Jubail Industrial College

MME 231: Power Plant Technology Course Handout

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL & MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

May 2006

Contents
Chapter 1
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

FUEL
Introduction Sources of Energy Fuel Types Solid Fuel 1.4.1 Coal 1.4.1.1 Coal Types 1.4.1.2 Pulverised Coal 1.4.2 Coke 1.4.3 Wood Liquid Fuel Gaseous Fuel Nuclear Energy Solar Energy Wind Energy Tidal and Wave Energy Geothermal Energy Fuel Cells 1. 12.1 Types of Fuel Cells COMBUSTION 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 Introduction Combustibles Combustion Controls 2.3.1 Primary and Secondary Air Excess Air Combustion Efficiency Natural, Induced, and Forced Draft Products of Combustion Carbon Dioxide Recorder BOILERS 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Steam Boilers Basic Parts of Steam Boilers Water and Fire Lines Types of Boilers 2 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3

1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

3.5 3.6 3.7

Low Pressure Boilers High Pressure Boilers Shell (or Fire Tube) Boilers

3.1 3.1 3.2

Contents
(Contd.) Chapter 3 (Contd.) 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 Chapter 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 Chapter 5 5.1 BOILERS

Size of Fire Tubes Types of Shell or Fire Tube Boilers Horizontal Shell Boilers Packaged Boilers Reverse Flame or Thimble Boiler Vertical Shell or Fire Tube Boilers Water Tube Boilers Water Tube Versus Fire Tube Boilers Main Boiler Auxiliaries Superheaters Economisers Types of Economisers Air Preheaters Types of Air Preheaters Convection Air Preheaters Regeneration Air Preheater STEAM BOILER FITTINGS Introduction Fittings Safety Valves Safety Valves Testing Procedure Water Column Bottom Blowdown Valves Surface Blowdown Valves Boiler Vent Steam Pressure gauges Pressure Control Device Steam traps Steam Separators Whistle Alarm BOILER FEED WATER TREATMENT Introduction

3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.7 3.7 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.9

4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.3 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.5 4.5 4.5

5.1

5.2 5.2.1 5.2.2

Major Problems with Untreated water Scale in Boilers Caustic Embrittlement

5.1 5.1 5.1

Chapter 5 (Contd.)

BOILER FEED WATER TREATMENT

5.2.3 Corrosion 5.2.4 Carryover 5.2.5 Priming 5.2.6 Foaming 5.3 Treatment of Boiler water 5.3.1 Internal Treatment of Boiler Water 5.3.1.1 Scale Prevention 5.3.1.2 Corrosion Prevention 5.3.1.3 Caustic Embrittlement Prevention 5.3.1.4 Prevention of Foaming, Priming, and Carryover 5.3.2 5.3.2.1 5.3.2.2 5.3.2.3 External Treatment of Boiler Water Cold Lime Soda Process Hot Lime Soda Process Ion Exchange (Zeolite Process)

5.2 5.2 5.2 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4

Chapter 6 6.1 6.2

CONDENSERS AND COOLING TOWERS Condensers Condensers Types 6.2.1 Direct Contact Condensers 6.2.2 Surface Condensers 6.3 Cooling Tower 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1

Chapter 7 7.1 7.2 7.3

STEAM POWER PLANTS Properties of Water and Steam T-S Diagram Rankine Cycle 7.1 7.1 7.1

7.4

How to Increase Thermal Efficiency in Rankine Cycle

7.2

Chapter 8 8.1 8.2

GAS TURBINES Gas Turbine Cycle Gas Turbine with Separate Power Turbine Cycle 8.1 8.1

Chapter 9 9.1 9.2 9.3

COMBINED CYCLES Introduction Plant Arrangement Integrated Control System 9.1 9.1 9.2

1 FUEL
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1. Fuel is a substance that produces heat by burning (oxidation). 2. Fuel has an enthalpy or calorific value which is the energy released per kilogram after complete combustion.

1.2 SOURCES OF ENERGY 1. Fuel 6. Tidal 2. Solar 7. Hydro 3. Nuclear and others 4. Wind 5. Geothermal

1.3 FUEL TYPES 1. Solid: Coal, woodetc 2. Liquid: Fuel oil (petrol, diesel,etc.) 3. Gas: Natural gas, Hydrogen,etc 1.4 SOLID FUEL Coal is the common solid fuel. Also, coke and wood are used. 1.4.1 COAL 1. Volatile matter (except moisture) is driven off and burnt at around 95 o C. 2. Solid carbon or the fixed carbon burns after the volatile matter. 3. Volatile matter and solid carbon are the combustible. 4. Ash is the remains of fuel after complete combustion. 5. Different calorific value due to different chemical structure (coal, coke, and wood and liquid, solid, and gas fuel are in order of lower calorific value) 6. Sulfur content is a major problem: After combustion sulfur dioxide changes into sulfuric acid in the presence of moisture. This leads to corrosion in stacks (iron or steel). Also acid rain destroys vegetation. 1.4.1.1 COAL TYPES 1. Anthracite or hard coal. 2. Bituminous or soft coal.

1.4.1.2 PULVERISED COAL 1. 2. 3. 4. Pulverised or crushed into fine powder. Burns efficiently due to better mixing with air. Easy control in amount and in mixing like gas or sprayed oil. Blown into combustion chamber by air.

