2.

Digital computers

The architecture of a digital computer consists of about 5 basic units. 1. input unit 2. control unit 3. arithmetic and logic unit 4. memory unit 5. output unit However, the control unit and arithmetic logic unit are contained in the central processing unit (CPU). The microprocessor is commonly called the CPU and it does not normally possess onchip memory. The traditional sections of a digital computer is given in figure 2.1

Input unit

Central processing unit:- control unit + Arithmetic logic unit

Output unit

Program memory

Data memory

Figure 2.1

Architecture of a digital computer

2.1

Input unit Data and instructions are keyed into the computer through this unit. Examples of this unit are i. keyboards which come in two structures : standard keyboard with its function keys from F1 F10 and enhanced keyboard with its function keys from F1 F12

Usually, a keyboard has up to 101/102 keys which can be divided into 5 functional areas: alphanumeric typing keys, computer keys, function keys, dedicated cursor keys and numerical keypads. ii. Mouse Use for controlling the mouse pointer. The mouse pointer is a graphic element that moves around on a computer display. it serves as a tool to select things on the display. E.g. icons, menu and so on. iii. Disk drives Use for storage of data and programs. There is the floppy disk drive ( FDD) which has a slot in which a floppy disk is inserted and the hard disk drive (HDD). Both disk drives require an interface card called controller card before they can collaborate with the system. iv. Joystick A device held in hand similar to a gearshift to control the cursor on the screen. v. Light pen A hand-held light sensing device that is used with video monitor for special purposes like graphic works and control. 2.2 Output unit

i.

Printers: are classified based on their principles of operation and capabilities. We

have impact and non-impact printers. Impact printers are comparatively slow and noisy because their print head element makes physical contact with the paper to produce characters. Sometimes called line or character printers. e.g. dot matrix printers Non-impact printers scan the content of the computer memory line by line and reproduce them on paper at very high resolution (sharp impression) .e.g. laser printers ii. iii. iv. v. vi. 2.3 plotters monitors projectors headphones speakers

Memory unit A memory system is a channel that allows information generated in the present to be transferred to the future. This unit stores data and program as they are being worked upon. All computers have main memory. When we store information in a memory, we measure the needed memory size using specific units. To store the simplest piece of information, a 0 or 1, we need 1 bit. One byte equal 8 bits and can store up to 256 different symbols. For example, the English alphabets (in upper and lower case), plus digits and punctuation marks. Therefore, when we say that the memory size of a computer is 10 Gigabytes, this means that the memory can store approximately 10,000,000,000 symbols.

In some cases, information can be compressed to occupy less space, and then de-compressed (decoded) to restore it close to, or often identical to the original. A popular format for compressing video and sound is MPEG.

1 page of text occupies 1 -10KB 1 picture of the screen of a modern computer of a good quality occupies about 1 10MB 1 minute of digitized sound of good quality occupies approximately 10MB (or if compressed, with a minor loss of quality takes about 100 KB.) 1 minute of digitized video of good quality occupies approximately 100 MB ( or if compressed with a minor loss of quality is about 1 MB) Memories are of two types: random- access memory and read- only memory. 2.3.1 Random-access memories (RAM) are those types in which information can be read/written to. Information in a RAM is evanescent; that is they are volatile. You switch off the computer and the information is gone. 2.3.2 Semiconductor memories Are devices for storing digital information that are fabricated by using integrated circuit technology. Semiconductor memories are widely used to store programs and data in almost every digital system ranging from bulk data storage, program storage, temporary storage and cache (or intermediate) storage. Almost all of the memories are a form of random-access memories (RAM), where storage locations can be accessed in the same amount of time. 2.3.2.1 Read/write RAMs Although the acronym for RAM indicates random-access capability, it is misnomer since almost all semiconductor memories except a few specialty types can be randomly accessed. A more appropriate name for the memories would be read/write RAM to indicate that data can be written into the memory as well as be read out of it. 2.3.2.2 Dynamic RAM

Dynamic refers to the structure of the actual storage circuit used to hold each data bit (the cell structure) within the memory chip. A dynamic memory uses a storage cell based on a transistor

and capacitor combination, in which the digital information is represented by a charge stored on each of the capacitors in the memory array. The memory gets it name dynamic from the fact that the capacitors are imperfect and will lost their charges unless the charge is repeatedly replenished (refreshed) on a regular basis (every few milliseconds). If refreshed, the information will remain until intentionally changed or the power to the memory is shut off. 2.3.2.3 Static RAM On the other hand do not use charge storage. Instead they use either four or six transistors to form a flip flop for each cell in the array. Once data are loaded into the flip flop storage element, the flip flop will indefinitely remain in that state until information is intentionally changed or the power to the memory circuit is shut off.

Memory types Dynamic RAM Static RAM

programmability Read/write, volatile Read/write, volatile

2.4

Read-only memories

In this type of memories, information can only be read from it but cannot be written into. The content is specified during manufacturing. Usually, the content is burnt or mask into it. However, advances in memory technology has made it possible to design ROMs can be written into. They are called programmable ROM (PROM) and they come in different types. When the ROM is manufactured so that the content can be set as desired by the user, later erased and new data written into it, it is called Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM). The erasure is made by shinning a high intensity, short- wavelength ultraviolet light through the quartz window on the top of the IC for about 20 minutes. There is the Electrically-Erasable PROM (EEPROM) in which is electrically programmable.

Memory types ROM PROM UV EPROM

Programmability Factory mask Read/write, volatile Ultraviolet erasable, electrical programmability

EEPROM

Electrically erasable

2.5

Secondary or back-up memories

Sometimes, the main memory of a computer is not able to store all the programs and data for a particular application. In addition, their per bit of storage may prohibits their use as bulk memory devices. Bulk memory refers to the memory external to the main memory unit which is capable of storing large quantity of information for long-term use. They are sometimes called auxiliary memories and are used to complement the main memory. They include the following: i. Magnetic tape: is an economical way of storing very large amount of information. The tape is similar to the magnetic tape used to record sound and music but made much more carefully. ii. Magnetic disk Magnetic disk utilizes the principle of the gramophone recordings of the last century. (remember the round record of the 1970s?) and they are rewritable. Disks with capacity of about 1 MB are called diskettes. Disks with greater capacity are mounted on their own drives and are usually called hard disks their capacity is in the range of 10 GB to 1000 GB. iii. Optical disks Information can be stored in disks as an optical trace. This principle is exploited in compact disc (CD) widely used for storing music. The capacity of a CD-ROM is

approximately 1 GB. Digital versatile disks (DVD) can store 10 GB or more. The surface of optical disks is silver-coated. iv. Tape cassette and cartridges The changeable tape cassette used in our homes tape recorders is also an attractive means for recording digital information. They are usually small, inexpensive and are suitable for microcomputers. v. Charge-coupled devices Are devices that are constructed using IC technology. They contain no moving parts, are more reliable, consumes less power,, small and low cost. The bits of information are stored as charges similar to the action of a capacitor. 2.6 Peripherals For the best utilization of computers, there is the need for a wide range of devices connectible to the computer and they are referred to as peripherals. Infact, all the hardware external to the CPU are peripherals and by implication, all the devices listed under the input and output units are peripherals. We call use figure 2.2 to give a picture of a wide range of peripherals.

Peripherals

Input: sensors, probes, video camera, keyboard, scanners

Output: monitor, projectors, speakers, headphones

Control: motors, lights for robot control, sensors

Communication: modem, communication lines, satellites and local network equipment, wireless networks.

Figure 2.2

computer peripherals