CHAPTER 3 BILINGUALISM AND BILINGUAL EDUCATION 3.

1 The definition of bilingualism and types of bilingualism

Bilingual education is a broad term that refers to the presence of two languages in instructional settings. The term is, , "a simple label for a complex phenomenon" (Cazden and Snow, p. 9) that depends upon many variables, including the native language of the students, the language of instruction, and the linguistic goal of the program, to determine which type of bilingual education is used. Students may be native speakers of the majority language or a minority language. The students' native language may or may not be used to teach content material. Bilingual education programs can be considered either additive or subtractive in terms of their linguistic goals, depending on whether students are encouraged to add to their linguistic repertoire or to replace their native language with the majority language (see Table 1 for a typology of bilingual education). Bilingual education is used to refer to the use of two languages as media of instruction. Bilingual education is grounded in common sense, experience, and research. Common sense says that children will not learn academic subject material if they can't understand the language of instruction. Experience documents that students from minority-language backgrounds historically have higher dropout rates and lower achievement scores. Finally, there is a basis for bilingual education that draws upon research in language acquisition and education. Research done by Jim Cummins, of the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education at the University of Toronto, supports a basic tenet of bilingual education: children's first language skills must become well developed to ensure that their academic and linguistic performance in the second language is maximized. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, proficiency in only one language is not enough for economic, societal, and educational success. Global interdependence and mass communication often require the ability to function in more than one language. According to the 2000 U.S. Census, more than 9.7 million children ages five to seventeenone of every six school-age childrenspoke a language other than English at home. These language-minority children are the fastestgrowing segment of the U.S. school-age population. Between 1990 and 2000, the population of language-minority children increased by 55 percent, while the population of children living in homes where only English is spoken grew by only 11 percent. Language-minority students in U.S. schools speak virtually all of the world's languages, including more than a hundred that are indigenous to the United States. Language-minority students may be monolingual in their native language, bilingual in their native language and English, or monolingual in English but from a home where a language other than English is spoken. Those

who have not yet developed sufficient proficiency in English to learn content material in allEnglish-medium classrooms are known as limited English proficient (LEP). It is estimated that between 60 and 75 percent of the world is bilingual, and bilingual education is a common educational approach used throughout the world. It may be implemented in different ways for majority and/or minority language populations, and there may be different educational and

linguistic goals in different countries. In Canada, immersion education programs are designed for native speakers of the majority language (English) to become proficient in a minority language (French), whereas heritage-language programs are implemented to assist native speakers of indigenous and immigrant languages become proficient in English. In Israel, bilingual education programs not only help both the Arabic-and Hebrew-speaking populations become bilingual, they also teach Hebrew to immigrants from around the world. In Ireland, bilingual education is being implemented to restore the native language. In many South American countries, such as Peru and Ecuador, there are large populations of indigenous peoples who speak languages other than Spanish. Bilingual education programs there have the goal of bilingualism. Throughout Europe, bilingual education programs are serving immigrant children as well as promoting bilingualism for speakers of majority laThe debate over bilingual education has two sources. Part of it is a reflection of societal attitudes towards immigrants. Since language is one of the most obvious identifiers of an immigrant, restrictions on the use of languages other than English have been imposed throughout the history of the United States, particularly in times of war and economic uncertainty. Despite claims that the English language is in danger, figures from the 2000 Census show that 96 percent of those over the age of five speak English well or very well. Rolf Kjolseth concluded that language is also closely associated with national identity, and Americans often display a double standard with regard to bilingualism. On the one hand, they applaud a native Englishspeaking student studying a foreign language and becoming bilingual, while on the other hand they insist that non-native English speakers give up their native languages and become monolingual in English. Bilingual education offers great opportunities to both language-majority and languageminority populations. It is an educational approach that not only allows students to master academic content material, but also become proficient in two languagesan increasingly valuable skill in the early twenty-first century. The language rights of ethnic minorities in the United States have been a source of public controversy for close to two decades. The 1970s saw record levels of immigration, bringing an estimated 4 million legal and 8 million illegal immigrants into the country. To accommodate this dramatic surge in the nation's

population of foreign language speakers, language assistance has been mandated on the federal, state, and local levels in areas ranging from voting and tax collection to education, social services, disaster assistance, and consumer rights. Today Massachusetts offers driver's license tests in 24 languages; residents of California can choose one of six different languages when they vote; street signs in some parts of Miami are printed in both English and Spanish; and classroom instruction is taught in 115 different languages in New York City schools. Altogether, over 300 languages are spoken in the United States. As of 1990,31.8 million Americans spoke a language other than English at home, and the country's population included6.7 million non-English speakers. Nationwide, one-third of the children enrolled in urban schools speak a language other than English at home as their first language. Around 2.6 million schoolchildren throughout the country do not speak English at all. Bilingual education programs, which allow students to pursue part of their study in their first language and part in English, were first mandated by Congress in 1968. The constitutionality of bilingual education was upheld in a 1974 Supreme Court ruling affirming that the city of San Francisco