1.4.2 COKE Coke is an industrial coal (result of partial burning of wood).

1.4.3 WOOD 1. Composition of dry wood: 49% coal, 44% oxygen, 6% hydrogen, 1% ash. 2. Major problem in burning wood is the creosote build up on stack walls which catches fire and causes stack overheat. Creosote is formed by incomplete combustion (especially at low firing) where unburnt oil distillates and pitch condensate and accumulate on stack walls. Problem can be resolved by using dry wood, low pitch wood, and air supply control for ensuring complete combustion.

1.5 LIQUID FUEL 1. Crude oil constituents are: Mainly carbon and hydrogen. Also It contains moisture, sulfur, nitrogen, arsenic, phosphorous, and silt (sand and mud). 2. Residual oil is the remains of crude oil after light distillates have been removed. It is the main fuel in power plants due to cheap price. But it needs heating to prevent blockage of injectors and fuel pipes.

1.6 GASEOUS FUEL 1. Natural gas, waste gas,hydrogen,etc. 2. Calorific value of hydrogen is one third (1/3) that of natural gas.

1.7 NUCLEAR ENERGY Fission Reactors (by splitting the atoms) reduce uranium fuel into lighter elements (barium and crypton) and release very large amount of heat. Heat is removed by pressurized cooling water or cooling liquid sodium. A heat exchanger removes heat from the cooling liquid cycle and changes water into steam (replacing the boiler) in the steam power plant cycle (Fig. 1.1).

1.8 SOLAR ENERGY Solar radiation through collectors gives its heat into water to change into steam in a steam power plant cycle. Also, solar radiation can be changed into electrical power by photovoltaic cells. Efficiency is still very low. But the free radiation makes it applicable. 1.9 WIND ENERGY Kinetic Energy of wind is changed into mechanical energy by a wind turbine. A generator changes mechanical energy into electrical energy.

1.10 TIDAL AND WAVE ENERGY Water coming to sea shore by tide is stored and the kinetic and potential energy of water falling on a water turbine changes mechanical energy of turbine into electrical energy by a generator. Wave mechanical energy is changed into electrical energy by a wave cell. Efficiency is still low but the free wave and tidal energy makes it applicable. 1.11 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY Heat from inside the earth is used to change water into steam in a steam power plant. 1.12 FUEL CELLS A fuel cell is similar to a battery in that an electro-chemical reaction is used to create electric current. The charge carriers can be released

through an external circuit via wire connections to anode and cathode plates of the battery or the fuel cell. The major difference between fuel cells and batteries is that batteries carry a limited supply of fuel internally as an electrolytic solution and solid materials (such as the lead acid battery that contains sulfuric acid and lead plates) or as solid dry reactants such as zinc carbon powders found in a flashlight battery. Fuel cells have similar reactions; however, the reactants are gases (hydrogen and oxygen) that are combined in a catalytic process. Since the gas reactants can be fed into the fuel cell and constantly replenished, the unit will never run down like a battery. Fuel cells are named based on the type of electrolyte and materials used. The fuel cell electrolyte is sandwiched between a positive and a negative electrode. Because individual fuel cells produce low voltages, fuel cells are stacked together to generate the desired output. The fuel cell stack is integrated into a fuel cell system with other components, including a fuel reformer, power electronics, and controls. Fuel cell systems convert chemical energy from fossil fuels directly into electricity.

The fuel (hydrogen) enters the fuel cell, and this fuel is mixed with air, which causes the fuel to be oxidized. As the hydrogen enters the fuel cell, it is broken down into protons and electrons. In the case of PEMFC and PAFC, positively charged ions move through the electrolyte across a voltage to produce electric power. The protons and electrons are then recombined with oxygen to make water, and as this water is removed, more protons are pulled through the electrolyte to continue driving the reaction and resulting in further power production. In the case of SOFC, it is not protons that move through the electrolyte, but oxygen radicals. In MCFC, carbon dioxide is required to combine with the oxygen and electrons to form carbonate ions, which are transmitted through the electrolyte.

1.12.1 TYPES OF FUEL CELLS There are four fuel cell technologies currently under development. These include phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC), molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC), solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC), and proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC). The technologies are at varying states of development or commercialization. Fuel cells utilize hydrogen and oxygen as the primary reactants; however, they can operate on a variety of fuels depending on the type of fuel process and reformer used.

Natural gas (methane) is considered to be the most readily available and the cleanest fuel (next to hydrogen) for distributed generation applications, so most work is focused on natural-gas-powered fuel cells. However, fuel cells need hydrogen gas to operate, so the key is converting natural gas into a hydrogen-rich gas. The low-temperature fuel cell technologies such as the phosphoric acid fuel cell and proton exchange membrane fuel cell require a fuel processing unit (reformer) to convert the natural gas into a hydrogen-rich mixture suitable for use in the fuel cell. The reformer uses a catalytic reaction process that creates the hydrogen-rich mixture. High temperature fuel cells such as the molten carbonate fuel cell or the solid oxide fuel cell do not require a reformer since the high operating temperature of the fuel cell allows for the direct conversion of natural gas to hydrogen.

Fig1.1: A diagram of a nuclear power plant.

