Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Laysdownthebroadpolicies foroperation Administrationdefinesthe organization Specialisation Specialization Compromising Organisation Approaches to Pub Ad Analysis InstitutionalApproach ManagerialApproach PoliticalApproach Managementusesthe organization
Humanrelationsschool
Follett<bridgebetween classicalandbehaviouralists
Major Ideas
Taylor Fayol Authority Responsibilityand Authorityshould becommensurate 3typesof authority: charismatic, traditiona,legal rational Authorityas vestedpower; cannotbe delegated; derivedfromthe lawofthe situation Authorityshould bebasedon socialskillsin securing cooperation ratherthan expertise
GulickUrwick Weber
Follett
Mayo
Woodrow Wilson
Essay:TheStudyofAdministration.<theessaymarkedthebeginningofpublic administrationasasubjectofenquiry> Thestudyofadministrationdevelopedduetotheincreasingcomplexitiesofsociety,growing functionsofstateandgrowthofgovernmentsondemocraticlines. Objectiveofadministrativestudy o o Thefindoutwhatthegovernmentcandoandhowcanitdoitefficiently Tolayexecutivemethodsonstableprinciples
Administrationisthemostobviouspartofgovernment.Itisgovernmentinaction.
TechniquesofSM o FunctionalForemanship:Workerissupervisedandguidedbyeightfunctional foreman o o o MotionStudy:Techniqueofstandardizationofworkmethods. TimeStudy:Todeterminethestandardtimeforcompletionofwork. DifferentialPieceRatePlan:Workersarepaidalowpiecerateuptoastandard,a largebonusatthestandardandahigherpiecerateabovethestandard. o ExceptionPrinciple:Setdailytasks.Rewardforachievingtargetsandpenaltyfornot meetingit. o Routingsystem,moderncostsystemetc.
Criticism o o o Partialtheoryduetoitsconcentrationontheshopfloor Mechanistictheory:neglectedthehumanside. Underestimatedandoversimplifiedhumanmotivationtoexplainitintermsof economicfactors(monistictheoryofmotivation).Hawthorneexperimentsdepicted thisflaw o Physiologicalorganizationtheory:sacrificetheinitiativeofworker,individual freedom. o Oppositionfromthelabourunions(threattounionism)aswellasmanagers(lossin discretionandincreaseinwork). o o Increasedmonotonyandresultedintheabsenceofskillvariety Divisionofworkleadstoa)depersonalizationb)mayleadtoautomationofworkers
SMspreadasamovementandhadmajorimpactonthegrowingreformand economymovementsinPA.
Classical Theorists
Fayol,Urwick,Gulick,Folletandothers Akatraditionaltheory,formalorganizationtheory,mechanistictheory,structuraltheory, administrativemanagementtheoryandthemanagementprocessschool WhileSMhadfocusedonlyontheshopfloorlevel,Classicalsfocusedontheformal organizationstructureaswellastheprocessofadministration(management).However,like SMitadvocatestheconceptofeconomicman Characteristicfeatures:Specialization,hierarchy,rationality,impersonality,order,structure, economyandefficiency. Divisionoflabourisitscentraltenet.
