MB of data. Both the floppy disk and Superdisk are of the same size but have different disk density. Disk density is the number of bits of data that can be stored per unit area on the disk surface. The SuperDisk drive reads from and writes to the traditional floppy disk but not vice versa. The Zip drive reads and writes to 100 MB Zip disks. The diskettes are not attached to the computer. Instead, they are inserted into a device called a disk drive mounted on the computer. In this way, different disks can be used as and when required.
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This, of course, means that when a disk is full, another can be used so there is no restriction on the amount of data which can be stored.
6.3.3
Hard Disks
The two main objectives of the hard disk manufacturers are to put more data in less disk space and to enable a more rapid transfer of data to and from RAM. The two main types of hard disk are those that are permanently installed and those that are interchangeable. Permanently installed or fixed hard disk are 1 to 5.25 inch permanent PC based hard disk has storage capacities of 4 GB to over 30 GB. Hard disks have data stored on both surfaces of the disk. The disk spin continuously in a sealed enclosure. The enclosure keeps the disk surface free from contaminants. This contaminant free environment allows hard disks to have greater density of data storage than the interchangeable diskettes. The interchangeable hard disks are getting more popular. The 3.5 inch Iomegas Jaz drive can store 1 GB of data and is inserted and removed as easily as the 3.5 inch floppy.
6.4
Optical disks
The primary advantage of optical disks is that they are direct access forms of storage that can store vast amounts of data in a relatively small physical space. An optical disk device uses laser beams to store and retrieve data. It works just like a compact disk player for a stereo system. One laser beam writes to the recording surface by making pits in the disk and another reads the data from the light sensitive recording surface.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS a. CD-ROM
BA332
One type of optical disk is the CD-ROM (compact disk read-only memory). Similar in concept to a ROM chip, these disks are read-only. Many PCs today have a CDROM drive installed. CD-ROMs offer a huge storage capacity (compared to floppy disks) at a relatively low cost. The capacity of a single CD-ROM is 680 MB. The CD-ROM is manufactured by using special lasers to burn crevices in the disk. The spiral track on a CD-ROM is about 3 miles long with about 2 billion pits. Once the master CD-ROM has been created, copies can be manufactured using techniques similar to those used to produce music CDs. Popular CD-ROM drives are classified simply as 24X, 32X and 40X. This means they spin at 24, 32, and 40 times the speed of the original CD standard. b. Recordable CD (CD-R) For users who want to record data, a compact disk writer is used. This is a device which uses a more powerful laser than a CD-ROM laser to record onto a CD-R. The recordable compact disk is different from the CD-ROM. c. Magneto-Optical Disk The Magneto-Optical Disk is presently known as DVD (digital video disk). The DVD can store up to 10 GB of data each. It is also backward compatible. This means that it can play all CD-ROMs and CDs. who want to record data, a compact disk writer is used. This is a device which uses a more powerful laser than a CD-ROM laser to record onto a CD-R. The recordable compact disk is different from the CDROM
6.5
Data Files
Organisational data, in order to be useful, has to be structured in such a way as to facilitate ease of retrieval. This is achieved by grouping common data together in files. This is not a new concept with computerisation. Manual office systems used files to structure the information and computer systems follow the same logic. The way in which data files for computerised systems are structured follows a set pattern. It is perhaps easiest to consider an example. A common file in an organisation is the employee file in which all data relating to employees is held. The file is divided into records. In an employee file, a record would be all the data relating to one employee. The file for an organisation with 500 employees, therefore, would contain 500 records. Each record is divided into fields. The field is a particular data item which relates to a record. In an example, the employees name would be one field, date of birth another. Each record in a file would have the same set of fields. Each employee record, for example, would have a date of birth field.
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UNIT 7 Technology Trends
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7.1
Hardware Trends
We are seeing the use of computers in more and more places not used earlier. They are also found now in places quite unexpected by some people. In the field of commerce, medicine, entertainment, government, and especially in communications, the computer is being seen as getting indispensable to do more and better. The processor chip is already found in most electronic and mechanical equipment. a. Lower Cost and Greater Capability Advances in materials science, manufacturing, and concepts of computing promise to maintain the historic growth pattern in hardware power. Hardware prices have dropped while their capability has increased. The improved capabilities of the computer include higher speed and larger storage capacity. b. Better Reliability Hardware has become more reliable and has found uses in new and hostile environment not suitable earlier. There is greater confidence in using and knowing that the computer system you have will not fail when needed. c. Portability Computers are becoming smaller and more portable. This can be seen in the notebook and palmtop computers. Some computers have shrunk to become wearable.
7.2
Implications of Increased Computerisation
The hardware trends have resulted, and will continue to result in greater usage of computers and information processing. Many or all aspects of a business organisation will be touched by the use of computers. The increased presence of computers brings with it a number of issues and risks.
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BA332 a. Ethics
The use of computers in this electronic age is raising new ethical questions. A code of ethics provides direction for computer professionals and users so that they act responsibly in their application of information technology. A well-meaning professional may violate a code of ethics because they may unaware of the tremendous detrimental impact of their actions. With the speed and power of computers, a minor code infraction easily can be magnified to a costly catastrophe. b. Misuse of Personal Information Many people are afraid of the new technology because they fear the loss of privacy. The fear that computer based record keeping offers too much of an opportunity for the invasion of an individuals privacy. For example, credit card users unknowingly leave a trail of activities and interest that when examined can provide a surprisingly comprehensive personal profile. The monitoring of e-mail by companies on their staff is seen by some as a violation of their privacy. Monitoring was to discourage non-business messages and to keep employees focused on job-related activities. The responsible use of e-mail can boost productivity. When abused, it can be counter-productive. c. Computer Crime There are many types of computer crimes, ranging from the use of an unauthorised password by a student to a billion-dollar insurance fraud. Computer crime is serious and the greatest amounts are linked to banking, insurance, product inventories, securities, etc. Fortunately only a small percentage of people with an inclination to commit crime are capable of committing high-tech crimes. Criminals, like everyone else are moving towards information technology competency. d. Negligence and Incompetence Not all computer crime is premeditated. Negligence or incompetence can be just as bad for an organisation. Such crimes are a result of poor input/output control. For example, errors in data entry may result in unpaid bills when actual payments have been properly made. e. Hacking Hackers or crackers are those that hack through a network security. They tap into the network of commercial companies up to military high security installations. These criminals steal passwords, credit card numbers and vandalise web sites.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS f. Software Piracy
BA332
Intellectual Property Laws have been set up to protect the rights of software creators. Generally, an original software can only be installed to one original computer unless stated in an agreement. g. Viruses Viruses are written by outlaw programmers to cause harm to the computer systems of unsuspecting victims. Examples are Melissa, Chernobyl, Michelangelo, Friday the 13th, Stoned and Jerusalem. Antivirus software is needed to routinely detect and eliminate these harmful programs. h. Security Proper administrative and logical controls are necessary to prevent or minimise the chances of deliberate and unintentional crimes.
7.3
Emerging Technologies
Many businesses are embracing new and high tech tools to offer its services to the world. Information Technology is one of the most rapidly changing and dynamic aspects of the business world. Emerging technology falls into two types: It is a technology that is so new that most businesses have not exploited it. It is a technology that is fairly well established, but businesses have not fully exploited it.
The first type includes electronic cash, and shopping in the internet. The use of multi-media is included in the second type. For both types, their importance lies in learning about them so as to use them effectively. Emerging technologies can be grouped into four categories:
7.3.1

Emerging technologies for all the senses
These include applications that incorporate one or more of the following features: Three dimensional images Automatic speech recognition Multi-media Virtual reality
7.3.2