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2 COMBUSTION
2.1 INTRODUCTION 1. Combustion is the oxidation of a combustible material producing heat. 2. Oxidation is the reaction of the combustible material with oxygen ( 23% by weight in air). 3. Combustible material is the material that burns (oxidizes and releases heat) 4. Ash (non-combustible material: silica, alumna, lime, oxide and bisulfide of iron) is the remains of fuel (5-10 %) after complete combustion. 5. Complete combustion when all combustible material in fuel is oxidized (only ash is left) 6. Incomplete combustion when part of combustible material is not oxidized due to insufficient air supply (bad metering and mixing). Smoke or carbon monoxide in products of combustion indicates incomplete combustion. Black particles in smoke are solid carbon. 2.2 COMBUSTIBLES Coal, fuel oil, and gas fuel contain carbon and hydrogen as the main combustibles. Other combustibles are in very small proportions (as sulfur). 2.3 COMBUSTION CONTROLS Combustion controls are: Metering of fuel supply, primary air, secondary air, and mixing of fuel and air. 2.3.1 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY AIR Primary air is the air introduced with fuel into furnace. However, secondary air is the air introduced by natural or forced draft to ensure complete combustion. 2.4 EXCESS AIR Excess air is the extra air over the stoichiometric (chemically correct) air/fuel ratio. This air is not needed for combustion but it gives better chance of fuel meeting air particles for higher combustion efficiency. Up to 150 % excess air is used in steam boiler furnaces. Excess air dilutes flue gas and cool the furnace.

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2.5 COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY Conditions for efficient combustion of coal are: 1. Temperature should be at least 982 oC to burn carbon (volatile gasses burn at 95 oC). 2. Enough primary and secondary air to ensure complete burning. 3. Good metering and mixing of pulverized coal and air. Better swirl and turbulence give better combustion efficiency Conditions for efficient combustion of oil fuel are: 1. Temperature should be at firing (or ignition or kindling) point at least. 2. Good atomization of fuel (good injection system) 3. Enough primary and secondary air to ensure complete burning. 4. Good metering and mixing of oil fuel and air. Better swirl and turbulence give better combustion efficiency Conditions for efficient combustion of gas fuel are: 1. Temperature should be at firing (or ignition or kindling) point at least. 2. Enough primary and secondary air to ensure complete burning. 3. Good metering and mixing of oil fuel and air. Better swirl and turbulence give better combustion efficiency * Heating air supply before entering furnace increases combustion efficiency.

2.6 NATURAL, INDUCED, AND FORCED DRAFT Natural draft is the convection flow of air through the furnace and up the stack taking away the products of combustion. This is due to the lower density of gasses than air. Induced draft is the flow of air by a fan between the furnace and the stack. Forced draft is the forced flow of air by a fan into the furnace (Fig. 2.1). 2.7 PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION Products of combustion are: 1) carbon dioxide 2) carbon mono-oxide (for incomplete combustion, a poisonous gas) 3) water vapour 4) nitric oxide and nitric dioxide (cause cancer and health problems) 5) sulfur dioxide [changes into sulfuric acid in the presence of moisture. This leads to corrosion in stacks (iron or steel). Also acid rain destroys vegetation].

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2.8 CARBON DIOXIDE RECORDER Potassium hydro-oxide solution absorbs carbon dioxide from flue gas. The reduced volume of the gas sample (after absorption) compared with the original volume (before absorption) indicates the carbon dioxide percentage in products of combustion. Carbon dioxide percentage determines the amount of excess air and the amount of air used for combustion, and the power of boilers.

Fig. 2.1: Forced and induced draft.

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3 BOILERS
3.1 STEAM BOILERS A steam boiler is a pressure vessel made of iron or steel. Water is heated inside the boiler and changed into steam. Heat is generated by burning fuel in a furnace and the hot gasses heat the water. Steam is used to drive turbines for power generation or to drive other equipment. Also, steam is used for other industrial applications. Some boilers are only used to produce hot water for heating buildings. 3.2 BASIC PARTS OF STEAM BOILERS 1) Water space: To hold water from which steam is generated 2) Steam space: Above the water level 3) Heating surface: Metal separating water from hot gasses 4) Combustion chamber: Where fuel and air are mixed and burned 5) Boiler setting: Brickwork enclosing the furnace of externally fired boilers (Internally fired boilers do not use a setting) 6) Boiler fittings: Attachments needed to operate the boiler safely and efficiently 3.3 WATER AND FIRE LINES Water line is the water level in the boiler. However, fire line is the highest level of boiler subjected to direct heat from furnace. 3.4 TYPES OF BOILERS There are many different types of boilers due to the variety of applications. Steam boilers are generally classified into low pressure and high pressure boilers. Also, steam boilers are further classified into shell (or fire tube) boilers and water tube boilers. 3.5 LOW PRESSURE BOILERS Boilers with maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) less than 1 bar. These boilers are usually used for generating hot water. Shell and water tube types are used.

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3.6 HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS Boilers with maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) higher than 1 bar. These boilers are usually used for power generation. Shell and water tube types are used. 3.7 SHELL (OR FIRE TUBE) BOILERS The cylindrical shell of the boiler contains the water. Also, the furnace where combustion takes place is usually contained in the shell. The fire (flue gas) tubes pass through the water (Fig.3.1).

3.8 SIZE OF FIRE TUBES The diameter of the fire tube has an important effect on the size and efficiency of the boiler. Flue gas can pass at the same rate through one 100mm diameter and five 45mm diameter tubes. However, the five tubes have 2.25 times the surface area of the one large tube. Heat transfer is increased by the same rate and the higher number of tubes lead to higher efficiency. But the cost of construction is increased.

3.9 TYPES OF SHELL OR FIRE TUBE BOILERS Two main types: Horizontal and vertical shell boilers. 3.10 HORIZONTAL SHELL BOILERS Fire tubes are mounted horizontally. Most of horizontal boilers are packaged boilers. Two or three or four pass boilers are common where flue gas makes these passes before entering the stack.