had discriminated against 18,000 Chinese-American students by failing to make special provisions to help them overcome the linguistic barriers they faced in school. However, the court did not specify what these provisions should be, and educators have evolved several different methods of instruction for students with first languages other than English. With the immersion (or "sink or swim") approach, nearly all instruction is in English, and the students are expected to pick up the language through intensive exposure. If the teacher is bilingual, the students may be allowed to ask questions in their native language, but the teacher is supposed to answer them in English. The English as a Second Language (ESL) approach, often used in a class where students speak more than one foreign language, takes a more gradual approach to mastering English, using it in conjunction with the student's first language. English-only instruction may be offered, but only in some, rather than all, classes. Critics of bilingual education (or of those methods that rely heavily on the students' native languages) claim that it fails to provide children with an adequate knowledge of English, thus disadvantaging them academically, and they cite high dropout rates for Hispanic teenagers, the group most likely to have received instruction in their native language. They accuse school systems of continuing to promote bilingual programs to protect the jobs of bilingual educators and receive federal funding allocated for such programs. As evidence of this charge, they cite barriers placed in the way of parents who try to remove their children from bilingual programs. Hispanic parents in New York City have claimed that their children are being railroaded into bilingual programs by a system that requires all children with Spanish surnames, as well as children of any nationality who have non-English-speaking family members, to take a language proficiency exam. Children scoring in the bottom 40% are then required to enroll in bilingual classes even if English is the primary language

spoken at home. Critics of bilingual instruction also cite a 1994 New York City study that reported better results for ESL instruction than for methods that taught children primarily in their native languages. In spite of the criticism it has aroused, bilingual education is strongly advocated by many educators. Defenders cite a 1991 study endorsed by the National Academy of Sciences stating that children who speak a foreign language learn English more rapidly and make better overall academic progress when they receive several years of instruction in their native language. A later study, conducted at George Mason University, tracked 42,000 children who had received bilingual instruction and reported that the highest scores on standardized tests in the eleventh grade were earned by those students who had had six years of bilingual education. Programs with two way bilingual education have had particularly impressive results. Oyster Bilingual Elementary School in Washington, D.C., (whose student body is 58% Hispanic, 26% white, 12% black, and 4% Asian) is admiringly cited as a model for bilingual education. Its sixth graders read at a ninth-grade level and have tenth-grade-level math skills. Experts on both sides of the controversy agree that for any teaching method to be successful, the teaching must be done by qualified instructors equipped with adequate teaching materials in appropriately assigned classes with a reasonable ratio of students to teachers. Language acquisition is very similar for monolingual and bilingual children, although some experts view bilingualism as a specialized case of language development . Children growing up in homes where two different languages are spoken usually acquire both languages simultaneously. Although their acquisition of each language may be somewhat slower than that of children who are acquiring a single language, their development in the two languages combined is equivalent to that of monolingual children. Bilingual language learners

proceed through the same patterns of language and speech development as children acquiring a single language. Their first words usually are spoken at about one year of age, and they begin stringing two words together at about age two. Even if the two languages do not share similarities in pronunciation, children eventually master them both. There are two major patterns of bilingual language development, both occurring before the age of three. Simultaneous bilingualism occurs when a child learns both languages at the same time. In the early stages of simultaneous bilingual language development, a child may mix words, parts of words, and inflections from both languages in a single sentence. Sometimes this occurs because a child knows a word in one language but not in the other. Some bilingual children initially resist learning words for the same thing in two languages. Children also may experiment with their two languages for effect. During the second stage of bilingual language development, at age four or older, children gradually begin to distinguish between the two languages and use them separately, sometimes depending on where they are. One language may be used less formally to talk about home and family , whereas the other language may be used more formally, perhaps for relating events that took place outside the home. Often children find it easier to express a specific idea in one language rather than the other. Bilingual children also go through periods when one language is used more than the other. Some children may begin to prefer one language over the other, particularly if that language is spoken more frequently in their home or school. Bilingual children usually are not equally skilled in both languages. Bilingual language development usually proceeds more smoothly when both languages are introduced early and simultaneously. When the parents each use a different language with their child, the child is less likely to experience language confusion.Bilingual education is common throughout the world and involves hundreds of languages. In the United States bilingualism is assumed to mean English and another language, often Spanish. More than 300 languages are spoken in the United States. In New York City schools, classroom instruction is given in 115 different languages. Bilingual education includes all teaching methods that are designed to meet the needs of English-language learners (ELLs), also referred to as "limited English proficient" (LEP) students. There are numerous approaches to bilingual education, although all include English as a second language (ESL). ESL is English language instruction that includes little or no use of a child's native language. ESL classes often include students with many different primary languages. Some school districts use a variety of approaches to bilingual education, designing individual programs based on the needs of each child. Many educatorsand a segment of the publicbelieve in the English immersion approach, even if ELLs do not understand very much in the classroom. In this approach nearly all instruction is in English, and there is little or no use of other languages. If the teacher is bilingual, students may be allowed to ask questions in their native language, but the teacher answers them in English. Some schools employ structured English immersion or sheltered English, in which teachers use pictures, simple reading words, and other techniques to teach ELLs both English and academic subjects. Although bilingual education has been used in the United States for more than 200 years, the 1968 Title VII amendment to the 1965 Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) instituted federal grants for bilingual education programs. This legislation led to the