Emerging technologies for the Internet explosion
New technologies for the Internet continue to emerge. These includes: Electronic cash Communication through the internet such as internet telephony
7.3.3
These includes:
Emerging technologies for the wireless revolution
Smart phones
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Global positioning systems Wireless local area networks
7.3.4
Emerging technologies for personal life
These include intelligent home appliances and smart cards. These technologies will definitely make personal life easier and more exciting.
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UNIT 8 Application Software - Productivity
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8.1
Types of Software
a. b. a. Application software System software Application Software This is the set of instructions or programs which make the computer perform a particular task which will satisfy a processing requirement of the user. An example is the inventory system. Application software are tools that save time, increase productivity and provide better presentation of information. b. Systems Software This is the set of instructions or programs which create a computer environment within which the applications software can work. Therefore, applications software determines what processing is done by the computer. Systems software determines how that processing will be done by the computer.
Software falls into two categories. These are :
8.2
Word Processing
8.2.1 Introduction
The name of this software is virtually self-explanatory. A word processor is an application software which allows the user to manipulate text so as to produce documents accurately and efficiently. The software will provide the user with the blank screen page onto which text can be entered. Once the text is on the page, it can be altered with the greatest of ease, thereby allowing the correction of errors and, perhaps more importantly, allowing the author of the document to change his mind. When a document is finally complete, and the author wants it, then it can be printed and saved. The software will allow multiple copies of the same document to be printed at the touch of a button. If a word still turns out to be incorrectly spelt, the document can be called up again, the correction made without retyping the whole document, and the page printed.
8.2.2
a.
Features
Page Formatting Some processors will allow the user to select different print fonts, set a variety of tab stops, indent margins on the left or both sides and select single, double or treble spacing.
b. Word Wrap One of the most important features of word processor is that of word-wrap. With most typewriters, when the end of a line is reached, the bell rings to alert the user to the need to press the carriage return to start a new line. With the word-wrap facility, the user merely continues to type and the word processor will continue onto a new line when required, without splitting words in the middle of them. Similarly, when the end of the page is reached, the software will simply scroll the old page up the screen and a new page will appear automatically at the bottom.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS c. Block Functions
BA332
Most word processors allow the user to identify blocks of text which can be manipulated together. Blocks can be moved, copied or deleted. This facility is often used to allow transfer of blocks of text from one document (or file) to another, thereby allowing the repeated use of standard paragraphs in several documents. d. Mail Merge The more sophisticated word processors also allow a function known as mail merge. This is where a standard letter or other document can be produced, leaving gaps for details of the recipients name and address. These details, for a number of recipients, can be entered onto another file and the two merged together at the time of printing. This process would result in a copy of the document, complete with name and address, for each of the recipients held on the second file. Such a facility is nowadays often used in mailshots and circular. e. Spell Checkers Another feature which is of great use to users is that of the spelling checker. This facility allows the user to check the spelling of any, or all, the words in the document prior to printing. The software checks the spelling against an internal dictionary and a personal one which would contain entries such as peoples names. One slight disadvantage is that much of this software is produced in America and results in the spelling checker questioning words which are spelt differently in British to America. There are, however, spelling checkers available which use the British spellings. f. Thesaurus Finally, and as an extension to the spelling checker, there are now word processors which have the facility to a thesaurus to provide alternative words for the user. This again is quite a useful tool and avoids having to use a manual method.
8.3
Spreadsheets
8.3.1 Introduction
A spreadsheet is essentially a grid made up of columns and rows. Numbers can be input into cells and formulas defined to perform numerical computation. Spreadsheets are used to perform repetitive financial computations. There are several different spreadsheet packages on the market.
8.3.2
How a Spreadsheet Works
Despite the variation in the features and purchase price of each, they are all based on the same basic concept. The software, when loaded, fills the screen with a grid formed of columns and rows. This resembles an electronic sheet of squared paper. Each of the squares is known as a cell and each cell can contain either numbers, characters of formulae which are entered and manipulated by the user. Each sheet of cells is known as a worksheet. Just as squares on a map can be identified by their gird reference, so the cell on a worksheets can be uniquely identified by a combination of letters and numbers by which the rows and columns are named. This is called the cell address. If a cell contains a number, the number can be used in calculations elsewhere in the worksheet by the use of a formula. A formula uses the numbers from other cells by referring to the address of the cell which contains the number. The package will use the number in the cell referred to, regardless of its value. This means that if you change the number in the cell, the new value will be used in the calculation without having to rewrite the formula. It is this ability to establish relationships between cells, independently from the actual content of the cells, which makes the spreadsheets such a valuable financial tool. Spreadsheets come with a variety of commands which allow the user to manipulate and copy data, set display formats and, often, produce graphical output. In the less sophisticated spreadsheets,
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these commands have to be remembered by the user whereas in the more sophisticated packages, there is a menu system which acts as a prompt from which the user can select. The presentation of numerical data can be greatly enhanced with the use of graphs. In the more sophisticated spreadsheets, a variety of different types of graph can be produced from the data on the worksheet. In broad terms, the more you pay, the more you get. This relates not only to the number of different types of graph, but also how easy it is to define and produce the graphs.
8.3.2
Application of Spreadsheets
As mentioned above, the most common use of spreadsheet packages is in the financial field. The ability to define the relationships between cells using formula enables the user to perform whatif? analyses. An example of this would be a cash flow forecast for business which would entail an estimate of potential profits based on estimates of sales income minus costs of the sales and overheads. Once the formulae are set up, the values of the differences reflect the cash flow. Thus a number of scenarios can be examined with little effort.
8.4
Databases
A database is a collection of related data items that are stored together for use in many application systems. In a company, we can find many application systems (e.g. personnel system), each of which has one or more users. These applications may store all their data in a single database. Thus, many users will read or access data in that single database. Users will usually access the database indirectly, by using the application system (e.g. personnel system). The application systems themselves do not access the database directly, but will use another software called the Database Management System (DBMS).
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UNIT 9 Application Software - Others
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9.1
Desktop Publishing
An office technology that is currently enjoying considerable popularity is desktop publishing (DTP). Desktop publishing involves the use of desktop microcomputer systems that are equipped with special hardware and/or software features, to produce documents that look as though they were done by a professional print shop. In using these systems, users can combine word-processed text with such elements as artwork, photos, and a variety of magazine style fonts. The overall effect can be stunningly attractive. DTP systems allow users to combine a variety of graphical fonts onto a page, use pre-stored art images (call clip art) on pages, and draw lines and boxed to highlight text or art. Fonts and clip art can also be purchased as add-ons from third-party vendors to extend the library of options offered for sale by the original-package vendor. In some DTP systems, more sophisticated options are available. For instance, one can digitise complex arty images such as photos, which are composed of a variety of halftones to which only high levels or resolution can do justice. Also, there is a much greater variety of options available with fonts and clip art. For example, both fonts and clip art can be scaled to a variety of sizes and can be created or edited, as well.
9.2
Electronic Mail
Electronic mail (or E-mail) is the second largest EUC applications area, behind word processing. It refers to the technology used to send messages or documents from one electronic workstation to another. For instance, employees within a large organisation may have electronic mailboxes that are managed by a mainframe, minicomputer, or local area network. When these employees access a workstation, they can call up their personal file or mailbox on the E-mail system to see if there are any messages. Or, they can send a message to place in someone elses mailbox. These types of E-mail systems are typically standard components in integrated office packages.
9.3
Digital Image Processing
Images can be created using input devices or electronically copied from other sources. It could contain text, graphics or photographic data or a combination of these. The data can be stored, distributed, accessed and processed by computers and special-purpose workstations. Digital image processing requires certain basic hardware and software. A scanner will be used to transform physical images into electronic digitised images, which must be indexed and compressed. Database management software handle the accessing of the indexed images. Workstations comprise high resolution monitors to display images as well as large storage capacities to store image files.
9.4
Voice Processing
Voice processing is a relatively new area. It can be limited to voice input processing, voice output, or both. In the case of voice input processing, hardware and software are used to decipher speech and transform it into computer signals. Often, the system has to be taught how to recognise commands of the main person who will be using it. An example is found in some PCs where a microphone is attached to process voice input. These systems are called speech recognition systems. Voice output is also starting to be seen in some offices where the result of processing is a verbal message. For example, lifts in offices may be programmed to announce the floor. Often this is actually a pre-recorded message. The challenge is to be able to perform voice synthesis such that the computer can actually pronounce any word.
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A truly interactive system where commands and questions are issued verbally and where a machine can interactively respond (both in action and in verbal responses) is still some time in the future. A speech recognition system captures both command and information that originate in audio form. Speech becomes converted to text when there are appropriate software and hardware. An example of software is generic vocabulary database while an example of hardware is a high quality microphone with noise cancelling capabilities.
9.5
Presentation Software
PC based presentation software have in many instances replaced overhead projectors and slide projectors. Presentation software lets you create highly stylised images for group presentations, self-running slide shows, reports and other situations that requires the presentation of organised visual information. The software gives a rich assortment of tools to create a variety of charts, graphs and images to help to make the presentation. The following are steps to prepare a presentation using presentation software:
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9.5.1
Select a Template
Presentation software comes with many templates. Design templates are predesigned formats and complementary colour schemes with preselected background images that can be applied to any content material. Content template go one step further and suggest content for specific subjects; for example, business plan, project overview, employee orientation, etc.
9.5.2
Create an Outline for a Presentation
PowerPoints tri-pane view lets you view the slide, outline and notes at the same time. This view makes it easy to add new slides, edit text, and enter notes while creating a presentation. The outline feature helps you organise your presentation material into a multilevel outline. People often import their outline from a word processing document.
9.5.3
Compile and Create Other Nontext Resources
A good presentation will include some or all of the following: photo images, charts and graphs, a variety of eye catching clip arts, and even full motion video captured with digital camera. With presentation software, you can create a variety of charts from data imported from a spreadsheet or a database.
9.5.4
Integrate Resources
Once all the text and visual resources have been compiled, it is time to integrate them into a visually appealing presentation. Non text resources are added as and when needed, usually using the outline first. The slide sorter is used as it shows thumbnail images for all or much of the presentation on a screen. The slide sorter makes it easy to add or delete slides and to rearrange them to meet presentation needs.
9.5.5
Add Special Effects
PowerPoint can make visually interesting transitions between slides during a presentation. Effects like fading out text while fading in graphics can be used. Text and objects can be animated like flying in effects. Sound effects makes the presentation more exciting.
9.5.6
Add Notes
Each slide can have corresponding notes. Notes and slides can be printed together as audience handouts.
9.5.7
Make the Presentation
The presentation can be to a single audience or to a group by projecting to a large screen. Or it can be a self-running information center where screens are preset to display in a timed sequence.
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UNIT 10 System Software
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BA332
10.1 Introduction
The Operating System and Graphical User Interface (GUI), both System Software, are at the heart of the software action. All other software depends on and interacts with the operating system, the software that controls everything that happens in a computer. Its graphical user interface (GUI) provides a user-friendly interface to the operating system. System software encompasses those programs that manage, maintain, and control computer resources. Programs designed to be used by the end user are application software. The figure below shows the relationship between system and application software. Computer Games Human Resource Management Tax Planning CAD Operating System Graphical User Interface Expert System Spreadsheet Sales Summary Income Statement Office Inventory Loan Evaluation System Investment Management System
Relationship between System and Application Software
10.2 The Operating System

Just as the processor is the nucleus of the computer system, the operating system is the nucleus of all software activity. Windows 2000, Windows 98, Windows NT, Mac OS X, and Unix are popular operating systems for PCs and workstations. The Operating System is actually a family of system software programs that monitor and control all I/O and processing activities within the computer system. The computer system vendor supplies the operating system when you buy a computer. One of the operating system, often called the Kernel, loads other operating system and applications programs to RAM as they are needed. The kernel is loaded to RAM on system start up and remains resident available in RAM until the system is turned off. All hardware and software are under the control of operating system.
10.3 Objectives of the Operating System

In a general purpose computer such as a PC or a companys Internet server, the operating system provide the flexibility to tackle a variety of jobs. In dedicated computers like those in the arcade games, controlled by a single function program, there is no need for a separate operating system. All operating systems are designed with the same basic objectives in mind. However, mainframe and PC operating systems differ markedly in complexity and orientation. On the mainframe, multiuser operating systems coordinate a number of special function processors and monitor interaction with hundreds, even thousands of terminals and PCs in a network. Most PC operating systems are designed primarily to support a single user on a single micro. This PC may or may not be linked to a network. a. To facilitate communication between the computer system and the people who run it. - The interface through which users issue system related commands is part of the operating system. To facilitate communication among computer system components. The operating system facilitates the movement of internal instructions and data between peripheral devices, the processor, programs, and the computers storage.
b.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS c. d. e.
BA332
To Maximise throughput. The operating system coordinates system resources to maximise throughput, the amount of processing per unit of time. To minimise the time needed to execute a user command. In todays interactive systems, even small decreases in user wait time pay big dividends in user efficiency. To optimise the use of computer system resources. - The operating system is continually looking at what tasks need to be done and what resources (processor, RAM, and peripheral devices) are available to accomplish these tasks. The incredible speed of a computer system dictates that resource-allocation decisions be made at computer speeds. Each millisecond the operating system makes decisions about what resources to assign to each tasks. To keep track of all files in disk storage. The operating system and its file and disk management utility programs enable users to perform such tasks as making back up copies of work disk, erasing disk files that are no longer needed, making inquiries about the number and type of files on a particular disk, and preparing new disk for use. The operating system also handles many file- and disk- oriented tasks that are transparent (invisible) to the end user. For example, operating system keep track of the physical location of the disk files so that we, as users, need only refer to them by name (for example, myfile or year-end-summary) when loading them from disk to RAM. To provide an envelope of security for the computer system The operating system can allow or deny user access to the system as a whole or to individual files. Examples of specific security measures are passwords. To monitor all systems capabilities and alert the user of system failure or potential problems. The operating system is continually checking system components for proper operation. Any problems are brought immediately to the attention of the user.
f.
g.
h.
10.4 Graphical User Interface