3.11 PACKAGED BOILERS Packaged boiler is skid mounted. It is complete with burner, feed pump, valves, fittings, and a basic electrical system (Fig. 3.2). The boiler is ready to connect to application to supply steam. Power of packaged boilers vary between 300 and 20000 kW. Pressure range is 5 to 7 bars. Large boilers have twin furnaces. The maximum size of the packaged boiler is limited by the problem of transportation from manufacturer to site (bridges). Also, the thickness of the shell plate increases to unacceptable and uneconomical level as the shell diameter increases.

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3.12 REVERSE FLAME OR THIMBLE BOILER Reverse flame or thimble boiler is a horizontal shell boiler. The combustion chamber is in the form of a thimble. The burner fires down the center where the flame reverses back to the front. Fire tubes surrounding the thimble pass the flue gas to the stack at the rear. Power of these boilers are up to 3500 kW. They are used for hot water and steam (Fig.3.3)..

Fig. 3.1 Fire tube and water tube boilers.

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Fig. 3.2: A packaged boiler.

Fig. 3.3: A reverse flame (thimble) boiler.

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Fig. 3.4: A vertical shell boiler.

3.13 VERTICAL SHELL OR FIRE TUBE BOILERS These are one pass boilers. The flue gas cannot be retained by baffles. They are mounted vertically, but the fire tubes are horizontal. A large number of small diameter tubes are used to increase heat transfer rate. Also, the furnace is dished at the top to allow greater radiant heat. These factors increase the efficiency of the boiler. The vertical shell boilers are compact and useful for small spaces. Power is up to 3000 kW (Fig. 3.4). 3.14 WATER TUBE BOILERS Water passes inside tubes and flue gas surrounds them. The water tubes are connected to drums. Convection currents circulate water from top steam drum through bundle of tubes down to mud drum in the relatively cool part of the boiler. The hot part allows hot water and steam to rise up from mud drum and back into the steam drum. Steam leaves at the top of the steam drum and water recirculates again through the mud drum. The furnace walls may be lined with refractory bricks and water tubes. Also, baffles of refractory brick are constructed. This reduces heat losses and increases boiler efficiency.

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The output capacity range is 8500 kW to 2000 MW (30000 lb/h to 3200 tonnes/h) Two, three, and four drum boilers with straight or bent tubes are common. Bent tube boilers operate at higher pressure and steam capacity than straight tube boilers. Bent tube boilers improve water circulation. Forced circulation is implemented by using a pump (Fig. 3.5 and 3.6). 3.15 WATER TUBE VERSUS FIRE TUBE BOILERS Fire tube boilers are used for moderate pressure and relatively lower capacity than water tube boilers because large drum diameter and plate thickness is not practical or safe. However, water tube boilers are used for high pressure and large capacity of steam. 3.16 MAIN BOILER AUXILIARIES a) Superheaters b) Economisers c) Air preheaters

3.17 SUPERHEATERS A superheater is a heat exchanger. Wet or dry steam passes through banks of tubes in the radiant zone (furnace area) or in the direct path of gases of combustion to change into superheated steam.

Fig. 3.5: Bent and straight tube water tube boilers.

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Fig. 3.6: Three drum water tube boiler.

Wet or saturated steam is a mixture of saturated water and dry steam. Saturation pressure and temperature are at the boiling or condensation points. Steam is superheated if its temperature becomes above the saturation temperature. Superheated steam can be dealt with as a gas or as an ideal gas where equation of state and related equations can be applied. A superheat degree can be defined as the difference between superheated steam temperature and its saturation temperature at the same pressure. Problems of wet steam: 1) Corrosion of metal (pipes, valves, turbine blades) due to oxidation. 2) Erosion of metal due to hammering of water particles in wet steam under high pressure and temperature. Types of superheaters (Fig. 3.7): 1) Radiant superheaters: Banks of steam tubes are in the radiant zone where heat transfer is mainly by radiation.

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2) Convection superheaters: Steam tubes are in contact with gasses of combustion where heat transfer is mainly by convection. Precautions in superheater operation: 1) Flow of steam should be at least 25% of boiler capacity to prevent overheating or burning of tubes. 2) Safety valve should be able to release 25% of boiler capacity to prevent overpressure and destruction of the tubes. 3.18 ECONOMISERS An economiser is a feed water heat exchanger used in large water tube boilers (Fig. 3.8). It is located between boiler and stack. Heat from flue gas is transferred into feed water. This increases efficiency of boiler. Sufficient draft is needed to overcome the resistance of the flue gas tubes. This is usually done by induced draft fans. For efficient and safe operation of economizers the temperature of flue gas in tubes must be maintained high enough to prevent sweating (condensation of water vapor). Sweating leads to corrosion and acid rain. 3.19 TYPES OF ECONOMISERS There are two types: a) Unit Type: It stands alone as a separate unit from boiler. b) Integral Type: It is a part of the boiler in the same casing.

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Fig. 3.7: Superheater types.

Fig. 3.8: Location of an economizer in a boiler.