development of appropriate teaching and learning materials and training for teachers of bilingual students. In 1974 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the San Francisco school system had violated the Civil Rights Act of 1964 by not providing English-language instruction for Chinese-speaking students. All school districts were directed to serve ELLs adequately, and bilingual education quickly spread throughout the United States. In the 1980s a group called Asian Americans United filed a class-action lawsuit charging that Asian Americans were not being provided with an equitable education because they were not offered bilingual classes. The result of this suit was the creation of sheltered ESL, in which ESL students take all of their classes together. As of 2004 American public schools include about 11 million children of immigrants. Approximately 5.5 million students10 percent of the public school enrollment speak little or no English. Spanish speakers account for 80 percent of these children. About one-third of children enrolled in urban schools speak a primary language other than English in their homes. Between 2001 and 2004, 19 states reported increases of 50 to 200 percent in Spanish-speaking students. ELLs are the fastest-growing public school population in kindergarten through twelfth grade. Between 2000 and 2002, nationwide ELL enrollment increased 27 percent. About 25 percent of California public school children are ELLs. However, there is a profound shortage of bilingual and ESL teachers throughout the United States. Although 41 percent of U.S. teachers have ELLs in their classrooms, only about 2.5 percent of them have degrees in ESL or bilingual education. The majority of these teachers report that they are not well-prepared for teaching ELLs. About 75 percent of ELLs are in poverty schools, where student turnover is high and many teachers have only emergency credentials. The number of languages spoken throughout the world is estimated to be 6,000 (Grimes, 1992). Although a small number of languages, including Arabic, Bengali, English, French, Hindi, Malay, Mandarin, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish serve as important link languages or languages of wider communication around the world, these are very often spoken as second, third, fourth, or later-acquired languages. Fewer than 25% of the world's approximately 200 countries recognize two or more official languages, with a mere handful recognizing more than two (e.g., India, Luxembourg, Nigeria). However, despite these conservative government policies, available data indicate that there are many more bilingual or multilingual individuals in the world than there are monolingual. In addition, there are many more children throughout the world who have been and continue to be educated through a second or a later-acquired language, at least for some portion of their formal education, than there are children educated exclusively via the first language. In many parts of the world, bilingualism or multilingualism and innovative approaches to education that involve the use of two or more languages constitute the normal everyday experience (see, e.g., Dutcher, 1994; World Bank, 1995). The results from published, longitudinal, and critical research undertaken in varied settings throughout the world indicate clearly that the development of multiple language proficiency is possible, and indeed that it is viewed as desirable by educators, policy makers, and parents in many countries.

3.2 The consequences of bilingualism

Every year, thousands of middle- and upper-class American children study a foreign language for enrichment. These children, their parents, and their teachers are guided by the belief that knowing another language "is good for you." At the same time (and sometimes in the same schools) thousands of other childrenusually from immigrant and lower-class backgroundsare discouraged from and sometimes forbidden to speak their native language. Their families are told that communication in their native languages will prevent them from mastering English and that raising children with more than one language will "confuse" them and have long-lasting, detrimental effects. There has been much discussion of the consequences of early bilingualism. Historically, early bilingualism was seen as dangerous, leading to confusion and exacerbating language disorders and language delay. Research has made clear that early bilingualism may well bring cognitive advantages, particularly in domains such as helping understand the arbitrary nature of language systems and literacy systems. The major positive consequence of bilingualism is knowing two languages, and thus being able to converse with a larger array of individuals, as well as having access to two cultures and two worldviews. Speaking other languages has economic advantages, as bilinguals are in demand in the new global economy. Despite these advantages, the most typical trajectory for immigrant families in the United States is that only firstgeneration children are bilingual, and that the second and later generations are likely to be absorbed into the norm of the larger monolingual society. Other studies report that bilingualism has a negative impact on language development and is associated with delays in lexical acquisition (e.g., Pearson, Fernandez, & Oller, 1993; Umbel & Oller, 1995) and a smaller vocabulary than that of monolingual children (Verhallen & Schoonen, 1993; Vermeer, 1992). Bilingual children score on par with their monolingual counterparts on tests of verbal ability by middle school, and well-controlled studies provide no evidence for lower intellectual abilities of bilingual children compared to monolinguals (Baker & Jones, 1998; Cook, 1997; Hakuta, 1986). . If a monolingual child has three lexical labels for three semantic items ("milk," "grandma," and "dog"), and a bilingual child has two lexical labels in English ("milk" and "grandma") and two in Spanish ("leche" and "abuela," the Spanish words for "milk" and "grandma"), the monolingual child's vocabulary will be counted as three words and the bilingual child's vocabulary will be counted as two wordsbecause vocabulary size is counted not as the number of lexical items known, but as the number of conceptual representations that have lexical labels. Most school districts and speech-language pathology clinics lack the bilingual staff and financial resources to test individuals in the dozens of native languages of their client populations. The result is both over-identification (the client does not have an impairment, but just needs more time to learn the language) and under-identification (the client is assessed

only in English, and the assessor inaccurately concludes that the client's difficulties are related to learning a new language) of bilinguals. This state of affairs can be improved only if changes are made both at the systemic levelby increasing funding for services to linguistically diverse populationsand at the individual levelby raising clinicians' understanding of bilingualism and its consequences. With regard to the latter, clinicians should be aware of the most recent findings in four areas: lexical organization, word-learning, cognitive control, and neural organization. However, little is known about the effects of bilingualism on word-learning. How exactly does bilingualism influence word-learning ability? Our recent research comparing bilingual and monolingual adults on their ability to learn new words consistently suggests that bilingual adults tested in their native language outperform monolingual adults on word-learning tasks. For example, Kaushanskaya and Marian (2009a) examined word-learning performance in monolingual speakers, English-Spanish bilinguals, and English-Mandarin bilinguals, and found that both bilingual groups outperformed the monolingual group.