Fayol (Functionalism)
Fatherofclassicaltheory Majortheory:Functionalism Book:GeneralandIndustrialManagement.Essay:TheTheoryofAdministrationoftheState Fayoldoesnotdistinguishbetweenbusinessmanagementandpublicadministration Notes Elementsofadministration:POCCC Planning o o o Foreseeandanticipate Itenablesseparationofshortruneventsfromlongrangeconsiderations Endowsforethoughttotheoperations
Sixattributesofamanager:Physical,Mental,Moral,generaleducation,specialknowledge, experience
TaylorFayolcomparison:TMH111 Criticisms o Neglectedthestructuralaspectwhiledevotingconsiderableattentiontofunctional classification o o Narrowempiricalbaseindevelopinghistheory Unityofcommandmayleadtostrengtheningofhierarchyandsuppressthereal differencesofoutlookwhicharerequiredforadynamicandinnovativeorganization o BernardandSimon:Amanagerialorganizationcannotbeexplainedpurelyinterms ofasetofprinciplesaboutformalorganizationstructure. o Humanrelationsschool:Fayolmostlyignoredthesocialpsychologicaloremotional needsoftheemployees
Hewasapioneeroftheconceptofviewingmanagementasbeingmadeupof functions<functionalism>
Fayolsprinciplesarewidelyusedtodayinplanninganddevelopingcompany organizationstructure.<especiallyunityofdirectionandunityofcommand>
o o
Principlesoforganization o Gulick:Tenprinciplesoforganization: Divisionofworkorspecialization(mostimportant) Basesofdepartmentalorganization Coordinationthroughhierarchy Deliberatecoordination Coordinationthroughcommittees Decentralisation Unityofcommand Staffandline
o o o
Delegation Spanofcontrol
Executivefunctions/Functionsofanadministrator o o Gulick:POSDCORB Planning:Identificationofactivitiesandtheirprioritisationtoreachthegoalsofthe organization o o o o o o Organization:lookingatthestructureofadministration Staffing:Concernedwithallaspectsofpersonneladministration Directing:Ordersissuedbythemanagerstothesubordinates Coordination:tosecurecooperationandteamwork Reporting:Symbolizesupwardflowofinformationtotheexecutive Budgeting:Coverstheentirefieldoffinancialadministration
TheoryofDepartmentalisaton o Itaddressestheissuesofbasesonwhichworkmaybedividedanddepartments created o Gulick:4P Purpose(function):Identifymajorfunctionsandgoalsoforganizationand createdepartmentsforeachoneofsuchfunctions Process:Allworkbasedonsimilarprocessorskillshouldbegrouped together Person(clientele):Membersservingsimilarclienteleshouldbegroupedto formadepartment Place:Allfunctionsperformedinagivenareaareclubbedtogether
o o
CriticalEstimate o o Nouniversalvalidityofprinciplesofadministration Simoncalledtheprinciplesashomelyproverbs,myths,slogans,inanities.Forevery principleonecanfindanequallyplausibleandacceptablecontradictoryprinciple o Thebasesofdepartmentalorganizationarecriticisedonthebasisthattheyare incompatiblewitheachother.Thereisanoverlapbetweenthemandtheyaresaid tobevague. o o Neglectofthehumanelementinanorganization Theyhaveshownconcernonlyfortheformalorganizationandtotallyneglectedthe informalorganizationalprocess o Dynamicnatureofadministrationandtheeverchangingsettinginwhichitfunctions isnotgivenadequateattentionbytheclassicaltheorists. o However,theycapturedthedevelopmentofthefieldofpublicadministrationand pointedtotheimportanceofPubAdasamanagerial,political,moralandethical concern.Therecannotbeanyseriousstudyofthescienceofadministrationwithout referencetotheprinciplesoforganization.
MooneyandReileyinnotes
Max Weber
Webersnamesynonymouswithbureaucracy Histheoryofdomination,leadershipandlegitimacyareimportant Theoryofauthority o o Differentiatesbetweenauthority,powerandcontrol<notes> Comparedtopower,authorityischaracterizedbylegitimacy
Alladministrationmeansdomination(i.e.administrationmeansexerciseof authority)
Anauthorityexistsaslongasitisacceptedaslegitimatebytheruled
Bureaucracyformsthekerneloftheadministrativesystemunderthelegalrationalauthority system Characteristicsoflegalrationalbureaucracy<notes> Weberthoughtthatthislegalrationalbureaucracyistechnicallysuperiortoallother administrativesystems.Purelybureaucratictypeofadministrativeorganizationiscapableof attainingthehighestdegreeofefficiency o Makespossibleahighdegreeofcalculabilityofresultsfortheheadsofthe organization. o o Itiscapableofapplicationtoallkindsofadministrativetasks Peopleonceruledbymonocraticbureaucracycanneverthinkofanyother alternativeformoforganisation.
Rules:Continuousorganisationofofficialfunctionsboundbyrules.Theirrational application,however,requiresspecialisedtraining.