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3.20 AIR PREHEATERS An air preheater is a heat exchanger used in large boilers. It is located between boiler and stack (as the economizer). Heat from flue gas is transferred into air entering the furnace to increase efficiency of boiler by increasing efficiency of combustion. Also, the hot air increases the life of refractory brick where cold air could lead to cracks. 3.21 TYPES OF AIRPREHEATERS There are two basic types: a) Convection type 3.22 CONVECTION AIR PREHEATERS There are two types of convection air preheaters: Tubular and plate (Fig. 3.9). In tubular type flue gas passes inside tubes and air surrounds them. Baffles are used to divert the direction of air and increase the heat transfer rate. However, in plate type plates are used instead of tubes. The plates are spaced and assembled in a steel frame forming air and gas chambers. Air and gas move past each other on opposite sides of the plates. In Both types counterflow (flow in opposite directions) is applied to increase heat transfer rate. 3.23 REGENERATION AIR PREHEATERS This type is used with very large boilers fig. 3.10). It consists of a round casing divided into three zones: a) Flue gas zone b) Sealing zone c) Air zone A slow moving rotor consisting of a honeycomb plate element rotates through the three zones of the preheater. As the plates pass through the flue gas zone, it absorbs the heat. After the plates reach the air zone the heat is absorbed by air. The sealing zone prevents mixing flue gas with air. Flue gas move by an induced draft fan to the stack. However air is moved into the furnace by a forced draft fan. Counterflow is applied to increase flow rate. This type of preheaters requires regular maintenance.

b) Regeneration type

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Fig. 3.9: Tubular and plate air preheaters.

Fig. 3.10: Regeneration air preheaters.

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4 STEAM BOILER FITTINGS

4.1 INTRODUCTION Boiler fittings are required to operate a boiler safely and efficiently. These fittings are in the area of the boiler. These are required for both water and shell type boilers. Standards are applied in the construction, installation, and operation of the fittings (Fig. 4.1). 4.2 FITTINGS Main fittings are: Safety valves, water column, bottom blowdown valves, surface blowdown valves, boiler vent, steam pressure gauge, pressure control, steam traps, steam separators, and alarm whistle. 4.3 SAFETY VALVES Safety valves are set to open if the maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) in a boiler is exceeded. This takes place if there is a problem in operation. For example air in boiler, steam supply valve is not releasing the required flowetc. Safety valves should release all the capacity of the boiler (kg/h) not in excess of 6% rise above MAWP. Safety valves are located at the highest part of the steam and water drum. Also, safety valves are fitted at the superheater header outlet. No other valves should be fitted between the safety valves and the drum or the header. The most common type of safety valves is the spring loaded pop type. 4.4 SAFETY VALVES TESTING PROCEDURE Safety valves are tested manually or by pressure, to assure proper functioning, according to the following: 1) Low pressure boilers (less than 1 bar): Every one month in operation, with 0.3 bar pressure in boiler, lift the handle to end to fully open the valve (manual test). Held the valve open for 5 to 10 seconds. 2) High pressure boilers ( above1 bar): (a) Test manually every month. Pressure in a boiler should be at least 75% of the popping pressure to protect valve from damage.

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(b) Test by pressure every year by allowing the pressure to increase above MAWP for 5 to 10 seconds.

Fig 4.1: Boiler fittings. 4.5 WATER COLUMN Water column is used to read the level of water in a boiler (Fig. 4.2). This is done by having the lowest visible part of the glass gauge 5 to 8 cm above the highest heating surface and extend above the normal operating water level (NOWL). The water column has the following components: (a) Gauge glass: to indicate the level of water (b) Gauge glass blowdown valve: to blowdown the glass gauge lines to remove sludge and sediment and helps to see the water level. (c) Try cocks: also, to find the water level in boiler (manual valves) (d) Water column blowdown valve: to remove sludge and sediment to prevent the blockage of the water column.

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Fig. 4.2: Water Column. 4.6 BOTTOM BLOWDOWN VALVES Bottom blowdown valves are located at the lowest part of the boiler to discharge water from boiler for the following reasons: (a) Control the high level of water to prevent carryover of water into steam line. (b) Remove sludge and sediment in a boiler. (c) Control chemical concentrations in water in a boiler. (d) Drain a boiler for cleaning or inspection. 4.7 SURFACE BLOWDOWN VALVES Surface blowdown valves are located at the normal operating water level (NOWL) to skim off any floating impurities in a boiler. Surface impurities increase surface tension of water. This prevents steam bubbles to break through the water surface.

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4.8 BOILER VENT The vent lines are located at the highest point of steam in a boiler. Valves are used to open and close the vent lines. It is used to vent air from a boiler during filling and warming. Also, it is used to prevent vacuum forming when taking the boiler off the line for test or maintenance. If air is not vented from a boiler, air pressure rises and opens the safety valves and lead to unstable operation of the boiler. 4.9 STEAM PRESSURE GAUGES Steam pressure gauges are necessary to read pressure inside boilers. The pressure lines are located at the highest point of steam in a boiler. The gauges are located to allow easy observation by the operator to maintain a maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP). The most common pressure gauge used is the Bourdon gauge. It consists of a Bourdon flexible arc tube connected by a linkage and gears to a pointer to indicate to the pressure values. The deflection in flexible tube is proportional to applied pressure. Bourdon gauge is connected through a pigtail or U tube siphon to prevent water to enter and damage the gauge. 4.10 PRESSURE CONTROL DEVICE Pressure control device is an automatic device that controls the operating pressure in a boiler. As the pressure reaches 10 bar for example the burner is switched off by the control box. And as the pressure drops to 9.8 bar the burner is switched on. The maximum pressure is set in the device. 4.11 STEAM TRAPS Steam trap is a device to remove water from steam lines by consecutive change in direction of flow. The inertia force due to the weight of water separates water from steam. A strainer is needed at the steam trap inlet to prevent scale or other solid particles to enter and clog the trap. If water is not removed from steam lines water hammer occurs leading to line rupture or erosion of metal surfaces. 4.12 STEAM SEPARATORS A steam separator is a device to remove water from steam leaving the water and steam drum in boilers. Water is separated from steam, due to the inertia force, by changing the direction of flow. Steam separators

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prevent water hammer which lead to erosion of metal surface. Also, they prevent corrosion of valves, pipes, and turbine blades. 4.13 WHISTLE ALARM Whistle alarms are used to alert the operator in case of failure or shut down of the boiler.