3.3 Children and bilingualism

According to the 1990 United States Census, one in seven or 31.8 million people speak a language other than English in their home. In the past, second generation children were encouraged to adopt the customs, culture, and language of what was identified as the majority culture. Today, with greater recognition and celebration of cultural differences, people are more likely to maintain and share their primary language with their children and to promote bilingualism as a reflection of ethnic pride and identity. There are different theories on the "best" way to teach a child to use two languages. Most researchers agree that a child who is exposed to two languages at an early age, and simultaneously, will naturally learn to use both languages. Children can be expected to go through some periods of mixing the two languages and borrowing vocabulary to express ideas, sometimes within the same sentence. This occurs because vocabulary may exist in one language but not in the other. Or words from one language may convey a message that is not easily translated into the other language. A separation of the two languages will occur gradually. Children may also experiment with the two languages to create special effects or to express themselves in specific settings. For example, one language may be identified as less formal and used for information about events related to home and family. The other language may be identified as more formal and used for activities outside the home. There may also be periods when one language is used more than the other. The opposite occurs with a change in the environment. Children may not be equally skilled in both languages. It is common for there to be greater understanding than actual use of one language. Less confusion will occur if children learn to associate the two languages differently, for example if one language is used while speaking to the mother and the other while speaking to the father.

Parents who are concerned about their child's speech-language development should contact a speech-language pathologist. An appropriate evaluation of skills will include evaluation of both languages, and will be completed by a bilingual speech-language pathologist or one who has knowledge of the rules and structure of both languages and the assistance of a translator or interpreter. The discovery that a child has some delays in both languages does not necessarily indicate a need for professional services. These delays may be characteristic of a two language learner. Raising kids to be successful in more than one language requires some careful planning and learning about bilingual language development. The reasons for choosing to raise kids with two or more languages are as varied as the families themselves. Even the word "bilingualism" has different meanings for different families. For some families, having the ability to listen in two languages but speak in just one may constitute bilingualism, while other parents expect their kids not only to be bilingual, but also literate in both languages. Whatever the goals for developing bilingualism in each family may be, success appears to depend on whether a "language plan" has been worked out in advance. Families who take the time to consider how their kids will develop two languages, and who make the necessary commitments to bilingual language development, tend to be more successful in raising bilingual children.

If you're thinking about bringing up your children bilingually, it's a good idea to clarify your own definition of bilingualism. Language proficiency can be evaluated in terms of listening, speaking, reading and writing. You could also add a fifth area of speech and language, in which a person is able to use one or both languages for reasoning, to your definition of bilingualism. A person may speak only on language but have listening comprehension in two languages. Another may listen and speak in two languages but reading and writing ability in onlTwo types of childhood bilingualism have been define. The first is simultaneous learning of two languages, which tends to be affect by four key factors:

The parents' ability in one or more languages. Some parents speak only one language, the language of the home, and are unable to speak the language of the school and possibly of the community. The parents' actual use of language with the child. The parents may have language ability in two or more languages but have made a decision about which language they speak with the child. The language or languages other family members speak with the child, such as the language spoken between siblings or between children and grandparents. The last factor is the language the child uses in the community.

The second type of childhood bilingualism is called sequential or successive bilingualism. This happens when a child has one established language before learning a second language, whether in preschool or later (the age of three usually separates simultaneous and sequential language learning). Some kids and adults, of course, usually learn a second language formally through school or language classes. Knowing two or more languages truly gives kids so many advantages in life. Bilingual kids have the advantage of knowing two cultures, of being able to communicate with a wider variety of people, and of possible economic advantages in their future. Research has even shown advantages in thinking skills among bilingual individuals. But deciding to raise bilingual kids is a decision that should be carefully considered as it affect children for the rest

of their lives. Parents need to consider the child's self identity, self-esteem, schooling options, as well as social factors when planning for bilingualism. Becoming bilingual is a special gift parents can offer their children, but the gift must be planned and presented with care for it to be well used and appreciated. There are two major patterns in bilingual language acquisition: simultaneous bilingualism and sequential bilingualism. In simultaneous bilingualism, the child acquires two languages at the same time before the age of 3 years. These children may mix words or parts of words from both languages in the first stage. Stage 2 occurs at 4 years and older when distincntion between the two languages takes place, and the child uses each language separately. Sequential bilingualism also occurs before the child is 3 years old, but the child can draw on the knowledge and experience of the first language while acquiring the second language. The following "red flags" may indicate that the child who is simultaneously acquiring two languages is experiencing problems with language development:

No sounds by 2-6 months of age; Less than one new word per week for 6- to 15-month-old children; Less than 20 words (in the two languages combined) by 20 months; and

No use of word combinations and a very limited vocabulary by age 2-3 years. Parents should not be overly concerned about the negative effects of bilingualism. According to the authors, "Research suggests . . . that learning difficulties occur in bilingual children just as they do in monolingual children, and that bilingualism is neither a direct nor indirect cause. . . . A child who has the opportunity to speak more than one language should find that second language an asset not an obstacle . What resources can I use to help my child be bilingual? Books. You can read to your child in both languages. You can find the books you need at bookstores, at libraries, and on the Internet. Audiotapes and CDs. Tapes and CDs in other languages can help too. Singing is a great way to introduce a second language to your child, and it can be lots of fun! Videotapes and DVDs. Children's programs are available in many languages. These programs often teach children about numbers, letters, colors, and basic vocabulary. Language programs. Children can also learn to be bilingual at language camps or in bilingual education programs. These give children the chance to use two languages Every bilingual child is unique. Development of two languages depends on the type and amount of input the child receives in both languages.

Like other children, most bilingual children speak their first words by the time they are one year old; for example, "mama" or "dada." By age 2, most bilingual children can use two-word phrases; for example, "my ball" or "no juice." These are the same language developmental milestones seen in children who learn only one language. From time to time, children may mix grammar rules, or they might use words from both languages in the same sentence. This is a normal part of bilingual language development. When a second language is introduced, some children may not talk much for a while. This "silent period" can last for a few months or for as long as a year. Again, this is normal and will go away.

Whether your interest in raising a bilingual child is due to necessity or desire, studies have proven the benefits of bilingualism on children's cognitive development. In her book Raising Bilingual Children (Mars Publishing, 2003), Carey Myles says "Bilingualism has been linked to a variety of positive cognitive benefits, including early reading, improved problem-solving skills, and higher scores on the SATs, including the math section." Myles also claims that bilingual children have been shown to demonstrate "better listening perception" and that they "recognize earlier than monolingual children do that language is symbolic andare more skilled at interpreting and manipulating grammar to communicate clearly."

Bilingualism can strengthen family ties by allowing relatives to communicate comfortably in the native language of older family members like grandparents. Children who master two languages also have increased opportunities for employment once they leave school. Children are incredibly sensitive to the different ways people speak. Even when they only hear one language, they learn very quickly about differences between the way men and women talk, the difference between polite and impolite ways of talking, and so on. For children, the bilingual situation is just a matter of another difference between people! Fifty years ago educators throughout North America used to tell immigrant parents that it was better for their children's schooling if they spoke English at home. Some researchers thought that early exposure to two languages put children at a disadvantage. Newer research tells us that this is not so, and there may be advantages to being bilingual (in addition to knowing more than one language), such as more flexible thinking. The disadvantages that earlier research found were generally economic disadvantages, linked to the hardships of immigrants' lives. Bilingual development sometimes results in slightly slower language development than for some monolingual children. Our older child was still saying things like Where you are? instead of Where are you? in English at four and a half. This is a normal developmental stage for monolingual English children, but they usually figure out that they have to say Where are you?. Language mixing is normal where everyone speaks both languages. It doesn't mean that the children will forget one language, and it doesn't mean that they can't tell the difference any more between two languages. If you scold them for speaking English it may create a negative attitude about the home language and actually make things worse. Instead, create natural situations where the children really need the home language like calling on those monolingual grandparents again. Like adult bilinguals, bilingual children often use words from one language when speaking the other. (This is called code-switching.) But this doesn't mean they are confused about which language they are speaking. In our Italian-English bilingual home, a lot of our food vocabulary is Italian, and we use this even when we're speaking English (and when English words are available). So we'll talk about pollo instead of chicken and sugo instead of sauce. Yet in speaking to monolinguals, bilingual children are careful to use only the relevant language.

CHAPTER 2- SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

2.1 The importance of second language and factors influencing second language learning

Although the world we live in has relatively few continents, however, they contain a myriad diversity of populations speaking in myriads of languages. Most countries today, because of increasing urbanization, international commerce, tourism, business travel, and modern technology have begun to embrace the concept of a society that is multicultural. And evidently, a globalized multicultural society would have to also be a society that is multilingual. The importance and advantages of learning a second language is continuing to increase day by day. However, the importance of learning a second language is not merely limited to the ability of communicating with people who speak different languages. According to studies, it has been shown that learning a second language results in students achieving greater divergent thinking, creativity, and cognitive development compared to monolingual children. A number of studies have also shown that when students learn a second language they have a tendency of outscoring those who a re proficient in only a single language on tests of no Language is one of the main components of the civilization and culture of the people who speak it. Hence, learning a second language can be a comparatively easy and wonderful way of absorbing another culture.nverbal and verbal intelligence. Learning a second language, therefore, can not only challenge your mind, but also enrich your soul, so to speak. Apart from being able to converse with different people in their own language, it can also teach you under Firstly, learning a language of another country helps one understand its culture. Language becomes a peephole to look at the nations culture, its traditions and its history. Italian film director Federico Fellini says, "A different language is a different vision of life". Unless one understands a culture in its own terms, one cannot be said to have gained an entry into another culture. It is only when one perceives something the way it is expressed, he/she cannot be said to have understood the expression. Intercultural insensitivity may lead to misunderstanding. A multilingual person can act as a bridge between two distinct cultures and actually promote world peace. Global understanding coupled with globalization can effectively bring the world closer. Another thing that talks of the importance of foreign language study is touring to foreign countries. One may travel to countries oversees for purposes of touring or studying. In both cases having studied the nations language helps. When in another country, if one can communicate with the people there, life becomes easier! One can make friends with people speaking other languages, thus broadening ones horizons. Not knowing the languages of each other can actually bar the communication between two people. On the contrary, a foreign language study can open doors to new acquaintances and new friends. After all a language is a medium of communication. Languages are means of expression. They can become links joining dissimilar cultures. Knowing many languages improves ones cognitive skills and interpretive abilities. Foreign language study is indeed rewarding.