Sphereofcompetence,Hierarchy,Personalandpublicfunds,writtendocuments
Why is bureaucracy hard to destroy? Nopersoninsideoroutsidetheorganisationcaninfluencethesystemofbureaucracyforhis personalorvestedinterests Withfeatureslikehierarchy,ruleboundednessandimpersonalorder,thebureaucracy becomeslikeanorderlymachinewithitsroutinemarchwhichisunshakableandunalterable Thusnosingleinfluenceisentertainedfrominsideoroutside Hencehardesttodestroy
Detailed criticism of Weber Groundsofcriticism 1. Dysfunctionalaspects 2. Illeffectsonhumanresource 3. Unsuitabilitytocomplexenvironment 4. Conceptualflawsinverymentalmapofbureaucracy 5. Usurpativetendencies Dysfunctional aspects VictorThomson o Bureaupathologies:becauseofexaggeratedfocusonhierarchyandrule boundedness o Endsmeansreversal:rulesbecomemoreimportantthangoals
Trainedincapacity:trainedtobecomeincapablebytheoveremphasisonrulesand norms
PhilipSelznick o Goaldisplacement:fixationoninternalproblemscausesgd
MichaelCrozier o Officialsrefusetolearnfromtheirmistakes:Bureaucraticphenomenon
Parkinson o Parkinsonslaw
Peterprinciple
Coercionfromsuperiorssideandapathyfromthesubordinatesside Filepushingbehaviour
o o o
Fredrich o Idealtypeisanoxymoron
Structural
Obstaclestointegration
Notes
GivingOrders o 4steps:Consciousattitude,Responsibleattitude,Experimentalattitude,Result attitude o o Issuingordersisverydifficult Theemployershouldconsiderthewaysandmeansofformingthehabitsamong theemployeestoensureacceptanceoftheorders o Responsetotheordersdependsupontheplaceandcircumstancesunderwhich ordersaregiven.Strengthoffavourableresponseisinverselyproportionaltothe distancethattheordertravels o Themannerofgivingordersisequallyimportant.Tyrannicalandoverbearing conductofofficialsisanimportantreasonformanyacontroversy. o Thesolutionistodepersonalisetheorders
Power,authorityandcontrol o Powerastheabilitytomakethingshappen,tobeacausalagent,toinitiate change Poweroverandpowerwith Reducepoweroverwithfunctionalutility.InFUeachhasfunctionsandone shouldalsohavetheauthorityandresponsibilitywhichgoesonwiththat function Powercanneverbedelegatedorhandedoutasitisaresultofknowledge andability.Butwecancreateconditionsforthedevelopmentofpower o Authority Isvestedpowertherighttodevelopandexercisepower Functionalauthority Responsibilityalsoflowsfromfunctionandsituation
Leadership:notes Criticism o Ignoredthesocialnatureortheprocessesinvolvedinthemanagementof organisation o o o Didnotinterpretsocialcontentoforganisationscientifically Notasystematicthinker;hardtofindathreadofconsistency Shedidnotgainstatureasanadministrativethinkerbecause Didnothavetheinstitutionalbasetofacilitateasecureposition Ideologyofcooperation,negotiation,conflictresolutionandconsensuswere notinsyncwiththeworldduringherprofessionallife
Evaluation o Hewasapioneerinunderstandingtheproblemsoftheindustriallabourfroman angledifferentfromthetraditionalapproachofscientificmanagementera o Examinedhumanrelationsinorganisations,employeeemployerrelations,stability ofthelabour,supervisionetcofindustrialworkers o o Hawthornestudieshavebecomehistoricandlandmark Hisworkpavedthewayforadequatecommunicationsystembetweenthelower rungsoftheorganisationandthehigherlevels o Innutshell,thesignificanceofHawthorneinvestigationsbyMayowasindiscovering theinformalorganisation,whichitisnowrealised,existsinallorganisations.
ClassicalsvsHumanRelation:Tableonpage132TMH
Organisationscanbeformalorinformal Formalorganisation:systemofconsciouslycoordinatedactivitiesorforcesoftwoormore persons o o Threeelements:communications,willingnesstoserveandcommonpurpose Willingnessimpliessurrenderofpersonalconductanddepersonalisationofpersonal action o Purposeisnecessaryforcooperation.Therearecooperativeandsubjectiveaspects ofpurpose o Apurposeshallsecurecooperationaslongasthereisnoseriousdivergence betweenthecontributorssubjectiveunderstandingofthatpurposeanditsobject o o Distinctionbetweenorganisationpurposeandindividualmotive Theaccomplishmentofacommonpurposethroughthepersonscontributing towardsitcanbeachievedonlythroughcommunication o Fourcharacteristicsofformalorganisations:systems,depersonalisation, specialisationandinformalorganisations.