To better appreciate the impact of graphical user interface (GUI), it helps to know what precede them.
10.4.1 Text-based Software

Through the 1980s, the popular operating system, MS-DOS, was strictly text-based, commanddriven software. That is, we issued commands directly to DOS by entering them on the keyboard, one character at a time. For example, if wished to issue a command to copy a word processing document from one disk to another for your friend, you might have entered copy c:\myfile.txt a:\yourfile.txt via the keyboard at the DOS prompt, C:\>. C:\>copy c:\myfile.txt a:\yourfile.txt When using command-driven, text-based software you must be explicit. If you omitted necessary information in a command or the format of the command was incorrect, you would get one of those dreaded error messages.
10.4.2 Graphics-based Software

Today, relatively few computers run with purely text-based operating systems. For the past decade, the trend in PC operating systems has been towards a user friendly, graphics-oriented environment the graphical user interface, GUI (pronounced G-U-I or gooie). GUIs rely on graphics based software, which permit the integration of text with graphic images. All modern operating systems, including the Windows 9x/NT/2000 operating systems provide GUIs. GUI users interact with the operating and other software packages by using a pointing device (example, mouse) and a keyboard to issue commands. Rather than enter a command directly, as in a command-driven interface, the user chooses from options displayed on the screen. The equivalent of a syntax-sensitive operating system command is entered by pointing to and
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choosing one or more operations from menus or by pointing to and choosing a graphics image, called an icon. An icon is a graphic rendering that represent a processing activity or a file. GUIs have eliminated the need for us to memorise and enter cumbersome commands. For example, in GUIs all we have to do to cpy a file from one disk to another disk is to click and drag the files icon from one area on the screen to another.
10.5 Utilities
10.5.1 Introduction
Utilities are programmes which perform tasks that are often required by end-user, or other programmes. Many of them, especially for microcomputers, come as part of the operating system. With larger systems, some of the utilities are separate. Most of these are file handling utilities such as copying and moving files which allow the user to perform housekeeping activities.
10.5.2 Functions of Utilities

a. File Management This covers a wide variety of tasks that users will perform to copy, delete, rename files and so on. Typical file management utilities are: Producing directory listings of files Copying files Renaming files Deleting files b. Backup and restore Making backup copies of the contents of the entire hard disk is rather difficult without a utility. Backup utilities compress the contents so that less diskettes are used. They also facilitate recovery should it be necessary.
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UNIT 11 Computer Languages
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11.1 Introduction
Computer languages can be categorised into: a. b. c. d. a. Machine Language Assembly Language High Level Language Very High Level Language Machine Language Machine code or machine or language is the lowest level of computer language and is in binary notation. This is the actual language that the computer can understand and execute. However, it is very difficult to code using nothing but binary notation. Creating programs machine language is a cumbersome process, so we write programs in more programmer friendly programming language. However, our resulting programs must be translated into machine language before they can be executed. b. Assembly Language The introduction of more user friendly programming language (in 1955) resulted in a quantum leap in programming convenience. Programmers could write a single instruction instead of several cumbersome machine language instructions. These early languages were procedure-orientated languages, which require programmers to solve programming problems using traditional programming logic. COBOL is a good example of a procedure oriented language. These languages are also called Assembly languages or low level languages. They must be translated into machine language by an assembler program. The assembly language is not written in binary notation. Instead, mnemonics or abbreviations are used to represent operations (e.g. SUB for subtract). This makes the language much easier to write in than machine code but it is still relatively tedious for a programmer who has to code in every detailed steps. c. High Level Language High level languages are a group of languages, which closely resemble the structures of English and are the easiest in which to program. There is less requirement on the programmer to specify so many details. One high level language command can represent several machine code instructions which means that the same can be achieved with fewer instructions in a high level language. In procedure-oriented language the emphasis is on what is done (the procedure). In object-oriented language, the emphasis is on the object of the action. The structure of object-oriented programming (OOP) makes programs easier to design and understand. Also OOP handles images, videos, and sound better than do procedureoriented languages. Examples of object-oriented languages include Smalltalk, and C+ +. High level languages are more complex and need to be translated into machine code. The language processors which perform this task are called compilers. d. Very High Level Language Very High Level Languages are also known as Fourth Generation Language (4GL). This name is given to a group of languages that allow end users to specify what the output should be without describing all the details of how the data should be manipulated to produce that result. Fourth generation languages use high level English-like instructions to retrieve and format data for inquiries and reporting. In 4GLs the programmer specifies what to do, not how to do it. e. Natural Language: The Ultimate Programming Language The State of the Art of Natural Languages
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There are no pure natural languages Currently pure natural languages that permit an unrestricted dialogue between us and a computer are being developed Advantages: Enable more people to take advantage of available information because even casual users can articulate their information needs in their native tongue For limited processing tasks, such as ad hoc inquiries and report generation
11.2 What is a 4GL?

A fourth generation language is an easy-to-learn, ease-to-use, high productivity language product that competes primarily in the applications domain once monopolised by High Level Languages. The choice of programming language is important in determining how lengthy the program will be and how long it will take to code. In general, using a High Level Language takes longer to code than if a 4GL were used. Some authors claim a 10 to 1 improvement when a 4GL is used over COBOL. The 4GL is a family of products rather than one specific product. Some 4GL products consist of only a language, designed to be used with one or more DBMS. Others are complete application environments that include a language and a DBMS. Each individual 4GL product may perform one or more of the following functions: a. Report Generation This enables a user or a programmer to produce reports quickly. Facilities are provided to allow data to be extracted from files or databases easily, and then classified or summarised in a report format. b. Retrieval and Update A typical 4GL will also be capable of performing online queries. This enables a user to make an inquiry quickly and if necessary, to perform an update as well. c. Graphics Generation A user will use this function to extract data from the database and present it in graphical format, e.g. line charts, bar charts, pie charts, etc. d. Application Generators 4GL with this capability enables the user or programmer to develop a set of programs that comprise an entire application system.
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UNIT 12 Methods of Software Acquisition
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12.1 Introduction
There are two approaches to acquiring software: a. b. Custom develop the software specially for your company; Buy software already developed and sold as a package.
12.2 Custom Developed Software

12.2.1 Introduction
Some businesses consider that their processing requirements are specific to their own organisation and they have the applications software developed specifically for them. To achieve this, there are two basic approaches: a. In-house development This would mean employing programmers and analysts and setting up an internal IT group. b. Contract an external software developer The company could use the services of a computer bureau or software house, especially if it was a small organisation, which couldnt afford a full-time development team. The resultant software is know as custom-developed or tailor-made software since it exactly fits the requirements of the organisation, just as a tailored suit exactly fits the purchaser.
12.2.2 Advantages
The advantage of this type of application software development is that the resultant programmes will exactly fulfill the processing requirements of the company.
12.2.3 Disadvantages
a. Higher Cost The cost of producing tailor-made software is high, just as tailored clothing is expensive. This is because the costs of developing the software are entirely borne by the one organisation instead of them being borne by many organisations.
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It is very unusual for software to be perfect when the programmers have finished their work. There is typically a period when the software is then operated where faults, or bugs, become exposed and have to be corrected. This can often cause serious inconvenience to the end-user and, in terms of lost time and efficiency, increases the overall cost of the software.
12.3 Packaged Software

12.3.1 Introduction
Packaged software is application software, which are commercially produced for a large market. Packaged software form the larger part of applications software market so the advantages clearly outweigh the disadvantages in many cases. In any event, it is up to the individuals concerned to assess whether it would be better to buy a packaged or have some software developed. This choice will depend on the particular business function (i.e. how normal or abnormal it is) and how much funds are available to the organisation.
12.3.2 Advantages
a. Lower Cost The most obvious and important advantage is that packages are significantly cheaper to buy than custom-developed software. This is because the package is sold to a large market and the development costs can be spread among a large number of purchasers. b. Less Software Defects Given the large market to which packages are sold, most of the problems which commonly beset new software have been ironed out prior to the introduction into the market place. It is good policy, however, to avoid pioneering by buying new software. It is always better to purchase software that has been available for some time and is well tried and tested. c. Better Documentation Again, given the scale of the applications package market, it is more feasible for the producers to provide good documentation to accompany the software. Clearly, this will make the package easier to use, which will make it more attractive to the market and therefore easier to sell. d. Training Easily Available The ease of use is also improved by the fact that it becomes viable for consultants and training organisations to offer training courses in using the packages.
12.3.3 Disadvantages
a. May Not Meet All Requirements The facilities that are offered by a package are not as specific to a business as tailor-made software and might not quite satisfy the processing requirements of the business. b. Less Efficient Since the system is designed for more general purposes than the custom developed software, the design may be less efficient. For example, a user may have to go through some unnecessary steps in processing which cannot be avoided.
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UNIT 13 Communication Medium
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13.1 The Communications Channel

A communications channel is the medium through which digital information must pass to get from one location in a computer network to the next. Most people use colloquial terms for communications channel, such as line, link, or pipe. Communications channels link PCs, servers, and other devices in an organisations network. They provide links between networks, whether across, down or on the other side of the world. And, they enable you, other individuals, and companies to access the Internet, which, itself, is made up of a variety of communication links.
13.2 Communication Media: Wires and Wireless

A variety of communication channels, some made up of wires and some without wires, carry digital signals between computers. Each is rated by its channel capacity or bandwidth. The channel capacity is the number of bits a channel can transmit per second. Channel capacity is the number of bits a channel can transmit per second. Channel capacities vary from 56,000 bits per second (bps), or 56 K bps (thousands of bits, or kilobits per second) to 622 M bps (millions of bits, or megabits per second). In practice, the word baud is often used interchangeably with bits per second. Technically speaking, however, it is quits different. But if someone says baud when talking about computer-based communications, that person probably means bits per second.
13.2.1 Twisted-Pair Wire

Twisted-pair wire is just what we think of as regular telephone wire. Each twisted-pair wire is actually two insulated copper wires twisted around each other. At least one twisted-pair line provides POTS (plain old telephone services) to just about every home and business in the world. Telephone companies offer voice-grade service. The other two services listed below may or may not be available in your area. POTS. When you call the telephone company and request a telephone line, it installs POTS. This analog line permits voice conversations and digital transmissions with the aid of a modem. Traditional modem technology permits data transmission up to 56 K bps. ISDN. Some applications demand a higher channel capacity than that available over voice-grade lines. One alternative, which can be delivered over a POTS line, is Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), a digital service. The ISDN line terminates at an ISDN modem (internal or external). The ISDN modem is then connected to a port on the computer. The ISDN line enables data transmission at 128 K bps, more than twice the speed of the fastest analog modem.
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The ISDN modem allows the lines channel capacity to be split such that one channel can carry a voice conversation while the other supports an electronic link between computers. ISDN lines have become popular for telecommuters who work at home but need to be networked to their officers computer system. ADSL. Another technology, Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL), has made it possible to receive data over POTS lines at 1.5 to 9 M bps (the downstream rate in megabits per second). In a few years, the downstream rate will be 52 M bps. The upstream rate (sending) is 16 to 640 K bps. Like ISDN, ADSL requires a special modem. ADSL opens the door for some amazing applications to be delivered over POTS lines. Applications include support for full-motion video, very highspeed transfer of graphics, and real-time applications involving a group of online participants.
13.2.2 Coaxial Cable