In short, learning a second language will make you a better thinker. It will even improve your English, it has been proven that first year English students who took a second language at school consistently outperforms those who did not! Today there are many jobs that would benefit from a second language. In other words, it could help anyone from a taxi-driver to a grocery clerk. No matter what career you choose, if youve learned a second language, youll have a real advantage. A technician who is able to speak German and the Executive who is able to converse in Spanish or a salesman who can talk fluently in French or Chinese has the ability to interact more successfully with more people and in many more places than someone who knows only one language. Learning a second language at an early age has a positive effect on academic growth and definitely enriches and enhances a child's mental development. In other words, it provides students with more flexibility in their thinking, sensitivity to the language, and by far a better ear for listening. It also improves the child's understanding of their native language. The advantages are so powerful and it imparts cultural stimulation and assists the child to understand and appreciate people from other countries and become increasingly aware of other cultures and traditions. Basically, it gives a child the ability to communicate with people whom they would otherwise not have the chance to know. For a person who is planning to go for a vacation to a foreign land, the opportunities available with second language acquisition can help in improving the vacation experience. Second language acquisition opens yourself up not only to the cultural aspects of the land but also to the inhabitants who are familiar with the country and its history. When you visit another country it is a sign of respect to have taken the time to develop second language acquisition and whether you are a novice or a master of the language the countries citizens are more open to your tourist advancements. Some students learn a new language more quickly and easily than others. This simple fact is known by all who have themselves learned a second language or taught those who are using their second language in school. Clearly, some language learners are successful by virtue of their sheer determination, hard work and persistence. However there are other crucial factors influencing success that are largely beyond the control of the learner. These factors can be broadly categorized as internal and external. It is their complex interplay that determines the speed and facility with which the new language is learned. Forces that impinge on the likelihood of successful L2 learning include cognitive influences ( memory, capacity), motivational influences, ( interest in the L2), social influences, and instruction. In an article entitled Bilingual Education-Need for Bilingual Education, Benefits of Bilingualism and Theoretical Foundations of Bilingual Education it is said that, at the beginning of the twenty-first century, proficiency in only one language is not enough for economic, societal and educational success. According to the 2000 U.S Census, more than 9.7 million children ages five to seventeen one of every six school-age children spoke a language other than English at home. Between 1990 and 2000, the population of languageminority children increased by 55 percent, while the population of children living in homes where only English is spoken grew by only 11 percent. Language-minority students may be monolingual in their native language, bilingual in their native language and English, or monolingual in English but from a home where a language other than English is spoken. Research done by Jim Cummins, of the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education at the University of Toronto, supports a basic tenet of bilingual education:childrens first language skills must become well developed to ensure that their academic and linguistic performance in the second language is maximized. It is estimated that between 60 and 75 percent of the world is bilingual, and bilingual education is a common educational approach used throughout the

world. In Israel, bilingual education programs not only help both the Arabic-and Hebrewspeaking populations become bilingual, they also teach Hebrew to immigrants from around the world. In many South American countries, such as Peru and Ecuador, there are large populations of indigenous people who speak languages other than Spanish.