InformalOrganisations o Individualsintheorganisationcontinuouslyinteractbasedontheirpersonal relationshipsratherthanorganisationalpurpose.Becauseofthecontinuousnature ofinteractions,relationsbecomesystematisedandtheyresultintowhatarecalled informalorganisations. o InformalOrganisation:Theaggregateofpersonalcontactsandinteractionsandthe associatedgroupingofpeople. o Functions:Communication,maintenanceofcohesivenessthroughregulatingthe willingnesstolearnandtheabilityoftheobjectiveauthority,andmaintenanceof thefeelingofpersonalintegrity,selfrespectandindependentchoice o Bothformalandinformalorganisationarenecessaryforeachothersproper functioning
o o
Authoritydependsonthecooperationofsubordinatesandthesystemof communicationintheorganisation.Principlesofcommunication<innotes>
Personal:takenoutsidetheorganisationbasedonincentivesorganisations offer.Neednotbelogical
Organisational:relatetoorganisationalpurpose,informationbased,logical andcanbedelegated
o o o
Herbert Simon
Researchedonawidevarietyoffieldsinsocialsciencesandcomputerscience Books:AdministrativeBehaviour,Organisation,PublicAdministration,HumanProblem Solving AdministrativeScience o Soughttodevelopascienceofadministrationandmadehumandecisionmakingas thecentralthemeofhisstudies o o o Decisionmakingasaprocessofdrawingconclusionsfrompremises Equatedadministrationwithdecisionmaking Recommendedempiricalapproachtothestudyofadministrationasopposedto principlesapproach o o o Efficiencyandeconomyascriteriaforadministrativeeffectiveness Methodologyoflogicalpositivism Disapprovedpolicyadministrationdichotomy o Proposedfactvaluedichotomy
Twotypesofadministrativesciences:PureandPractical
FactandValueindecisionmaking o Onemustexcludevaluejudgmentsandconcentrateonfacts,adoptprecise definitionofterms,applyrigorousanalysis,andtestfactualstatementsorpostulates aboutadministration o o Everydecisionconsistsofalogicalcombinationoffactandvaluepropositions Mixedissueoffactandvalueimpingeonadministrationcomplicatingthedecision process o Tobringoutthedifferencebetweenfactandvalue,themeansendsdistinctionis used Insofarasdecisionsleadtotheselectionoffinalgoals,theymaybetreated asvaluejudgmentsandinsofarasthedecisionsrelatetoimplementation ofsuchgoals,theymaybetreatedasfactualjudgments o Behaviourinanorganisationisintendedlyrationalincharacter,adjustedtothe goalsthathavebeenerected
RationalityinDecisionMaking o Rationalityrequiresatotalknowledgeandanticipationoftheconsequencesthatwill followeachchoice.Italsorequiresachoicefromamongallpossiblealternative behaviours o Rationalityintermsofmeansendsconstruct.Ifappropriatemeansarechosento reachdesiredends,thedecisionisrational o Simonsumsuptheinherentproblemsofmeansendsanalysis Endsthroughaparticularbehaviouralternativeareincompletelyor incorrectlystatedthroughthefailuretoconsideralternativeendsthrough alternativebehaviour
Inactualsituationsacompleteseparationofmeansfromendsisusually impossible
Themeansendterminologytendstoobscuretheroleoftimeelementin decisionmaking
Differenttypesofrationality:objective,subjective,conscious,deliberate, organisational,personal
Fromoptimisingdecisionstosatisficingdecisions
Organisationalloyalties:fulfilsthefunctionofmakingindividualsintheorganisation confinethemselvestotheirtasksinsteadofprobingintothebasicsoftheproblems
Adviceandinformation:Collectingdependableinformationandproperutilisationof itensuresgreatereffectivenessindecisionmaking
Training:Anefficienttrainingprogrammewouldfacilitategreaterdiscretiontothe individualindecisionmaking.