Most people know coaxial cable as the cable in cable television. Coaxial cable, or coax, contains electrical wire (usually copper wire) and is constructed to permit high-speed data transmission with a minimum of signal distortion. It is laid along the ocean floor for intercontinental voice and data transmission; its used to connect terminals and computers in a local area (from a few feet to a few miles); and it delivers TV signals to close to 100 million homes in America alone. Coaxial cable has a very wide pipe. That is, it is a high-capacity channel that can carry digital data at up to 10 M bps, as well as more than 100 analog TV signals. Internet access via cable TV coax cable is hundreds of times faster than POTS and 100 times faster than ISDN service. Cable television systems originally were designed to deliver television signals to subscribers homes. However, this same coaxial cable can be used to provide high-speed Internet access at reasonable prices. All over the United States, cable companies are updating their cable infrastructure to enable them to offer Internet access to subscribers. Initially cable Internet access companies are offering 1 M bps to 10 M bps service, significantly faster than POTS service and only slightly more expensive. A 10 megabits per second channel capacity is very inviting to the millions of people who are chugging along at 56 K bps over POTS lines. Linking to cable TV for Internet access requires a cable modem.
13.2.3 Fiber Optic Cable

Twisted-pair wire and coaxial cable carry data as electrical signals. Fiber optic cable carries data as laser-generated pulses of light. Made up of bundles of very thin, transparent, almost hair-like fibers, fiber optic cables transmit data more in-expensively and much more quickly than do copper wire transmissions media. The Internet backbone, the primary channels for Internet transmissions, is mostly fiber optic cable.
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In the time it takes to transmit a single page of Websters Unabridged Dictionary over twisted-pair copper wire (about 3 seconds), the entire dictionary could be transmitted over a single optic fiber. Each time a communications company lay a new fiber optic cable, the world is made a little smaller. In 1956, the first transatlantic cable carried 50 voice circuits. Then, talking to someone in Europe was a rare and expensive experience. Today, a single fiber can carry over 32,000 voice and data transmissions, the equivalent of 2.5 billion bits per second. Nowadays, people call colleagues in other countries or link up with international computers as readily as they call home. Another of the many advantages of fiber optic cable is its contribution to data security. It is much more difficult for a computer criminal to intercept a signal sent over fiber optic cable (via a beam of light) than it is over copper wire (an electrical signal).
13.2.4 High-Speed Wireless Communication

High-speed communications channels do not have to be wires or fibers. Data can also be transmitted via microwave signals or radio signals. Transmission of these signals is line-of-sight; that is, the signal travels in a straight line from source to destination. Microwave signals are transmitted between transceivers. Because microwave signals do not bend around the curvature of the earth, signals may need to be relayed several times by microwave repeater stations before reaching their destination. Repeater stations are placed on the tops of mountains, tall buildings, and towers, usually about 30 miles apart. Satellites eliminate the line-of-sight limitation because microwave signals are bounced off satellites, avoiding buildings, mountains, and other signal obstructions. One of the advantages of satellites is that data can be transmitted from one location to any number of other locations anywhere on (or near) our planet. Satellites are routinely launched into orbit for the sole purpose of relaying data communications signals to and from earth stations. A satellite, which uses microwave signals and is essentially a repeater station, is launched and set in a geosynchronous orbit 22,300 miles above the earth. A geosynchronous orbit permits the communications satellite to maintain a fixed position relative to the earths surface. Each satellite can receive and retransmit signals to slightly less than half of the earths surface; therefore, three satellites are required to cover the earth effectively. Internet access via satellite is available to companies and to individuals at speeds up to 48 M bps.
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13.2.5 PCs Communicating without Wires

PCs in the office and on the road can be linked via wireless connections. One of the greatest challenges and biggest expenses in a computer network is the installation of the physical links between its components. The wireless transceiver provides an alternative to running a permanent physical line (twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, or fiber optic cable). Two PC-based wireless transceivers, each about the size of a thick credit card, replace a physical line between any source and destination. For example, wireless communication is routinely used to link these devices: Desktop PC and laptop PC PC and local area network (LAN) PC and mainframe computer Terminal and multiplexor Laptop PC and page printer
The wireless transceiver hooks into a serial port or PCMCIA slot. Transceivers, which have a limited range (about 50 feet) link computers via omnidirectional (travelling in all directions at once) radio waves. In actuality, you can use transceivers only locally to connect computers in adjacent rooms or even on different floors. When using transceivers, the source computer transmits digital signals to its transceiver, which, in turn, retransmits the signals over radio waves to the other transceiver. Transceivers provide users with tremendous flexibility in the location of PCs and terminals in a network; however, the flexibility advantage is offset by the transceivers limited channel capacity (about 115 K bps). Also, the number of terminals/PCs that can be linked via transceivers is limited by the frequencies allotted for this purpose. The 1998 Olympics in Nagano were the perfect venue for widespread use of wireless networks. Many sites at the games were temporary or difficult to wire and were thus made-to-order situations for wireless networks. Wireless networks allowed judges, statisticians, and journalists to move with the action within and between venues.
13.3 Common Carriers

It is impractical for individuals and companies to string their own fiber optic cable between distant locations, such as Hong Kong and New York City. It is also impractical for them to set their own satellites in orbit, although some have. Therefore, most people and companies turn to communications common carriers, such as AT & T, MCI and Sprint, to provide communications channels for data transmission. Organisations pay communications common carriers, which are regulated by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), for private or switched data communications service. A private line (or leased line) provides a dedicated data communications channel between any two points in a computer network. The charge for a private line is based on channel capacity (bps) and distance. A switched line (or dial-up line) is available strictly on a time-and-distance charge, similar to a long-distance telephone call. You (or your computer) make a connection by dialing up a computer, then a modem sends and receives data. Switched lines offer greater flexibility than do private lines because they allow you to link up with any communications-ready computer. A regular telephone line is a switched line. The number and variety of common carriers is expanding. For example, cable TV companies are entering the market. Data rates offered by common carriers range from voice-grade POTS (up to about 56 K bps with a modem) to the widest of all pipes, the massive 622 M-bps channel.
13.4 Data Transmission in Practice

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A communications channel from Computer A in Seattle, Washington, to Computer B in Orlando, Florida, usually would consist of several different transmission media. The connection between Computer A and a terminal in the same building is probably coaxial cable or twisted-pair wire. The Seattle company might use a common carrier company such as AT&T to transmit the data. AT&T would then send the data through a combination of transmission facilities that might include copper wire, fiber optic cable, microwave signals, and radio signals.
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UNIT 14 Networks
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14.1 Introduction
Ten years ago, the number one reason people purchased a PC was for word processing. Now people buy PCs for many reasons, but frequently they do so to get on the Internet. Everyone wants to logon and travel through cyberspace, soaking up all it has to offer. Each day our world is becoming increasingly connected, electronically. Each time you use a telephone, you use the worlds largest network, the telephone system. A telephone is an endpoint or a node, connected to a network of computers that routes your voice signals to any of the 500 million telephones in the world. In a computer network the node can be a terminal, a computer, or any destination/source device (for example, a printer, an automatic teller machine, or even a telephone). Within an organisation, computers are set up to meet the specific requirements of that organisation. Some have five nodes; others have 10,000 nodes.
14.2 Network Topology

A network topology is a description of the possible physical connections within a network. The topology is the configuration of the hardware and shows which pairs of nodes can communicate. The basic computer network topologies are star, ring and bus. However, a pure form of any of these three basic topologies is seldom found in practice. Most computer systems are combinations of these topologies
14.3 Types of Networks

Networks are classified by the proximity of their nodes. A network, in its simplest is a cluster of interconnected microcomputers. The common types are LAN, WAN, VAN, MAN and TAN. When we discuss about these, we also include the entire hardware, software and communications channel associated with them. The LAN will be discussed in detail.
14.4 Local Area Networks

A local area network often referred to as a LAN is designed to serve a local establishment such as a factory and its administrative offices. LAN provides a speedy and effective means of communication between the various sections and improving day-to-day efficiency. Networks may consist of interconnected workstations, intelligent terminals, microcomputers, word processors and electronic mail facilities. LANs provide for the sharing of expensive hardware resources such as a high-speed printer, high capacity hard disk storage, data files or a database. Any authorised user of the network can access all these facilities. In a LAN, a server is a component that can be shared by users of the LAN. A server can be anything from a PC to a supercomputer. It performs a variety of functions for its client computers, including the storage of data, and applications software. The three most popular servers are: a. File Server Facilitates the storage of documents that can be retrieved and updated as necessary. Normally it is a dedicated PC with high capacity hard disk for storing data and programs shared by the network users. b. Print Server Provides network users with high-speed printing facilities. Typically housed in the same server as the file server. c. Communications Server
Provides communication external to the LAN. Controls one or more modem, or perhaps access to an ADSL line.
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14.5 Advantages of Networks

The advantages of networks are as follows: a. Sharing Hardware Networking several microcomputers together along with one printer, for example, can allow all the computers to use the one printer. Since few users have to use the printer all of the time, this represents a more efficient method of employing this resource. b. Sharing Software A network of computers can allow several users to make use of applications software, which is stored on one of the machines. When this method is employed, the machine, which holds the software, is called a fileserver. c. Sharing Data Similar use can be made of the data files created by the users. This can eliminate the requirement for multiple copies of the data files to be maintained, thereby improving data integrity. d. Electronics Mail This facility is only possible in a network configuration.
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14.6 Wide Area Networks

Whereas a local area network serves the requirements of an organisation for interdepartmental communications, a wide area network serves a wider geographic area and may in fact embrace a whole country or even the world. The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) formally recognises as local networks those networks having a maximum total length of 6000 feet. Beyond that length, networks are classified as WANs. WAN will typically connect two or more LANs together. The WAN will normally depend on the transmission services of a common carrier to transmit signals between nodes in the network.
14.7 Value-added Networks

Value-added network (VAN) vendors are organisations that provide a service to the public over common carrier facilities. A good example of a service provided by VANs are business environmental information retrieval. This is a subscription service for executives of corporations. Examples of firms offering information about the business environment, stored in large computer databases, are CompuStat, Dow Jones News, Reuters, and Nexis. Subscribers to services like these have access to such data as business publications, up-to-date financial statistics for thousands of companies, business and economic news, and domestic and foreign exchange data. There are also information-retrieval firms that specialise in certain types of market data in specific industries. A Corporation may subscribe to one or more of these services in order those employees such as marketing managers and sales forecasters may obtain up-to-date industry information.
14.8 Metropolitan Area Network