Bilingual education there has the role of bilingualism. Good bilingual education programs recognize and build upon the knowledge and skills children bring to school. We have to say a few things about the advantages of Bilingual education. Bilingual education helps you while traveling to foreign countries, which have a different language. It helps us to communicate and be independent of translators and interpreters. Bilingual education also helps us in creative thinking. Bilinguals persons have two or more words for esch object and idea, and different meanings are sometimes attached to words by the two known languages. Once you know two languages, it becomes much easier to learn another language. Knowing three to four languages is prevalent in many parts of Europe. When each parent of a child speaks a different first language, the child who is bilingual can communicate freely with both, developing a close relationship with them. Being bilingual creates a bridge between generations. Generally what happens is if parents migrate, the children learn only the local language. They are ignorant of their mother tongue, which creates a barrier in communication with their relatives. Being able to communicate between generations helps to establish a sense of belonging to an extended family. Bilingual children have demonstrated superior story-telling skills, because they are less bound by words and more elastic in thinking due to the knowledge of two languages. Children should be taught a second language when they begin school. If a language, such as Spanish, was taught to children from the first grade, they could learn the basics like nouns and verbs while they are in elementary school. By the time they were out of high school they would almost be fluent in the language. It has also been shown that it is easier to learn a second language when you are young, so starting it in elementary school would make it easies for children to learn and keep learning about later on. After you have learned a language other than your native language, it is easier for more people to learn a third. People who have already learned a second language could easily learn another from the same language family, such as the romantic languages. Knowing another language, and being encouraged to incorporate it, does not mean that the main language needs to suffer. Being aware of another culture, is another of the advantages of bilingual education. Many parents today recognize the value of having their children learn another language. Bilingual students can be a useful resource in achieving this, if while they are learning the dominant language, other students are learning their language. Knowing another language, and being encouraged to incorporate it, does not mean that the main language needs to suffer. One advantage of bilingual education is that it enables the advancement of two languages. This can be very useful preparation for later careers where bilingual workers are needed. Being aware of another culture is another of the advantages of bilingual education. Every language is reach in cultural information, from the way it is spoken to the objects that are represented ( the Eskimos have many words for snow, whereas the English language only has the one word.) In describing the different snow conditions that impact their lives, their language is necessary, since the English word for it is too vague and ambiguous. Throughout Europe, bilingual education programs are serving immigrant children as well as promoting bilingualism for speakers of majority languages.

Since the first colonists arrived on American shores, education has been provided through languages other than English. As early as 1964, German speaking Americans were operating schools in their mother tongue. As the country expanded, wherever language-minority groups had power, bilingual education was common. In the late 1800s, there was a rise in nativism, accompanied by a large wave of new immigrants at the turn of the century. Despite myths to the contrary, non-native English speakers neither learned English very quickly, nor succeeded in all-English schools. At the beginning of the twentieth century one could easily find a good job that did not require proficiency in English. The population of the United States became more and more diverse as immigration levels reached record levels between the 1970 and the turn of the century, and bilingual education programs were implemented throughout the country. The Bilingual Education Act was reauthorized in 1974, 1978, 1984, 1994 and 2001, each time improving and expanding upon the opportunities for school districts and institutions of higher education to receive assistance from this discretionary, competitive grant program. Internal factors are those that the individual language learner brings with him or her to the particular learning situation.

Age: Second language acquisition is influenced by the age of the learner. Children, who already have solid literacy skills in their own language, seem to be in the best position to acquire a new language efficiently. Motivated, older learners can be very successful too, but usually struggle to achieve native-speaker-equivalent pronunciation and intonation. Personality: Introverted or anxious learners usually make slower progress, particularly in the development of oral skills. They are less likely to take advantage of opportunities to speak, or to seek out such opportunities. More outgoing students will not worry about the inevitability of making mistakes. They will take risks, and thus will give themselves much more practice. Motivation: Intrinsic motivation has been found to correlate strongly with educational achievement. Clearly, students who enjoy language learning and take pride in their progress will do better than those who don't. Extrinsic motivation is also a significant factor. ESL students, for example, who need to learn English in order to take a place at an American university or to communicate with a new English boy/girlfriend are likely to make greater efforts and thus greater progress. Experiences: Learners who have acquired general knowledge and experience are in a stronger position to develop a new language than those who haven't. The student, for example, who has already lived in 3 different countries and been exposed to various languages and cultures has a stronger base for learning a further language than the student who hasn't had such experiences. Cognition: In general, it seems that students with greater cognitive abilities will make the faster progress. Some linguists believe that there is a specific, innate language learning ability that is stronger in some students than in others. Native language: Students who are learning a second language which is from the same language family as their first language have, in general, a much easier task than those who aren't. So, for example, a Dutch child will learn English more quickly than a Japanese child.

External factors are those that characterize the particular language learning situation.

Curriculum: For ESL students in particular it is important that the totality of their educational experience is appropriate for their needs. Language learning is less likely to place if students are fully submersed into the mainstream program without any extra assistance or, conversely, not allowed to be part of the mainstream until they have reached a certain level of language proficiency. Instruction: Clearly, some language teachers are better than others at providing appropriate and effective learning experiences for the students in their classrooms. These students will make faster progress. The same applies to mainstream teachers in second language situations. The science teacher, for example, who is aware that she too is responsible for the students' English language development, and makes certain accommodations, will contribute to their linguistic development. Culture and status: There is some evidence that students in situations where their own culture has a lower status than that of the culture in which they are learning the language make slower progress. Motivation: Students who are given continuing, appropriate encouragment to learn by their teachers and parents will generally fare better than those who aren't. For example, students from families that place little importance on language learning are likely to progress less quickly. Access to native speakers: The opportunity to interact with native speakers both within and outside of the classroom is a significant advantage. Native speakers are linguistic models and can provide appropriate feedback. Clearly, second-language learners who have no extensive access to native speakers are likely to make slower progress, particularly in the oral/aural aspects of language acquisition.