Administrativeefficiency o o Anadministratorshouldbeguidedbythecriterionofefficiency Efficiencydictatesthechoiceofalternative,whichproducesthelargestresultsfor thegivenapplicationofresources o Whenresources,costsandobjectivesarevariable,decisionscannotbetakenpurely onthebasisofefficiencycriteria.However,whenthesearegiven,efficiency becomesthecontrollingfactorofadministrativechoice. o Inhislaterwritings,Simondownplaysefficiency.Heappliesitonlytothelowerlevel decisions,ashigherleveldecisionsdonotlendthemselvestomeasurementand comparability. o Refernotesaswell
Criticism o o Relegatedsocial,political,economicandculturalfactorsintothebackground Exclusionofvaluepremiseswouldsteerthestudyofpublicadministrationto mechanical,routineandlessimportantaspects o Simonsideaoffactbasedadministrativetheoryismorerelevanttobusiness administrationthanpublicadministration o BernardcriticismofSimon:didnottakeintoaccounttheenormousamountof uncertaintyinvolvedinmostdecisions;didnotpaysufficientattentiontothe processesofcommunicationwithinorganisations o o Simonsanalysisassumesthatadministrationplaysasimilarroleinallsocieties Efficiencyneednotbetheonlygoalofadministrationbecausethereisawhole rangeofothermajorcategoriesoforganisationalpurposes o Histheoryofdecisionmakingisextremelygeneral.Itdoesnotprovidedetailsto guidetheorganisationplanners.
o o
Simonstheorywouldhavenoplaceforselfactualisingindividuals Simonemphasisestheimportanceofauthoritystrcutures
Behavioural Approach or New Management School: McGregor, Argyris, Likert Douglas McGregor
Demonstratedtheunrealisticandlimitingassumptionsoftraditionaltheoriesof managementconcerninghumannatureandthecontrolofhumanbehaviourinan organisationalsetting Provedthatrelianceonauthorityastheprimarymeansofcontrolinindustryleadsto resistance,restrictionofoutputandindifferencetoorganisationobjectives. Book:TheHumanSideoftheEnterprise,TheProfessionalManager ThemainquestionheaddressedinTheHumanSide..waswhethersuccessfulmanagersare bornormade Hesaysthetheoreticalassumptionswhichthemanagementholdsaboutcontrollinghuman resourcesdeterminethewholecharacteroftheenterprise Everymanagerialactrestsonatheory Allcontrolisselectiveadaption.Managerialcontrolshouldnotbeviolativeofhumannature ifithastobeeffective. Wecanimproveourcontrolonlyifwerecognizethatcontrolconsistsinselective adaptationtohumannatureratherthaninattemptingtomakehumannatureconformto ourwishes Controlinhumanaffairscanbeviewedasanintegrationofhumanbehavioureither throughcoercivecompulsionorthroughmotivationalselfcontrol TheoryX:Thecoercivecompulsions o o o Traditionalviewofdirectionandcontrol.Carrotandsticktheory. Averagehumanbeinghasaninherentdislikeforworkandwilltrytoavoidit Hence,mostpeoplemustbecorrected,controlledandthreatenedwithpunishment togetthemtoachieveorganisationalobjective o Averagehumanbeingpreferstobedirected,wishestoavoidresponsibility,haslittle ambitionandwantssecurityaboveall SolongastheassumptionsofTheoryXcontinuetoinfluencemanagerialstrategy,wewill failtodiscover,letaloneutilisethepotentialitiesoftheaveragehumanbeing. Commandandcontrolenvironmentreliesonlowerneedsformotivation TheoryY:Assumptionsofintegrationandselfcontrol o Engaginginphysicalormentaleffortisasnaturalasplayorrest
Massexercises,selfdirectionandselfcontrolcanbeshownbypeopletoachieve objectives
Commitmenttoobjectivesisafunctionoftheawardsassociatedwiththeir achievement
o o o
ThecentralprincipleimplicitinTheoryYisthatintegrationofbehaviouristhekeyprocessin management