The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network designed for a city. MANs are more encompassing than LANs but smaller than WANs.
14.9 Tiny Area Network

Tiny Area Network (TAN) refers to a very small LAN, perhaps two, three or four nodes. For example, TANs are popular in home computing. They enable households to share resources (printer, modem, files, etc) among the kids PC, the parents PC and perhaps a parents laptop from the office.
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UNIT 15 Telecommunication
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15.1 Introduction
Telecommunications is the electronic collection and distribution of information between two points. Information can appear in a variety of formats numeric data, text, voice, still pictures, graphics and video. Raw information must be digitised before we can put it into a computer. For example, numerical data and text might be translated into their corresponding ASCII codes. Once the digitised information has been entered into a computer, that computer can then transfer the information to other computers connected over a network. Ultimately, all forms of digitised information are transmitted over the transmission media (for example, fiber optic cable) as a series of binary bits (1s and 0s).
15.2 Communication hardware

Data communication hardware is used to transmit digital information between terminals and computers and between computers and other computers. There is a vast array of communications and networking hardware. With the trend towards digital convergence, the number and variety of network hardware components that enable data communications continue to evolve, with new devices being introduced almost monthly. Examples are; concentrators, switching hubs, bridges, routers, brouters (combination bridges and routers), network interface cards, front-end processors, multiplexors, modems, and many more special function devices that route, pass along, convert, package and repackage, and format and reformat bits and bytes travelling along communications links. Only some essential and common hardware will be discussed.
15.3 The Modem

If your PC is equipped with a modem and you have access to a telephone line, your can establish a communication link between it and any remote computer system in the world. Telephone lines are designed to carry analog signals for voice communications, not the binary digital signals needed for computer based data communication. The modem (modulatordemodulator) converts digital signals into analog signals so data can be transmitted over telephone lines. The digital electrical signals are modulated to make sounds similar to those you hear on a touchtone telephone. Upon reaching their destination, these analog signals are demodulated into computer-compatible digital signals for processing. A modem is always required for two computers to communicate over the telephone line. It is not needed when the PC is wired directly to a computer network. There are two types of modems for PCs and terminals: internal and external. Most PCs have internal modems: that is, the modem is on an optional add-on circuit board that is simply plugged into an empty expansion slot in the PCs motherboard. Laptops typically use modems on interchangeable PC cards. The external modem is a separate component and is connected via a serial interface port. To make the connection with a telephone line and either type of modem, you simply plug the telephone line into the modem just as you would when connecting the line to a telephone. The typical modem is a voice / data / fax modem. Besides the data communication capabilities, it allows you to make telephone calls through your PC and modem hookup (using a microphone, speakers, and/or headset). The fax component enables a PC to simulate a facsimile or fax machine. Instead of sending your document to a printer, you simply send it to the fax modem along with a destination fax number.
15.4 Network Interface Cards

The Network Interface Card (NIC), is an add-on board or PC card (for laptops) that enables and controls the exchange of data between the PCs in a LAN. Each PC in a LAN must be equipped with an NIC. The cables and wireless transceivers that link the PCs are physically connected to the NICs. Whether as an add-on board or a PC card, the NIC is connected directly to the PCs internal bus.
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15.5 Special Function Communication Devices

To improve the efficiency of a computer system, the processing load is sometimes distributed among several other special function processors. The front end processor is a device that relives the host computer a variety of communication related processing duties. The front end processor establish the link between the source and destination in a process called handshaking. The multiplexor is an extension of the front end processor It is located downline from the host computer at or near a remote site. The multiplexor collects data from several low-speed devices such as terminals and printers. It then concentrates the data and sends them over a single communications channel to the front end processor. Communication protocols are rules established to govern the way data are transmitted in a computer network. Because networks use a variety of communication protocols and operating systems, incompatible networks cannot talk directly to one another. The router is the primary hardware/software technology used to alleviate the problem of linking incompatible computer networks. The backbone is a collective term that refers to a system of routers and the associated transmission media (cables, wires and wireless links) that link the computers in an organisation.
15.6 Network Configuration Factors

When considering a network, for example, a local area network (LAN), there are several factors to consider. This will result in a better configuration and a better utilisation of the network capabilities. a. Utilisation The number of current and future users must be known or estimated. Different choices in cabling, structure (topology) and hardware will determine the performance levels given certain number of users. If there are too many users relative to the capabilities of the LAN, then the performance will deteriorate. b. Performance The expected response time and storage capacity must be determined in order to be able to specify the correct components and its true costs. c. Flexibility The ease with which new users can be added or removed from a system is important to the organisation. Certain configurations allow for a limited number of new PCs to be added, after which costly expansion work has to be done.
14.6 Wide Area Networks

Whereas a local area network serves the requirements of an organisation for interdepartmental communications, a wide area network serves a wider geographic area and may in fact embrace a whole country or even the world. The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) formally recognises as local networks those networks having a maximum total length of 6000 feet. Beyond that length, networks are classified as WANs. WAN will typically connect two or more LANs together. The WAN will normally depend on the transmission services of a common carrier to transmit signals between nodes in the network.
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14.7 Value-added Networks

Value-added network (VAN) vendors are organisations that provide a service to the public over common carrier facilities. A good example of a service provided by VANs are business environmental information retrieval. This is a subscription service for executives of corporations. Examples of firms offering information about the business environment, stored in large computer databases, are CompuStat, Dow Jones News, Reuters, and Nexis. Subscribers to services like these have access to such data as business publications, up-to-date financial statistics for thousands of companies, business and economic news, and domestic and foreign exchange data. There are also information-retrieval firms that specialise in certain types of market data in specific industries. A Corporation may subscribe to one or more of these services in order those employees such as marketing managers and sales forecasters may obtain up-to-date industry information.
14.8 Metropolitan Area Network

The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network designed for a city. MANs are more encompassing than LANs but smaller than WANs.
14.9 Tiny Area Network

Tiny Area Network (TAN) refers to a very small LAN, perhaps two, three or four nodes. For example, TANs are popular in home computing. They enable households to share resources (printer, modem, files, etc) among the kids PC, the parents PC and perhaps a parents laptop from the office.
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UNIT 16 Telecommunication Equipment
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16.1 Overview
Businesses need to be able to communicate data either between parts of the organisation or with other businesses. This chapter discusses a number of telecommunications equipment and telecommunication-based facilities.
16.2 Telephone
The most common telecommunications equipment is the telephone system. This applies to both the transmission of vocal data and the electronic communication of encoded data. The telephone system is an electronic means of transmitting data. The microphone in the handset coverts the sound waves from the user voice into an electrical signal. This is then carried via an electrical cable to a switching office. Here the signal is switched onto the correct cables to ensure that it reaches the correct telephone at the other end of the network In practice, the call might well pass through several switching offices, or exchanges, between the source telephone and the designation. At each stage, the signal might well be amplified to ensure that it has sufficient strength to reach the telephone. For two persons to speak on the telephone, there has to be a physical connection by cable from the source to the destination.
16.3 PABX
In large organisations, there will be many individuals who need to use the telephone periodically but not all the time. Under these circumstances, it is not economical for each telephone in the organisation to have direct access to its own public exchange line. Typically, therefore, a switchboard system exists in most organisations where public line can be switched to any one of the internal phone lines. The Private Automatic Branch Exchange (PABX) is a small computerised system which controls the switching of extension lines with each other and with the public system. The telephonist has only to enter the required extension number and the PABX will make the connection between the extension and the public line. The PABX also has other facilities which can be programmed by users. a. When a call is made to an individual in the company, and if this is not answered, the PABX can direct the call to all the extensions in the same department. If there is still no answer, then the call can then be redirected back to the telephonist at the switchboard so that the caller can be informed of the lack of response. Users can program a series of commonly used numbers into a memory so they can be dialled by pressing just one or two keys instead of the whole number. If an individual is going to spend some time in another office, then they can redirect their calls to the office where they will temporarily be. Also, where people share an office, there is no need to get up to answer the other persons extension if they are out. Punching a short code will cause the call to be transferred to the users desk.
b. c. d.
16.4 Voice Service

When a call is made for someone who is away from the office, a voice mail system is activated which requests the caller to leave a voice message. Thus, a regular voice message, sent over the phone, can be digitally stored at the receiving location. When accessed, the message is converted back into voice form. A message, as it is sent along from person to person, can be voice-annotated by anyone handling it.
16.5 Fax
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The facsimile, or fax, is used to send an image of printed documents and graphics to other fax subscribers. Users can subscribe to the fax system in the same way as for the telephone. Messages are sent to recipients via their fax number.
16.6 Telex
Another method of transmitting data is to use a telex. Both sender and receiver must have a telex terminal. Data such as documents can be typed at the telex terminal itself and sent to another subscriber where it is printed out. This equipment can help to overcome the problem of telephone conversations since both the sender and recipient get a copy of the data that is sent together with confirmation that the message has been received.
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UNIT 17 Processing Techniques
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17.1 Online Processing

Online processing refers to a situation where devices called terminals are connected directly to the computer so that input may be made at any time and the user is able to immediately and directly access data stored in the computer. How are the terminals connected to the computer? One example is when each department in a company has several terminals and these are connected to the computer via cables. In most systems today, online processing is done on a multi-user basis, although there is no reason why it cannot be done on a stand-alone basis by a single user either. Many systems today are online systems. An example is an enquiry software located in a kiosk at shopping centres. Another separate but related concept is conversational or interactive processing. Interactive processing refers to a situation in which the user interacts with the computer. Transactions are handled individually. Data is entered by the user and the computer immediately processes it and produces the output. There is usually a series of such exchanges in one transaction. The software prompts the user, indicating the needs of the application which may be some data required for processing or to ask if there are any more transactions, to which the user responds. The term interactive processing is sometimes used to describe online and realtime processing collectively.
17.2 Real-time Processing

Real-time processing refers to a situation where any data that is received must be immediately processed and updated into the database because action must be based on the actual status of events or records. In most cases, transactions are dealt with as events occur, and this means that the database mirrors reality. A real-time system is always an online system but an online system need not necessarily be a real-time system. Many systems today are both online-real-time systems. An example of a real-time system is the banking ATM.
17.3 Configuration for Real-time System

The configuration in a real-time system with multiple users must support immediate telecommunications and interactive processing. There is also a need to ensure high levels of reliability. The basis configuration would include a powerful computer server (either a mainframe or minicomputer), with terminals (e.g. microcomputers) at each user site. Printers would almost always be needed as well. Each site must be connected to the server by telecommunications equipment like modems and leased lines. In addition, to ensure better reliability, multiprocessing may be adopted, using two or more processors in tandem (including higher hardware cost).
17.4 Interface of Online Systems

a. Commands
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS One method of interacting with the computer is for the user to key in commands. However, this does not contribute to ease of use, since commands must be remembered and mistakes are easily made. b. Menus Menus may list different applications, such as sales ledger, purchase ledger or stock control routines, from which the user is guided to sub-menus according to the option selected.
17.5 Batch Processing