BOILER FEED WATER TREATMENT

5.1 INTRODUCTION Minerals in water can result in build up of deposits (salts) under high temperature and pressure in a boiler. Deposits or scale lead to decrease heat transfer rate and consequently decrease the efficiency of the boiler. Also, scale can lead to overheating and cracks in boiler metal. Some dissolved salts and oxygen lead to corrosion and pitting of boiler metal. Some salts accumulate together and form total dissolved solids (TDS) and sludge leading to priming. Even good quality boiler feed water leaves impurities and high concentration of TDS due to the constant evaporation. Blowdown valves are used to control concentration of impurities. 5.2 MAJOR PROBLEMS WITH UNTREATED BOILER FEED WATER Untreated water may cause one or more of the following problems: Scale, caustic embrittlement, corrosion, carryover, priming, and foaming. 5.2.1 SCALE IN BOILERS Scale is the deposited solids (mainly salts of magnesium and calcium) on heating surfaces of a boiler. Formation of the salts is due to the continuous rise in concentration of minerals (mainly magnesium and calcium) which is the result of constant evaporation under high temperature and pressure. Hard water is referred to water containing scale forming minerals. Temporary hardness if scale is mainly carbonates of calcium and magnesium. Permanent hardness if scale is mainly chlorides, sulfates, and nitrates of calcium and magnesium. Temporary hardness can be removed by internal treatment of water. However, to remove permanent hardness external treatment is needed. Scale forms a layer of insulation between water and hot gasses. So, scale leads to drop in heat transfer rate and consequently decreases the efficiency of the boiler. Also, scale can lead to overheating and cracks as well as distortion of tubes and sheets of metal

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in a boiler. If cracks are not detected and repaired early, explosion of a boiler can happen.

5.2.2 CAUSTIC EMBRITTLEMENT Caustic embrittlement is the formation of salts and sludge in water due to the high alkalinity of water in a boiler. The salts and sludge deposit on the heating surfaces forming scale. 5.2.3 CORROSION Corrosion is the pitting of metal surface due to the acidity (low alkalinity) or the presence of oxygen in boiler water. The boiler metal is converted into red or black powder (iron oxide) which is washed away with water by blowdown. Corrosion accelerates very quickly (where metal thickness decreases) under the high stress (high temperature and pressure) and can lead to explosion if not detected and repaired early. 5.2.4 CARRYOVER Carryover is the carrying over of water into steam line due to dissolved solids and sludge. The carried water into steam contains dissolved salts which accumulate on pipe walls, valves, and turbine blades causing corrosion and damage. The following factors minimize the risk of carryover: 1. The main steam supply valve should be opened slowly 2. The high level of water in a boiler should be well observed and not exceeded. 3. Boiler should be frequently blown down to remove deposits, dissolved solids and any organic matter (wood, leavese tc). 5.2.5 PRIMING Priming is the violent movement of water in a boiler leading to carryover. Priming is due to chemical and mechanical factors. Chemical factors are: 1. 2. 3. 4. Organic matter in boiler water (wood, leaves,etc). Suspended solids in boiler water. Oil in boiler water. High alkalinity in boiler water.

Mechanical factors are: 1. Too high level of water in a boiler.

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2. Rapid fluctuating load from boiler (rapid on-off cycle of feed water pump). 3. Operating pressure is higher than MAWP. Steam velocity from water surface increases at any output.

5.2.6 FOAMING Foaming is the formation of a foam layer on the surface of boiler water. Foaming is due to impurities like oil.

5.3 TREATMENT OF BOILER WATER Internal and external treatment is best applied to boiler water. Internal treatment is referred to treatment of water inside a boiler. However, external treatment is referred to treatment of water outside the boiler. 5.3.1 INTERNAL TREATMENT OF BOILER WATER Internal treatment of boiler water is required to prevent scale, corrosion, caustic embrittlement, carryover, priming and foaming. 5.3.1.1 SCALE PREVENTION Scale can be prevented by adding caustic soda and phosphate to boiler water. Calcium and magnesium carbonates change into non-adhering sludge. The sludge is removed by bottom blowdown. The phosphate level should be maintained regularly. 5.3.1.2 CORROSION PREVENTION Corrosion can be prevented by heating feed water (economizer). This removes oxygen and carbon dioxide from water. Also, oxygen can be removed by adding sodium sulfite which changes to sulfate. The sulfite level should be maintained regularly. Moreover, the acidity of water should be controlled (PH=7-10). PH scale range is 0-14. For PH=7 water is considered neutral, PH<7 is acidic, and PH>7 is caustic or alkaline.