Evaluation o HewasinterpretedasadvocatingTheoryYasanewandsuperiorethic.Heonly wantedmanagerstoinvestigatethesetwosetsofbeliefsanddevelopmanagement strategiesthatmadesenseinacontext o o Impracticalityandovergeneralisation Somecriticisedhisideasasbeingtoughontheweakermembersofsociety,those whoneedguidanceandwhoarenotnecessarilyselfstarters o Madedecisionmakersrealizethepotentialforcollaboration,inherentinhuman natureandhumanresources o TheoryX&Yareanalyticaltoolsofreferencethroughwhichmanagerialbehaviour canbeanalysed,studied,predictedandcorrected o Hiswritingsrepresentamineofideasfromwhichthetheoristsofmanagementand managerscanlearnstrategies o Participativemanagement
Chris Argyris
Argyrisresearchesrelatetofourareas: o Impactofformalorganisationalstructures,controlsystemsandmanagementon individuals o o Organisationalchange,particularlyexecutivebehaviour Roleofsocialscientistasaresearcherandactor
Individualandorganisationallearning
Manybooks:PersonalityandOrganisation,OrganisationandInnovation Hefocusesontheindividualsrelationshiptotheorganisationandtheconflictbetweenthe individualssocialandpsychologicalneedsandtheexigenciesoftheorganisation PioneerintheapplicationoftheTgrouptechnique Theformalorganisation o Thereisanincongruencebetweentheneedsofamaturepersonalityandthe requirementsofaformalorganisation o Thisleadstosituationsinwhich:employeeshaveminimalcontrolovertheirwork, theyareexpectedtopassiveanddependent,theyhaveshorttimeperspectiveand areinducedtoperfectsomeshallowtasksrepeatedly o Incongruenceincreasesas: o Employeesbecomemoremature Formalstructureismademoreclearcut Onegoesdownthelineofcommand
Createsinanindividualfeelingsoffailureandfrustration,shorttermperspective andconflict
Itfailstosatisfythehigherorderneedsoftheemployees
o o o o o
Iftheorganisationinhibitsanyoftheaboveitcausesfrustrationanddemoralisationofthe employees
Theaccentinorganisationalchangestrategiesshouldbeuponmeetingtheneedsofmature individualsandprovidingopportunitiestoarouseandutilisetheirfullpsychologicalenergy.
Projectteamsarecreatedtosolvespecificproblems
OrganisationalLearning o o Organisationsalsolearnthroughtheexperienceandactionsofindividuals Organisationallearningoccurswhenmembersactaslearningagentsforthe organisation,respondingtothechangesintheinternalandexternalenvironments o o Singleanddoublelooplearning Singleloop:individualsrespondtoerrorsbymodifyingstrategiesandassumptions withintheorganisationalnorms o Doubleloop:learningresponsetodetectederrortakestheformofjointinquiryinto organisationalnormsperseandresolvestheinconsistencyandmakesnewnorms whichcanberealisedeffectively.
Rensis Likert
Knownforhisstudiesonorganisationandanalysisofmanagementstyles DevelopedtheLikertsScaleandtheLinkingPinModel Books:NewPatternsofManagement,TheHumanOrganisation,NewWaysofManaging Conflict Triestoanswerthequestionwhydosomemanagersgetbetterresultsthanothersby comparingthesupervisorystyles Classifiessupervisorsintotwocategories:jobcenteredandemployeecentered JobCentered o Theirprimaryconcernistoensureperformanceofassignedtasksandmaintenance ofprescribedstandards EmployeeCentered o Primarilyconcernedwiththehumanaspectsoftheirsubordinatesandeffective teambuildingforhightaskperformance Effectivesupervisionisanadaptiveandrelativeprocess o Itneedsconstantadaptationtothebackgroundvalues,expectationsand interpersonalskillsbetweensubordinates,peersandsuperiors SupportiveRelationships o Basedonhisassessmentofmanagersofhighperformance,heproposedthe principleofsupportiverelationshipsasanorganisingprinciple o Leadershipandotherprocessesshouldbesuchthatanindividualshouldhavea maximumprobabilityinallinteractionsandallrelationshipswiththeorganisation. Eachmemberwillviewtheexperienceassupportiveandonewhichbuildsand maintainshissenseofpersonalworthandimportance o Heconceivesofaninteractioninfluencesystemtomaximiseskills,resourcesand motivationofindividualsatdifferentlevelsoftheorganisation o Theinteractioninfluencesystemwouldfacilitateintegrationoforganisationaland managerialprocessessuchascoordination,communication,decisionmaking, directionetc Anidealinteractioninfluencesystemwouldhavethefollowingcharacteristics o o o o Memberswillfindpersonalvalues,goalsreflectedintheorganisation Everymemberwouldbeidentifiedwiththeobjectivesoftheorganisation Spontaneousandaccurateinformationflows Everymembercanexerthisinfluenceondecisionsandactionsoftheorganisation