Batch processing refers to a situation where transactions are batched, i.e. accumulated over a period of time and then processed in a single computer software run where output is needed. Batch processing is an economical method for processing large volumes of data on a routine basis. An example of batch processing is the processing of overtime claims in a payroll system.
17.6 Procedure for Batch Data Processing

One of the most common business uses of batch processing is in the processing of company payroll. In most organisations, employees work in different locations in a building or even in different towns and, perhaps, countries. In these circumstances, details of the hours worked are noted on time sheets or clock cards at the location of work. At the end of the pay period, these sheets or cards are then gathered together into a batch. This would then be sent to the data preparation section which is normally part of the data processing department. a. Prepare Batch Control Sheets Before sending the batch to data preparation, the number of cards is counted and noted on a batch control sheet. In addition, the total number of hours worked for all the cards is added and also noted on the sheet. b. Send Batch Data to Data Preparation The batch control sheet is sent with the batched data and a copy is retained in the initiating department. c. Check Batch Control Sheets When the cards arrive at data preparation, the cards are counted and the total hours checked against the control sheet. Any discrepancies are checked with the initiating department. Based on the batch control sheet, it will be possible to determine whether any cards have been mislaid or altered in transit. d. Enter Data The data is keyed in using a keyboard and stored on disk. This step is sometimes called key punching which is an old term from days when punch cards were the main medium for input data. When punch cards are used, the data is translated into a machine readable form by punching holes in the cards, which are later read by a reading machine. e. f. Validate Data Validate of the data is done to minimise inaccuracies. Process Data The data is now complete, validated and therefore ready for processing.
17.7 Validation
Before data can be updated into the database, it must be checked for errors. This validation can be done in both online and batch processing. a. Presence Checks
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In this instance, the input data is examined to ensure that all the necessary data items, of fields, are present. In the payroll example, a presence check would ensure that fields such as the data of the period-end, the employee number and the hours worked, are present. Any set of data failing this test would be rejected.
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This check ensures that the format of the data in a field is correct, i.e. the correct number of letters and numbers, in the correct order. If a field is numeric, then any alphabetic data would be rejected. c. Range Checks This is a check that numbers or codes are within an accepted range. Employee payroll numbers, for example, could be subjected to this sort of check. Any employee number which does not fall into the accepted range could be assumed to be either a mistake or a deliberate falsehood. d. Reasonableness Checks These are a form of range check which would reject items which are unreasonable. A claim that an employee has worked 25 hours in a day, for example, would fail this test. e. Check Digits One of the most common type of mistakes is to transpose the figures in a number. If this happens, the number 12345 could be punched as 12345, for example. The check digits validation check is a method of minimising the occurrence of transposition. It is a mathematical technique in which the digits from the number are used in a mathematical process, the result of which is appended to the original number as the check digit. The number can then be tested using the same mathematical process. If the result is the same check digit, then the likelihood of transposition is minimal. If it is different then the number has been transposed.
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UNIT 18 Going Online
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18.1 The Internet

The Internet is a new door in our lives that was simply not there a few years ago. To say that the Internet has had a profound impact on our lives is truly an understatement. What we do at work, how we learn, and what we do during leisure time has changed dramatically during the short-lived public Internet era. The virtual classroom, where students can attend classes online is remaking our college and university system. Each year millions more people choose to telecommute to work from their homes. Many people make their resume available to millions by posting it to the Internet, then using searchable jobs databases to find employment throughout the world. Many people stay connected to the Internet all day long, taking advantage of its latest resources to get help with many daily activities planning a vacation, getting the best deal on an airline ticket, communicating with friends via e-mail or videophone, and so on. More and more, we rely on the Internet to get our news and weather and to play games with other cybersurfers.
18.2 Going Online

To go online, you will need to connect your PC to the global network called the Internet. That can be done in a variety of ways. You can enter using cable modems connected to cable TV, using ISDN, or ADSL (both over twisted-pair telephone wire), wireless satellite links, and direct links via LANs. However, most of us enter cyberspace by simply plugging the phone line into our PCs modem and running our communications software. Once online, you may chat with friends in America, send grandma a picture, schedule a meeting with your co-workers, pay your utility bills, play games with people youve never met, listen to a live audio broadcast of a sporting event, or conduct research for a report. Everyday a growing number of online capabilities continue to change the way we live our lives. The online world offers a vast network of resources, services, and capabilities. To go online, people with PCs generally subscribe to a commercial information service or open an account with a company that will provide access to the Internet.
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18.3 The World Wide Web

The Internet is a worldwide collection of interconnected networks. Its actually comprised of thousands of independent networks at academic institutions, military installations, government agencies, commercial enterprises, and other organisations. The Internet (the Net) is huge, linking millions of networks with Internet host server computers in every country in the world. Internet hosts are connected to the Internet 24 hours a day. Thousands more join this global network each month. The number of people using the Internet is in the hundreds of millions moving towards a billion.
18.4 Who Controls The Internet?

The objective of the Internet was to create a network in which communication could continue even if parts of the network crashed. To do this, it was designed with no central computer or network. This is still true today. Thousands of host computers are connected criss-crossing the world with no node being the central focus of communications. The Internet is coordinated (not governed) by volunteers from many nations serving on various advisory boards, task groups, steering committees and so on. There is no single authoritative organisation. The volunteer organisations set standards for and help coordinate the global operation of the Internet. Each autonomous network on the Internet makes its own rules, regulations and decisions about which resources to make publicly available Consequently, the Internet is being re-invented almost daily by the people who run these independent networks. InterNIC, an organisation organisation funded by a cooperative agreement from the National Science Foundation, provides registration services for the Internet community. Any person or organisation desiring to connect a computer to the Net must register its computer with InterNIC. Besides keeping track of the computers connected to the Net (site names and addresses), it also provides assistance to users concerning policy and the status of their existing registration. Registered Internet hosts must pay an amount based on Internet usage to support the Internets backbone.
18.5 Connecting to the Net

There are three ways we can connect to the Net: a. Connect via an Information Service Gateway. To gain access in this way, you have to subscribe to a commercial information service. This is a popular choice for people working from their home or small business and for those who wish to link their home PC to the Internet. In this way you are linked to the information services network that, in turn, links you to the Internet. Connect via an Internet Service Provider. Here the connection is via a dialup connection through an Internet service provider. This type of connection gives you direct access to the Internet. A dialup connection is a temporary connection established using a modem to dialup the number (over the telephone line or digital ISDN or ADSL line) for a line linked to a remote computer with Internet access. An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is any company that provides individuals and organisations with access to, or presence on, the Internet. Direct via Network Connection. This way is preferable to the others because it normally gives you faster interaction with the Internet. Here your PC is wired directly into the Internet, usually via a local area network (LAN). A LAN will normally have a high speed link to the Internet, which is shared by the users on the LAN. Depending on the size of the LAN and the extent of Internet usage, the LAN may be connected to an ISDN (128 K bps), an ADSL line (up to 9 M bps), a T-1 line (1.544 M bps) or a T-3 line (44.736 M bps) line. A faster connection means you dont have to wait so long to retrieve information, execute commands or just connect to the Internet. A dialup connection can take from 15 seconds to about 45 seconds to establish, whereas a direct connection via a LAN is almost immediate, and its available 24 hours a day.
b.
c.
18.6 Retrieving and Viewing Information

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A browser is an application software that present you with a graphical interactive interface (GUI) for searching, finding, viewing, and managing information over any network. Microsoft Internet Explorer and Netscape Communicator are the two most popular browsers. Most information on the Internet is accessed and viewed in the workspace of browser client programs. You give the browser an Internet address, called the URL, and it goes out over your Internet connections, finds the server site identified in the URL, then downloads the requested file(s) for viewing on your browser. The URL or uniform resource locator is the Internet equivalent of an address. Just as postal addresses progress from general to specific (country, state, city to street address), URLs do the same. The URL gives those who make information available over the Internet a standard way to designate where Internet elements, such as server sites, documents, files, newsgroups and so on can be found. At the top of the domain hierarchy (the part on the right) is the country code for all countries except the United States. For example, the address for the Singapore Tourism Board is stb.com.sg. Other common country codes are au (Australia), dk (Denmark), and jp (Japan).
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The next level of the domain hierarchy identifies the host network or host provider, which might be the name of a business or college. Examples of domain ID and the types of organisation they usually represent are as shown below. Domain ID com edu gov mil net org web Type of organisation Commercial Education Government Military Network resource Usually non-profit organisations Business related to the web
When we do word processing, desktop publishing, spreadsheets, presentation and database software, some kind of document is produced. Browser software is different in that there is no resulting document. Browsers let you retrieve and view information as well as interact with server computers. In the Microsoft Internet Explorer and Netscape Communicator, the appearance of the browser is similar. The basic elements are: a. The Menu Bar. The menu bar at the top of the user command interface is used to select file options (print, save, and so on), to select edit options (including copy, cut and paste) and to set and change a variety of options (for example, how buttons are displayed, colour options, font choices and so on). As with most menu bars, the Help pulldown menu is the last option. The Tool bar. In a typical browser session, most of your interaction is with the toolbar and the hot links in the Web pages. The navigational buttons on the Internet Explorer toolbar (Netscape Communicators toolbar has similar functions) are:
b.
Back Forward Stop Refresh Home Search Favourites c. The URL Bar. The URL bar containing the URL of the current page, serves three purposes.
It allows you to key in the URL of the desired server site. It displays the URL of the page being displayed in the workspace. It includes a drop-down box that includes a list of previous visited URLs. To return to one of these sites, simply select it. d. The Workspace. The workspace is that area in which the document is displayed. You can view documents by scrolling or by using the page up and page down keys. Position the mouse over a hyperlink, a hot image, or a hot icon and click the left mouse button to navigate to and view another Web document. Click on the right mouse button to call up a menu that includes such options as adding the site to your favourite list, saving the current document, downloading the image and so on.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS The Status Bar. The status bar is found below the workspace. This area displays the status of transmissions to and from Internet servers. When transmission is complete, the status bar may display other information or instructions relating to the use of the browser. The transmission status box gives you a visual reference of transmission progress. Format Checks This check ensures that the format of the data in a field is correct, i.e. the correct number of letters and numbers, in the correct order. If a field is numeric, then any alphabetic data would be rejected. g. Range Checks This is a check that numbers or codes are within an accepted range. Employee payroll numbers, for example, could be subjected to this sort of check. Any employee number which does not fall into the accepted range could be assumed to be either a mistake or a deliberate falsehood. h. Reasonableness Checks These are a form of range check which would reject items which are unreasonable. A claim that an employee has worked 25 hours in a day, for example, would fail this test.
f.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS i. Check Digits
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One of the most common type of mistakes is to transpose the figures in a number. If this happens, the number 12345 could be punched as 12345, for example. The check digits validation check is a method of minimising the occurrence of transposition. It is a mathematical technique in which the digits from the number are used in a mathematical process, the result of which is appended to the original number as the check digit. The number can then be tested using the same mathematical process. If the result is the same check digit, then the likelihood of transposition is minimal. If it is different then the number has been transposed.
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UNIT 19 Software Interfaces
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19.1 Human-Computer Interaction

Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), also known as man-machine interface, refers to the total experience of a user when he or she uses a system. The users perception of the ease of use of the system is dependent on their experiences with the HCI. This experience includes the moments where input or output devices are used. In addition, when an application software is being used, there are many ways in which the interaction can take place.
19.2 Commands
One method of interacting with the computer is for the user to key in commands. However, this does not contribute to ease of use, since commands must be remembered and mistakes are easily made.
19.3 Menus
Menus may list different applications, such as sales ledger, purchase ledger or stock control routines, from which the user is guided to sub-menus according to the option selected. When a menu is displayed on the monitor, the user is able to select an option according to the nature of the processing activity or application required. This tells the computer system what it must do, and the system then deals with the selected option and gives the user appropriate prompts.
19.4 Form Display

This refers to the display of a form layout on the screen. This simplifies data entry for users since they are guided by the fields labels and instructions. It resembles the act of filing in a paper form.
19.5 Dialogue
A dialogue provides a man/machine interface enabling a user to process data interactively by responding to prompts generated by the software. This refers to the screen-by-screen flow, whereby users interact with the system.
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19.6 Graphical User Interface

19.6.1 Introduction to Windows
Microsoft Windows is a very common Graphical User Interface. Windows makes computers easier to use and applications easier to learn, and allow several applications to run at the same time. It also offers a simple means of information exchange between application. Windows is a graphical environment: its menus, icons (meaningful symbols) and dialogue boxes replace the old often cryptic commands that MS-DOS requires. Windows exploits the features and convenience which a mouse offers.
19.6.2 Using Windows

a. Standard features each window A window is a framed region on the screen. In each window, there is a menu bar, which is the area under the title bar, and which provides access to most of an applications commands. When you open a menu, a list of commands appears. Each window can be sized. This means that it can be made bigger or smaller. It can also be moved around the screen. b. Icons An important feature are the icons, which are visual representations of minimised windows, applications or documents. When a particular icon is selected, the application is activated. c. Dialogue box A dialogue box is a window that frequently provides information and always requests a user response. A dialogue box might simply display a status message, waiting until you select OK, or it might ask you to specify a filename or other information. Command buttons are large buttons within dialogue boxes which either cancels or carries out the command.
19.6.3 Advantages
a. Ease of Use The user points his mouse pointer to the menu, icon or dialogue box desired and clicks. This is much easier and intuitive than issuing DOS commands at the DOS prompt. The amount of time taken to learn new applications is shorter as the user only needs to concentrate on the functions unique to that application. b. Standard Interface All Windows applications (e.g. Lotus 1-2-3 for Windows) adheres to the standard user interface in terms of windows, pull-down menus, icons, dialogue boxes, buttons, etc. Thus, regardless of whether you are using WordPerfect for Windows, or Lotus 1-2-3 for Windows, there will be similarities in the common functions like printing, moving from one screen to another, help and so on. c. Exchange of Data Between Applications This is one of the most important benefits of Windows. In the past, if you typed a report in WordPerfect, you could not use this data in Lotus 1-2-3 unless you retyped it. Windows allows for the exchange of data between applications as several applications can run at the same time. Even if you don not want to copy data but simply need to view it, Windows is useful because you do not need to end one application before you can look up data in another application.
19.7 Ergonomics
What is Ergonomics?
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In the context of information technology, ergonomics is the study of designing and positioning computer equipment in order to create a comfortable and safe working environment for employees. It is essential that employees are comfortable in their working environment as people work more effectively if they are comfortable. a. Height of Computer The keyboard should be at the correct height. The user should be able to alter the height of their chair to accommodate to the height of the computer. b. Computer The screen is a major issue in the ergonomics aspect of using computers. Some colour may have a potential effect on the degree of eye strain and tiredness of the user. Light reflecting off the screen can make it very difficult to read the screen. This can be overcome by the addition of a fine wire mesh over the screen which prevents reflected light.
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Noise is another factor to take into consideration. Computers use fans to keep cool. It is surprising how noisy these can get in an office with several machines. It is often the silence which ensures after the machines have been switched off that illustrates the noise level when they were on. In addition to this, impact printers are noisy in operation. There are two ways to deal with this. Printers, for example, may be moved to another room, or they may be covered by acoustic hoods to reduce the noise.
19.8 Multimedia
Information delivery is becoming an important aspect of new systems that are implemented. Wherever possible, information should be presented in a natural and attractive manner. Multimedia is the combination of text, sound, video, graphics and animation for use in presentations. Multimedia will play a major role as a front-end to a growing number of systems, and it will be the technology of choice for public systems. Individually, text, graphics, image, sound, animation, video on computers is nothing new. The key difference is that in multimedia, these different media are almost seamlessly integrated in the digital domain. The applications of multimedia lie in the following areas: a. b. c. d. Training and education Marketing Public relations (PR) Entertainment
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UNIT 20 Telecommunication Concepts
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20.1 Importance of Telecommunications

In any business, the activities of the people who run the business are not performed in isolation. There is a considerable amount of communication between different parts of a business and also between businesses. The processing of data in an organisation relies upon systems being able to communicate data from a source to a destination without loss or corruption.
20.2 Type of Communication Networks

Practically all parts of the world are connected by means of the international telecommunications network. In fact, the international telecommunications network is a collection of national networks. In many cases, international organisations like the United Nations play a coordinating role to ensure, for example, that standards are adhered to and disputes settled amicably. Within each country, there may be just 1 public telecommunications network (run by a government body) or there could be networks which are run by private firms. For example, in the United States, private networks are run by companies like AT & T and Bell.
20.3 Data Encryption

Where computers were housed in a single building, the security issues were confined mainly to those premises. Once data is transmitted outside the company premises by telecommunications, new security concerns arise. It is now more difficult to control security because the telecommunications network does not belong to the company. One way to protect confidential data is to encrypt the data so that if anyone intercepts and reads it, it would appear meaningless. In encryption, the message in ordinary language, called plaintext, is transformed in some way to produce cipertext, which is sent along a communications link. The receiving computer uses another transformation to decode the message back to plaintext.
20.4 Bandwith, Speed and Cost of Transmission

There are different kinds of telecommunications transmission media, e.g. coaxial cables, fibre optics and satellite. Each differ in their capacity to transmit signals and the cost involved. High-speed transmission media are more expensive in general, but they can handle higher volumes (which reduces the cost per bit). For instance, the cost per bit of data can be lower via satellite link than via leased telephone line if a firm uses the satellite link 100 percent of the time.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS Similarly, fibre optic cable is very expensive but has a much larger bandwidth and can also transmit at a much higher speed. The cost per bit is therefore lower if the volume is high.
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20.5 Communications Standards

Communication between interconnected computer systems is a complex activity which takes place at a number of different levels. At the lowest level there is the physical transmission of signals and at the highest level there may be communication of messages in everyday languages. In a attempt to form a basis for standardising such interconnections, the International Standards Organisation (ISO) has introduced a standard based upon a set of seven distinct levels or layers of communication. This model is known as the Reference Model for Open System interconnection, or OSI for short. The term open system has now been widely adopted as a means of describing products which are intended to comply with this standard rather than be vendor specific.
20.6 Videotex/ Viewdata

Videotext or viewdata is the technology used by telephone companies to provide additional services to subscribers via a personal computer in the subscribers home. British Telecom operates the service under the trade name of Prestel. With this facility, data is carried on the telephone system and displayed on the television screen. The user can use a hand held key pad to select data and is actually able to send data back to the source down the telephone line. Prestel is quite a flexible facility. Subscribers can use it to perform such transaction as booking travel or theatre tickets, paying by credit card, etc. In addition to fairly domestic uses of this service, there are also a number of business services which are available, including commercial data bases, access to which can be bought as required.
20.7 Teletext
Teletext is the technology used by broadcasting companies which allow TV viewers access to large amounts of data which are broadcasted alongside TV signals. Examples are the BBCs Ceefax and ITVs oracle in the United Kingdom. The data is displayed on a television screen and the user can choose which data is displayed, by selecting with a hand held key pad.
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20.8 Comparing Videotex and Teletext

It is worth drawing the distinction between videotex services and teletext services. a. b. Videotext is a much more sophisticated service, in that the user can actually send data back to the source, whereas the teletext user can only receive data. The videotex service costs more to use than the teletext service. Both services require the purchase of special television equipment to manage the signals but there is no on-going service charge for the teletext service. With the videotex service, a charge is made for the time that the equipment is actually in use.
20.9 Videoconferencing
Videoconferencing is the technology used to allow 2 groups of persons to hold meetings when the persons involved are geographically far apart. Even lectures can be conducted this way. Videoconferencing increases the efficiency of company employees since they travel less frequently and can set up a meeting very quickly. The equipment for videoconferencing can be set up in the office or the users can go to special, local conference centres and be linked up with sound to other persons in other similar conference centres in other parts of the world.
20.10 Telecommuting
Telecommuting is the situation where people use communications and computer technology to perform work at home or while travelling. In this way, they avoid the usual physical commute to work. Using a PC and a modem, for instance, a programmer can do his or her work at home instead of at the office.
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UNIT 21 Datafiles and Databases
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21.1 Introduction
Before databases were introduced, all data was stored in files. Files are still used today, but are much less common. A file stores only one type of record. On the other hand, databases can store different types of records.
21.2 File Organisation

Data files must be organised logically into files and be accessible and updated as needed. There are three major methods of file organisation: sequential, direct and indexed-sequential organisation. a. Sequential File Organisation This is the simplest form of file organisation. Records are stored in sequential order by a particular record key. For examples, if the file contains employee data, then the likely data field chosen to be the record is the NRIC Number or the Employee Number. Sequential Files can be stored on both magnetic tape and magnetic disks. However, magnetic tapes can only store sequential files, and not the others. Data which is stored sequentially can only be accessed sequentially. For this reason, it is called a sequential access method (SAM) file. b. Direct File Organisation In a direct file, data records are not read (accessed) sequentially. Instead, the data management systems (the software which controls these files) is able to determine the exact location on the disk (address) where the data record is stored. Hence this method of access is called direct access and the file is called direct access method (DAM) file. This is only found in disks and not on tapes. How does the data management system determine the address on the disk to store and retrieve a particular data record? The most common method is to use a program specially created for this purpose. The input will be the record key field, and the output from this program is the address. This program maps the record key into a storage area with the objective of spreading the data records as uniformly as possible in the disk.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS c. Indexed-Sequential File Organisation
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The indexed-sequential file organisation is a combination of the earlier two methods. Like the direct access method, it is found only on disks. The physical space on a disk where records are stored is called a track. A track is the storage area of the disk consisting of a circular band. In an indexed-sequential file, data records are stored sequentially by record key. More specifically, a few data records are stored on any one track. An index is created automatically by the data management system. The index will carry the highest record key of those records in a track. When a particular record is to be accessed, the index is looked up to find the track where the record can be found. Then the records in this track are read sequentially until the particular record desired is found.
21.3 Redundancy in Data Files