2.2 Second language teaching programs

There are many institutions that offer teaching English as a second or foreign language coursework. These include colleges, community centers, and online training programs. When considering training courses, look for accredited programs that offer authorized certification. Individuals interested in teaching English as a second language should also be aware that although the terms TESL (Teaching English as a Second Language), TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages), and TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) are often used interchangeably, there may some differences in courses. TESL refers to teaching English to international or immigrant students in English-speaking countries, while TEFL and TESOL often refer to teaching English to people in their native countries to enhance education or for business purposes. Training programs in teaching English as second language include:

Bachelor's Degree in TESL Master's Degree in TESL Distance Learning TESL Certificate programs Online TESL Certificate Programs Community or college based TESL Certificates Certificate or Diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults (CELTA or DELTA)

Good bilingual education programs recognize and build upon the knowledge and skills children bring to school. They are designed to be linguistically, culturally and developmentally appropriate for the students and have the characteristics: 1. High expectations for students and clear programmatic goals. 2. A curriculum that is comparable to the material covered in the English-only classroom. 3. Instruction through the native language for subject matter. 4. An English-language development component. 5. Multicultural instruction that recognizes and incorporates studenrshome cultures. 6. Administrative and instructional staff, and community support for the program. 7. Appropriate trained personnel. 8. Adequate resources and linguistically, culturally and developmentally appropriate materials. 9. Frequent and appropriate monitoring of student performance. 10. Parental and family involvement. Virginia Collier and Wayne Thomas, professors in the Graduate School of Education at George Mason University, have conducted one of the largest longitudinal over, with more than 700,000 student records. Their findings document that when students who have had no schooling in their native language and taught exclusively in English, it takes from seven to ten years to reach the age and grade-level norms of their native English-speaking peers.

2.3 Motivation in second language learning

Motivation is often defined as the psychological quality that leads people to achieve a goal. For language learners, mastery of a language may be a goal. For others, communicative competence or even basic communication skills could be a goal. In linguistics, sociolinguistics and second language acquisition, a number of language learner motivation models have been postulated. Work by Gardner, Clment, Drnyei, Usioda and McIntyre are perhaps most known if not all accepted. Motivation is divided into two basic types: integrative and instrumental. Integrative motivation is characterised by the learner's positive attitudes towards the target language group and the desire to integrate into the target language community. Instrumental motivation underlies the goal to gain some social or economic reward through L2 achievement, thus referring to a more functional reason for language learning. Both forms of motivation are examined in light of research which has been undertaken to establish the correlation between the form of motivation and successful second language acquisition. Motivation in the Japanese EFL context is then discussed and studies which have been conducted in the field investigated. Gardner (1982), in his socio-educational model, identified a number of factors which are interrelated when learning a second language. Unlike other research carried out in the area, Gardner's model looks specifically at second language acquisition in a structured classroom setting rather than a natural environment. His work focuses on the foreign language classroom. The model attempts to interrelate four features of second language acquisition. These include the social and cultural milieu, individual learner differences, the setting or context in which learning takes place and linguistic outcomes. (Gardner 1982). Motivation is perceived to be composed of three elements. These include effort, desire and affect. Effort refers to the time spent studying the language and the drive of the learner. Desire indicates how much the learner wants to become proficient in the language, and affect illustrates the learner's emotional reactions with regard to language study . (Gardner 1982). It is thought that students who are most successful when learning a target language are those who like the people that speak the language, admire the culture and have a desire to become familiar with or even integrate into the society in which the language is used (Falk 1978). This form of motivation is known as integrative motivation. In contrast to integrative motivation is the form of motivation referred to as instrumental motivation. This is generally characterised by the desire to obtain something practical or concrete from the study of a second language (Hudson 2000). With instrumental motivation the purpose of language acquisition is more utilitarian, such as meeting the requirements for school or university graduation, applying for a job, requesting higher pay based on language ability, reading technical material, translation work or achieving higher social status. Instrumental motivation is often characteristic of second language acquisition, where little or no social integration of the learner into a community using the target language takes place, or in some instances is even desired. In some of the early research conducted by Gardner and Lambert integrative motivation was viewed as being of more importance in a formal learning environment than instrumental motivation (Ellis 1997). It is important to note that instrumental motivation has only been acknowledged as a significant factor in some research, whereas integrative motivation is continually linked to successful second language acquisition. It has been found that generally students select instrumental reasons more frequently than integrative reasons for the study of language. Those who do support an integrative approach to language study are usually more

highly motivated and overall more successful in language learning. Lukmani (1972) found that an instrumental orientation was more important than an integrative orientation in non-westernized female learners of L2 English in Bombay. Braj Kachru (1977, cited in Brown 2000) also points out that in India, where English has become an international language, it is not uncommon for second language learners to be successful with instrumental purposes being the underlying reason for study. Learners rarely select one form of motivation when learning a second language, but rather a combination of both orientations. Motivation is an important factor in L2 achievement. For this reason it is important to identify both the type and combination of motivation that assists in the successful acquisition of a second language. At the same time it is necessary to view motivation as one of a number of variables in an intricate model of interrelated individual and situational factors which are unique to each language learner. In a number of his studies based on Canadian students studying French, Gardner linked the students' success in learning French with their desire to become part of the French culture. Motivation does not only affect the selection and conceptualization of a specific goal in the beginning of an activity. Its main role is in controlling and directing an activity.