LinkingPinModel o Thismodelcanremovethehurdlesfoundintraditionalhierarchiesandfacilitatethe growthofinteractioninfluencesystem o o o o Eachmemberofanorganisationhasatwinroleintwooverlappinggroups Heisamemberofahigherlevelgroupandleaderofalowerlevelgroup Likertreinforcesupwardorientationwithhorizontallinkages Multiplelinkagesprovideadditionalchannelstoshareinformationandinfluence. Theybecomethelinkpinstoholdtheorganisationtogether. o Nooverlappingworkgroupsshouldexistthanareabsolutelynecessarytoperform thelinkingprocess
Partlytrustsubsusebothrewardsandinvolvementofemployeesfostermore responsibilitymoderateteamwork
ParticipativeSystem4 o Completeconfidenceandtrustintheemployees,opencommunicationflowsand theemployeesparticipationinthedecisionprocess. o Subordinatesfreelyexpresstheirviewsteamworkcollectiveresponsibilityfor organisationalgoalsrewards o Threebasicconcepts:supportiverelationships,groupdecisionmakingandmethods ofsupervision,highperformancegoalsfortheorganisation. o o Consideredtobethemostproductiveandideal Expectedtoresultinbetterproduction,highermotivationandmoreprofitthanthe othersystems
ApplicationsofSystem4 o o Validityofsystem4forrealizinghighperformancegoals Uncoordinatedandpiecemealeffortssuchasteambuilding,jobenrichment, sensitivitytraining,participativedecisionmakingandmanagementbyobjectiveswill notpayhighdividendsunlesstheyareintegratedintoanoverallstrategyof changingthemanagementsystem. o Hementionsfourcharacteristicsthatamanagementsystemshouldpossesstoguide theeffortsforhumanresourcedevelopment.System4,hesays,fulfilsallfour specifications. o Usingsurveyfeedbackmethod,Likertproposesanorganisationalimprovement cyclecomprisingoffivesteps<inbook> o Improvethecausalvariables.Interveningvariablesandendresultswillthen improve
Evaluation o o o Criticisedforlackofcontextualsensitivity Linkingpinmodel:slowsdowntheprocessofdecisionmaking AdvantageofLPM:fosterstheupwardandhorizontallinkageincontrasttotheonly downwardorientationofclassicalstructureandstrengthensthecrossfunctional linkagesincomplexorganisations. o o Buthowdowepushmanagementsystems1and2towards3to4? System4structuresandprocesseshelptoresolveconflictconstructivelyinsteadof suppressingthem o System4holdsoutprospectsofdevelopmentofadvancedformofhuman organisation. o Likertsmostimportantcontributiontomanagementthoughtandpracticeishis systematicanalysisofgoodmanagementpracticesandextendingtheirfrontiersof knowledgeandapplication.
Differencesbetweensystem1and4 System1 SteepHierarchicalStructure CentralisedDecisionmaking Topdowncommunication System4 Overlappingstructures Groupdecisionprocesses Openandauthenticthreewaycommunication (up,downandlateral) Tightsupervision Adaptivesupervision Mantomanratherthangrouptogrouprelations Crossfunctionallinkages Performanceunderpressure Individualsandworkgroupswithahighdegreeof achievementandmotivation Lowdegreeofemployeemotivation
Esteemneeds
o o o o
Somefurthercharacteristicsofbasicneeds o o Hierarchyisnotasrigidasimplied.Thereisscopefordeviations Apersonmaysacrificealowerorderneedforacertainperiodoftimetosatisfyhis higherneedandviceversa. o Emergenceofaparticularneed,aftersatisfactionofalowerorderneedisnot suddenbutagradualphenomenon o o Needareasaremoreoftenunconsciousthanconscious Basicneedsanddesiresarethesameirrespectiveofthesocietiesandculturesthey livein. o Humanbehaviourismultimotivatedneedsassuchcannotexplainallhuman behaviour.