In the traditional data files, the same data may be stored in several functional files. This situation duplicates data unnecessarily, creating what is referred to as redundancy. Consider a typical situation. Those responsible for payroll would keep their data in a data file. The data could comprise employee records, and each record could contain details of individual employees, including name, identity card or social security number, employee number, address, salary, department, bank account number, etc. Those responsible for personnel administration would typically keep a separate file which also contains details relating to employees including many already existing in the payroll file. Data fields like name, identity card or social security number, employee number, address would be duplicated and hence, redundant.
21.4 Databases
A database is a data store for accepting, storing and providing on demand data for multiple independent users. It is essentially a means of organising data in related file structure to allow quick, user specified access and manipulation of the data. They are controlled by systems software called Data Base Management Systems (DBMS). The data in a database is accessible to unauthorised managers and other personnel for administrative purposes and for use in making decisions and controlling business operations. Databases may relate to specific functional requirements such as accounting or may provide for interfunctional information needs.
21.5 DBMS
The database management system (DBMS) is the software that builds and maintains the data base. It also provides the environment through which an end-user can access the data base. What are the functions performed by a DBMS? a. Record Creation and Updates The database is maintained by the user creating, deleting or amending records. The Data Base Management System will also allow the user to process selected groups of records, the whole file or individual records. This is accomplished by selecting the required option from a menu displayed on the video screen or by keying in the relevant command from the keyboard. b. Record Selection by Search Criteria The processing can also involve the extraction of information from the selected records according to specified search criteria. In a student database, for example, if we wanted to list the students who have attended less than 80% of classed, this would be handled by the DBMS provided the required data is recorded in the database.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS A database has searching facilities ranging from limited searches on keywords to full text searching. This facility provides the means of extracting from a large volume of data useful facts which could not possibly be found by physical search methods in sufficient time to make a decision. A query language is used to specify the search criteria. This language facilitates enquiries using English-style words to define commands, so greatly assisting users to find the information they are seeking. c. Minimise Data Redundancy If a data element or record (e.g. an employee address) appears twice in an organisations records, this is called data redundancy, since logically, it should not be necessary to hold the date twice, hence one copy is redundant. Similarly, in a database, data redundancy should be eliminated, or at least, minimised and this is the task of the DBMS. d. Security The Data Base Management System is also responsible for providing security for the database, ensuring against unauthorised access and data corruption.
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For example, if many end-users are given access to common data, there must be a way of controlling that access to ensure that no two users are able to change the data simultaneously. The DBMS is responsible for such control.
21.6 Data Dictionary

A data dictionary contains information of the data in a database. Just like an English-language dictionary, each data item is recorded together with its definition and explanation. What role does the data dictionary play? The dictionary assists in the design of a database since the meaning of various types of data are easily located. It can be used to reduce the level of redundancy to a necessary minimum. It is easier to identify synonyms (data groups having more than one name).
21.7 Advantages of Databases

Reduces data duplication which occurs using conventional file structure. Avoids duplicating input data to update multiple functionally independent files holding the same date. Offers useful query and report generation languages. Provides fast and flexible access to information.
21.8 Disadvantages of Databases

Data structures in databases are complex and therefore takes a longer time to design and implement. Costs more than conventional file systems Require high calibre, experienced and specialised personnel.
21.9 Creating a Database Environment

The concept of a database as a shared central repository of data is desirable, but is sometimes difficult to implement. Departments have all along maintained their own data and have been jealous of it. Interdepartmental rivalry leads to reluctance to divulge data, let alone make it available in a central database. There must be a change of attitude in terms of who actually owns data. The chief executive must set the tone. Appointing a Chief Information Officer is one way to give direction and focus, as the CIO will be responsible for the overall use of data and information in the company. A data administration function must be established and the CIO must plan the current and future data needs.
21.10 Physical and Logical Records

The form in which data is actually stored is not the same as the form presented to the application program. The data structure that is actually on the computer media (e.g. disk, tape) is called a physical structure. The structure that the application program uses is a logical structure.
21.11 File Structures for Interrelating Data

Database management systems (DBMS) do not replace the traditional method of storing data in data files. The data is still stored in a sequential, direct or indexed sequential file structure even though a database management system is used to provide greater flexibility in accessing data.
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There are a variety of methods that could be used by a DBMS to logically structure the data. Two methods that will be discussed are multilists and inverted files. a. Multilist A list links common items in a database. A list is like a chain and each link in that chain is a record with the desired attribute. By starting at the first record, the DBMS can retrieve, one by one, the records in the chain which share the desired attribute. b. Inverted Files In an inverted file, the addresses of each record with a desired attribute are stored in an index. In a fully inverted file, there will be one index for each type of data item. In a partially inverted file, only some of the attributes are indexed.
Objective
To achieve the ability to: Explain the concept of a computer system and the major categories of computer systems. Explain the concept of an information system. Identify the major component of a computer system. Explain the benefits, limitations and trends in major types of computer systems and peripheral devices. Distinguish the different types of computer software. Demonstrate an understanding of computer network systems and its essential components. Explain the impact and consequence of the Internet.
Course Syllabus
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Describe the components and properties of computer systems, such as the hardware and software.
Describe and explain the different types of computers, ranging from mainframes to portables
Understand and explain some common software applications, such as word processing, spreadsheets, desktop publishing, electronic mail. Describe the functions of operating systems and utilities. Describe and explain various types of networks such as LAN, VAN & WAN. Describe the Internet and being connected to the World-wide Web Understand the various methods of software acquisition. Elaborate on aspects of data transmission, including basic network structure and transmission media.
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Explain the use of telecommunication equipment such as telephone, PABX, fax and telex. Understand and explain the various processing techniques, such as online processing, real time and batch processing. Elaborate on software interfaces, ergonomics and multimedia. Explain database concepts and creation of a database.
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Recommended Textbooks
Essential Reading
Larry Long, Nancy Long, Computers, Prentice Hall, 7th edition. Supportive Textbook
Charles S Parker, Understanding Computers: Today & Tomorrow: 2000 edition, Harcourt College Publishers. Capron, Computers 6th edition with CD-ROM, Timothy J OLeary and Linda OLeary, Computing Essentials 1999 2000, Irwin McGrawHill, International Edition. Steven L Mandell, Microcomputing Today, West Printers. Shelly, Cashman and Waggoner, Discovering Computers 98 A Link To The Future.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS Lesson Plan Unit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Date Topic Introduction To Information Technology Types of Computers Input Devices Output Devices Processors Storage Devices Technology Trends Application Software - Productivity Application Software - Others System Software Computer Languages Methods of Software Acquisition Communication Medium Networks Telecommunication Telecommunication Equipment Processing Techniques Going Online Software Interfaces Telecommunications Concepts Data Files & Databases
BA332
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BA332 1998 by International Business Unit Informatics Holdings Ltd A Member of Informatics Group Informatics Building 5 International Business Park Singapore 609914
BA332 Introduction to Information Technology

First Printing 1998 Second Printing 1999 1st Edition Completed in June 1999 2nd Edition Completed in March 2001 All rights reserved. No Part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any forms or means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of the publisher. Every precaution has been taken by the publisher and author(s) in the preparation of this study guide. The publisher offers no warranties or representations, nor does it accept any liabilities with respect to the use of any information or examples contained herein. All brands names and company names mentioned in this study guide are protected by their respective trademarks and are hereby acknowledged. The developer is wholly responsible for the contents, errors and omission. Published by Informatics International Printed in Singapore
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Ba-332 Intro - To Information Technology

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BA-332 INTRO.

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7

UNIT 2: TYPES OF COMPUTERS..............................................2-1

2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5

UNIT 3: INPUT DEVICES.............................................................3-1

3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10

UNIT 4: OUTPUT DEVICES.........................................................4-1

UNIT 6: STORAGE DEVICES......................................................6-1

UNIT 7: TECHNOLOGY TRENDS..............................................7-1

UNIT 8: APPLICATION SOFTWARE - PRODUCTIVITY.....8-1

UNIT 9: APPLICATION SOFTWARE - OTHERS....................9-1

UNIT 10: SYSTEM SOFTWARE................................................10-1

UNIT 11: COMPUTER LANGUAGES......................................11-1

UNIT 12: METHODS OF SOFTWARE ACQUISITION.........12-1

UNIT 13: COMMUNICATION MEDIUM.................................13-1

UNIT 14: NETWORKS................................................................14-1

UNIT 15: TELECOMMUNICATION........................................15-1

UNIT 16: TELECOMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT...............16-1

UNIT 17: PROCESSING TECHNIQUES..................................17-1

UNIT 18: GOING ONLINE.........................................................18-1

UNIT 19: SOFTWARE INTERFACES......................................19-1

UNIT 20: TELECOMMUNICATIONS CONCEPTS...............20-1

UNIT 21: DATA FILES & DATABASES...................................21-1

UNIT 1 Introduction to Information Technology

What is Information Technology?

UNIT 2 Types of Computers

UNIT 3 Input Devices

3.10 Digital Camera

UNIT 4 Output Devices

Flat Panel Monitors

Touch Screen Monitors

Touch screen monitors permit input as well as output.

Dot matrix printers Non-impact printer

Laser printer Ink-jet printers

Dot Matrix Printers

The CPU is made up of 3 main parts:

The Control Unit

The Arithmetic and Logic Unit

Serial and Parallel Processing

UNIT 6 Storage Devices

Magnetic Computer Tapes

Magnetic Computer Disks

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS a. CD-ROM

UNIT 7 Technology Trends

Implications of Increased Computerisation

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS f. Software Piracy

Emerging technologies for all the senses

Emerging technologies for the Internet explosion

Emerging technologies for the wireless revolution

Global positioning systems Wireless local area networks

Emerging technologies for personal life

UNIT 8 Application Software - Productivity

Software falls into two categories. These are :

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS c. Block Functions

How a Spreadsheet Works

UNIT 9 Application Software - Others

Digital Image Processing

Create an Outline for a Presentation

Compile and Create Other Nontext Resources

Add Special Effects

Make the Presentation

UNIT 10 System Software

Relationship between System and Application Software