5.3.1.3 CAUSTIC EMBRITTLEMENT PREVENTION

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Caustic embrittlement is prevented by maintaining the correct alkalinity level in boiler water and frequent blowdown (surface and bottom). The alkalinity level (PH=7-10) is maintained by adding caustic soda or soda ash. 5.3.1.4 PREVENTION OF FOAMING, PRIMING, AND CARRYOVER Foaming, priming, and carryover are prevented by minimizing total dissolved solids (TDS) and surface impurities. This is done by regular blowdown (bottom and surface) and caustic embrittlement prevention. TDS level is measured by a conductivity meter. 5.3.2 EXTERNAL TREATMENT OF BOILER WATER External treatment of boiler water can be carried out by one of the three following methods: Cold lime soda process, hot lime soda process, and ion exchange (zeolite) process. 5.3.2.1 COLD LIME SODA PROCESS Water at ambient temperature and chemicals are introduced in a special design to cause mixture swirl. Sludge deposits on a catalyst bed as mixture moves from bottom to top of the process unit where soft water leaves out. As the catalyst becomes heavily coated with sludge, it is removed from the bottom of the unit through a draw off valve. Fresh catalyst is added from top of unit. Two cock valves are used to check the level of catalyst in the unit (Fig. 5.1). 5.3.2.2 HOT LIME SODA PROCESS The process is carried out at 100 oC by steam supplied at the top of the unit to speed up the softening process. Water enters through a direct contact vent condenser at the top of the unit. Chemicals are injected by a feed pump at the top of the unit. Mixture of water, chemicals and steam cause sludge to accumulate. Sludge is blown down by a bottom valve. Soft water leaves at the top of the unit and passes through a series of filters (Fig.5.2). 5.3.2.3 ION EXCHANGE (ZEOLITE) PROCESS Zeolite process is carried out at ambient temperature. Zeolite is a compound of minerals including silicates of aluminum, sodium, and calcium. Zeolite absorbs the ions of minerals (calcium and magnesium) from hard water to make it soft. Zeolite changes calcium and magnesium carbonates into sodium carbonates. When sodium in the unit is depleted the unit must be regenerated by passing sodium chloride (common salt) over the zeolite in the resin bed. After rinsing, the unit is ready for softening of water again (Fig.5.3).

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Fig. 5.1: A cold lime soda process unit.

Fig. 5.2: A hot lime soda process unit.

Fig.5.3: An Ion Exchange (zeolite) process unit.

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CONDENSERS AND COOLING TOWERS

Condensers are heat exchangers used to condensate steam leaving the turbine to reduce the back pressure to vacuum to increase efficiency of the turbine and efficiency of the steam power plant thermal cycle. A vacuum pump is used to remove condensate from a condenser.

6.1 CONDENSERS

6.2 CONDENSERS TYPES There are two types: Direct contact and surface condensers. 6.2.1 DIRECT CONTACT CONDENSERS Steam condensates when it comes in contact with cold water. Counter flow is used with direct contact condensers to increase the heat transfer rate and consequently to increase the vacuum (Fig.6.1). 6.2.2 SURFACE CONDENSERS Steam and cold water are separated by metal surface. Surface condensers vary in design according to water flow and according to steam flow. According to water flow there are one pass, two pass, three pass,etc. Where water passes in one bundle of tubes in one direction or water passes through two bundles of tubes changing flow direction twice and so on (Fig.6.2). According to steam flow there are single flow, divided flow, and cross flow condensers (Fig. 6.3). Single flow: Steam enters at top end and leaves at the other bottom end of the condenser. Not effective because steam does not pass over all the cooling surfaces with enough time. Used in small condensers. Divided flow: A baffle is used to divide flow over the cooling surfaces. This improves heat transfer rate and consequently increases efficiency of the condenser. Cross flow: Baffles are used to change flow direction in condensers two or more times to increase efficiency of the condenser. 6.3 COOLING TOWER Cooling tower is a heat exchanger in which air and water comes in contact with each other to cool water by latent heat of evaporation. Some water is

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lost with air in evaporation and water is left cooled by this process. If relative humidity (which is the mass of water in air over the maximum mass of air that can be absorbed by air) is 100 % the water cannot be cooled and the cooling tower cannot be used. Cooling tower is used to cool condensers in absence of cooling water (river, sea,etc).

Fig. 6.1: A direct contact condenser.

Fig. 6.3: Single, divided, and crossflow surface condensers.

Fig. 6.2: One and two pass surface condensers.

Fig. 6.4: Cooling tower.

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7 STEAM POWER PLANTS

7.1 PROPERTIES OF WATER AND STEAM
Saturation: Boiling or condensing at constant saturation temperature and pressure. Saturated water: Water at the boiling point. Dry Steam: Steam at the boiling point. Saturated (or wet) Steam: Mixture of saturated water and dry steam. Dryness fraction (X): X=mv/(mv+mw)=(v-vf)/vfg=(h-hf)/hfg=(s-sf)/sfg mv=mass of dry steam in saturated steam mw=mass of saturated water in saturated steam s=entropy, v=volume, h=enthalpy, subscripts f for liquid (fluid) g for dry steam (gas), vfg=vg-vf, sfg=sg-sf, hfg=hg-hf Subcooled Water: Water temperature is less than saturation temperature. Superheated steam: Steam temperature is greater than saturation temperature.

7.2 T-S Diagram

Fig. 7.1 shows the T-S diagram. Two constant pressure lines are shown (p 1 <p2). C is the critical point (change of liquid into vapour or vise versa, for water, Pc=22.12MPa, Tc=374.15 oC). hf is the enthalpy of saturated water (area under curveof). hfg=hg-hf is the latent heat (area under curve fg. Area between oc and T axis is for subcooled water. Area under saturation line is for wet steam. Area above saturation line and to the wright of C is for superheated steam.