Criticism o Criticisedmainlyongroundsofmethodology.Drawinginferencesfromlivesoffew individuals o Sophisticationandvalidityofhisresearchdataandtheorderofhierarchyofneeds arealsoquestioned o o Selfactualisationconceptisvague,impreciseandtoogeneral OverallattemptstoestablishevidenceofMaslowshierarchyhavefailed<studyby WabhaandBirdwell> o o MichaelNash:TheoriesofHerzbergandMaslowareMajorWrongTheories Histheorycannotbeturnedintoapracticalguideformanagerswhoaretryingto makepeopleproductive. o Ignoredenvironmentalfactorslikeschoolingandpersonalsupportthatcanfacilitate orimpedeselfactualisation.
Frederick Herzberg
Renownedpsychologistandpioneerofjobenrichmentconcept Books:TheMotivationtoWork,TheManagerialChoice,WorkandtheNatureofMan StudiesonMotivation o o Allindividualshavetwosetsofneedsviz.Toavoidpainandtogrowpsychologically Themotivationhygienetheorygrewoutofthestudiesheconductedonabout203 accountantsandengineers o Hesoughttoidentify:theeventswhichresultedinmarkedimprovementin individualsjobsatisfaction;andeventsthathaveledtomarkedreductioninjob satisfaction o Studybasedoncriticalincidents MotivationFactors Achievement Recognition Workitself Responsibility Advancement
Twofactortheory o o o o Satisfiersperformtheroleofmotivatorsinhob Hygienefactors,suchasworkingconditions,companyadministration,salary, supervisoryrelations,andbenefitsandservicesareenvisionedasenvironmental elementsthathavelittleornorelationshipstothemotivationofspecificjobrelated behaviour Themotivationfactorsdeterminehowaworkerfeelsabouthisjob,whereashygiene factorsonlydeterminehowaworkerfeelsabouthiscompanyororganisationingeneral. o Anemployeeiseitherdissatisfiedornotdissatisfied(neutral)withhygienefactors (maintenancefactors),andheiseithersatisfiedornotsatisfied(neutral)with motivationalfactors(growthfactors). o Hygienefactorsmustbeadequate,oremployeeswillnotbeattractedtoan organisation.Butwhenemployed,manipulatinghygienefactorscannotmotivatea workertodoabetterjob. o Dissatisfiersonlyproduceshorttermchangesinhumanattitudesandsatisfiersproduce longtermattitudes. o Themotivationandhygienefactorsareseparateanddistinctandtheyarenotopposite orobverseofeachother. Satisfiers:thefactorsassociatedwiththegrowthandthetaskcontentofthejob
Dissatisfiers:factorsassociatedwithpainavoidanceandcontext/surroundingsofthe job
Jobenrichment
o o
Jobshouldhavesufficientchallengetoutilizefullabilityoftheemployee;employees showingincreasinglevelofabilityshouldbegivenincreasinglevelsofresponsibility
Changingjobcontent
Cl lassicalTheo ory
Scientific S Management
TheapplicationofSMprinciplescontributedtoraisingthestandardoflivingofentire countries.
Promotion/Performance Appraisal
Seniorityormeritasthebasisforpromotion? Demeritsoftheseniorityprinciple o Theprincipleofseniorityassumesthatallmembersofaparticulargradeareequally fitforpromotion.Suchanassumptionmaydonotmuchharminthelowergradesof theservice;butitcannotbegenerallyacceptedwhendealingwithpromotioninor tothetopgrades. Meritsoftheseniorityprinciple o Itsoperationisverynearlyautomaticanditavoidstheneedformakinginvidious distinctionsbetweenonepersonandanother Inthehighergradesoftheserviceconsiderationsoffitnessmusthaveprecedenceoverthe claimofseniority.