7.3 Rankine Cycle

Fig 7.2 shows Rankine cycle. B=Boiler, T=Turbine, G=Generator, Con=Condenser, P=Pump. 12=isentropic expansion in turbine 23=Heat rejection at constant pressure in condenser 34=isentropic compression in pump

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41=Heat addition at constant pressure in boiler th=W net/Qa=(W t-W p)/(h1-h4) = [(h1-h2)- (h4-h3)]= (h1-h4) th=Thermal efficiency Wnet=Net work done Wt, W p=Work of turbine and work of pump respectively Qa=Heat added in boiler

7.4 How to Increase Thermal Efficiency in Rankine Cycle?

The thermal efficiency can be increased by one or more of the following methods: 1-Increase Pressure in boiler 2-Increase Vacuum in Condenser i.e. lower pressure in condenser 3- Regeneration: Some heat is returned from turbine to feed water to boiler 4- Reheat: Steam from first stage of Turbine is superheated and passed to second stage of turbine (Fig. 7.3)

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Fig. 7.1: T-S diagram for water and steam.

Fig. 7.2: Rankine cycle.

Fig. 7.3: Reheat in Rankine cycle.

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8 GAS TURBINES
8.1 GAS TURBINE CYCLE
Brayton cycle is an air standard closed cycle (Fig. 8.1). Thermal efficiency of air standard cycle is dependent on pressure ratio (rp=p2/p1). th=1-(T4 T1)/(T3-T2)=1-1/rp(k-1)/k However real cycle is an open cycle (Fig.8.2). 12s=Isentropic compression in compressor (S2s=S1) 12=Real compression in compressor 23=Added heat at constant p (p2=p3) 34s=Isentropic expansion in turbine (S3=S4s) 34=Real expansion in turbine c=W ci/Wcr=(h2s-h1)/(h2-h1)=(T2s-T1)/ (T2-T1) T= W Ti/W Tr =(h3-h4)/(h3-h4s)=(T3-T4)/ (T3-T4s) c=Isentropic efficiency of compressor, T=Isentropic efficiency of turbine, Wci, Wcr=Isentropic and real work of compressor respectively, W Ti,WTr = Isentropic and real work of turbine th=(W Tr-Wcr)/Q23=[(T3-T4)-(T2-T1)/ (T3-T2)=[ T (T3-T4s)- 1/c (T2s-T1)]/ (T3-T2) th=Thermal efficiency of cycle, Q23=Heat Added, Q23=mfuelHfuelcom=maircp(T3-T2)

8.2 GAS TURBINE WITH SEPARATE POWER TURBINE CYCLE

This design allows the high pressure (HP) turbine to drive the compressor. However, the low pressure (LP) turbine provides the power output . The high pressure turbine is called the compressor turbine and the low pressure turbine is called the power turbine (Fig.8.3). work from HP turbine = work input to compressor cop(T3-T4)=cpa(T2-T1) cpg, cpa= specific heat of gasses and air respectively. Net Work Output=cpg(T4-T5).

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Fig. 8.1 Gas Turbine closed cycle (Brayton cycle).

Fig. 8.2 Gas turbine open cycle.

Fig. 8.3 Gas turbine open cycle with a power turbine.

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9 COMBINED CYCLES
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The combined cycles represent the most advanced power generation systems available today. These combined cycle power generation systems can achieve 60% net thermal efficiency burning natural gas. Their environmental impact per kilowatt-hour is the lowest of all fossil-fired generation equipment. The high power density of the advanced technology combined-cycle systems enables a compact plant arrangement. In this arrangement, the steam turbine has a single-casing and single flow exhaust as would be applied at a site with steam turbine condenser cooling that accommodates the higher range of exhaust pressures. The gas turbine cannot operate independently of the steam cycle so there is no operating flexibility advantage for the multi-shaft system. The single-shaft system is lower in installation cost because of the single generator, main electrical connections, transformer and switchgear as compared to the multi-shaft system.

9.2 PLANT ARRANGEMENT The highly efficient combined cycles integrate the advanced technology, closed-circuit steam-cooled gas turbines with reliable steam cycles using state-of-the-art steam turbines and unfired, multi-pressure, heat recovery steam generators (HRSGs). The diagram of the cycle (Fig. 9.1) shows an overview of the three pressure, heat recovery steam cycle and its integration with the gas turbine cooling system. Gas turbine cooling steam is supplied from the intermediate pressure (IP) superheater and the high pressure (HP) steam turbine exhaust to the closed circuit system that cools the gas turbine stage 1 and 2 nozzles and buckets. The cooling system operates in series with the reheater, with gas turbine cooling steam returned to the steam cycle cold reheat line. Air extracted from the compressor discharge is cooled using water from the IP economizer. The cooled air is readmitted to the gas turbine and compressor to cool compressor wheels and selected turbine gas path components. The energy extracted from the compressor discharge air is returned to the steam cycle by generating IP steam. A fuel gas heating system utilizes low grade energy from the HRSG to improve combined-cycle thermal efficiency. Water extracted from the discharge of the HRSG IP economizer is supplied to the fuel gas heater to pre-heat the fuel gas supplied to the combustion system. The water leaving the fuel heater is returned to the cycle through the condensate receiver to the condenser.

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The single-shaft power train is configured with the gas turbine on one end, the steam turbine in the middle and the generator on the other end, as shown in Figure 9.1. This close coupling of the steam and gas turbines permits full mechanical integration as a single prime mover with a single thrust bearing, thus minimizing the overall machine length. Use of all solid rotor couplings provides maximum reliability and simplifies the control, overspeed protection, and auxiliary systems.

9.3 INTEGRATED CONTROL SYSTEM

The single-shaft combined-cycle unit is controlled by an integrated, computer control system that coordinates the gas turbine, steam turbine, generator, HRSG and unit auxiliaries to start, stop and operate the unit to meet system power requirements with input from a control room operator or from a remote dispatch area. The high degree of control integration maximizes automation of startup, shutdown and normal operations, which reduces plant operating costs.

Fig. 9.1 Combined cycle.

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