Token Economy 1

Carr, J. E., Fraizer, T. J., & Roland, J. P. (2005). Token economy. In A. M. Gross & R. S. Drabman (Eds.), Encyclopedia of behavior modification and cognitive behavior therapy - Volume 2: Child clinical applications (pp. 1075-1079). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

TOKEN ECONOMY
James E. Carr, Tawnya J. Fraizer, Jonathan P. Roland
Western Michigan University

1. Description of the Strategy A token economy is a treatment procedure based on the principles of operant conditioning. The primary goal of the token economy is to increase and maintain appropriate behavior, although a response-cost procedure is sometimes added to reduce problem behavior. The basic premise of the token economy is fairly straightforward -- children earn tokens (e.g., points) for appropriate behavior and, at a later time, exchange the tokens for backup reinforcers (e.g., extended recess time). With an added response-cost component, children would also lose tokens for engaging in problem behavior. Although response-cost procedures are frequently implemented within token economies, it is beyond the scope of this entry to address the topic in sufficient detail. Therefore, this entry will be devoted to the token economy as a reinforcement system. We refer the reader to the response cost entry in this volume for further information on the topic. The token economy is based on the principle of generalized conditioned reinforcement. Within the system, tokens, which are inherently neutral items, are paired during the exchange with backup reinforcers. Through this pairing, tokens eventually function as conditioned reinforcers for appropriate behavior. The term generalized is used to refer to the childs ability to purchase a wide variety of backup reinforcers with tokens. The token economy is a popular treatment system due to its many benefits, one of which is the ability of tokens to bridge the gap between the time a behavior occurs and when the backup reinforcer is eventually delivered. Another important benefit is that the use of tokens, which represent a variety of backup reinforcers, can prevent the satiation that sometimes occurs in single-reinforcer programs. In addition, the token economy is useful because it specifies a number of target behaviors for change and can easily be used to manage the behavior of a group of children. Despite the apparent simplicity of the token economy, its design and execution require considerable planning and attention to detail. When designing a token economy, at least five factors should be considered, including: (a) identifying and defining target behaviors, (b) selecting tokens, (c) selecting backup reinforcers, (d) establishing the exchange system, and (e) programming for maintenance. These factors are discussed in detail below. Identifying and defining target behaviors. One of the first tasks in the development of a token economy is selecting target behaviors to include in the system. Target behaviors should be observable, reasonable in number, and relevant to the clinical/educational goals of the children. In addition, the children should generally be capable of performing the behaviors, although they will obviously do so at frequencies that are less than optimal. If children are not already able to perform the target behaviors, an additional teaching strategy must also be used. Token

Token Economy 2 economies designed for groups of children typically include target behaviors that are relevant to most, if not all, of the members of the group. Finally, the target-behavior list should be reviewed with each child before the system is implemented. Selecting tokens. Tokens are tangible items such as points, poker chips, coupons, and tally marks on a wall chart. They should be safe (e.g., not able to be swallowed), age appropriate, impossible to counterfeit, and durable. Tokens should not be highly preferred (e.g., baseball cards) because at some point they will need to be given away for a backup reinforcer. In addition, storage of the tokens needs to be considered. One should decide whether children are capable of keeping the tokens they earn (until the exchange) or whether they will be kept in another location such as in a clear plastic piggy bank on the teachers desk. Selecting backup reinforcers. The power of the token economy is primarily based on its backup reinforcers; thus, they should be selected carefully. Common backup reinforcers include highly preferred tangible items (e.g., toys, snacks) and activities (e.g., miniature golf, choosing a story for the reading group). There should be a wide variety of backup reinforcers, which can be posted on a backup-reinforcer menu. Including a sufficient number of backup reinforcers on the menu and regularly updating them help ensure that children remain motivated to earn them. Backup reinforcers can be identified by surveying the children, observing their interactions in the natural environment, and conducting stimulus preference assessments. Finally, items and activities on the menu should generally be unavailable outside of the token economy. Establishing the exchange system. The token economy works by creating a balanced ratio of exchange between the worth of target behaviors (i.e., the number of tokens delivered for their performance) and the price of backup reinforcers (i.e., the number of tokens required to obtain them). Before the token economy is implemented, each target behavior and backup reinforcer must be assigned a token value. When assigning these values, it is important to consider how often a particular behavior might be expected to occur, as well as the highest frequency at which a backup reinforcer should be delivered. The more important behaviors should have higher token values than their less important counterparts. Similarly, the highest preference backup reinforcers should be relatively expensive within the economy. A token economy with an unbalanced exchange ratio might result in too few appropriate behaviors and/or the delivery of too many backup reinforcers. Keep in mind that it is common for a token economys exchange ratio to be adjusted during the first few weeks of implementation. Tokens should be delivered immediately following every target behavior, at least during the initial stages of the system. This means that within the first few hours of the program, children might have acquired a number of tokens to spend. When developing the system, it is important to determine at what point exchanges will be allowed. Common exchange times are at lunch, at the end of the day, and at the end of the week. For the sake of program management, it is not recommended to allow children the opportunity to exchange tokens at any time. If the exchange period is too frequent, children might spend frequently instead of saving for higher preference backup reinforcers. If the exchange period is too infrequent, the tokens might not function as effective conditioned reinforcers. In addition, tokens should have an expiration date (e.g., tokens not spent at the end of the week are returned to the central bank) to prevent hoarding, which could undermine the effectiveness of the economy. Programming for maintenance. The token economy is a highly artificial system; thus, at some point it will need to be withdrawn. Before implementing the token economy, or at least in its early stages, one should develop a plan for the maintenance of its target behaviors in the absence of the system. Common procedures for programming maintenance within a token

Token Economy 3 economy include pairing praise (e.g., a natural consequence) with token delivery, delivering tokens on an intermittent schedule, increasing the delay between target behavior and token delivery, and increasing the delay between exchange opportunities. Level systems can also be used to gradually eliminate a token economy from an environment. For older children, the token economy can also be a way to teach money-management skills by, for example, incorporating in the maintenance plan characteristics of a bank account such as using checkbook registers to keep track of earnings. 2. Research Basis In the 1960s,Teodoro Allyon and Nathan Azrin developed and conducted the first systematic research on the token economy. The authors originally designed the procedure for institutionalized psychiatric patients. Since the 1960s, there have been hundreds of studies published on the token economy, most of which were designed to evaluate its effectiveness with a variety of populations, settings, or behaviors. Research generally indicates the token economy can be used effectively with a wide range of populations across the lifespan. The token economy is also effective for individuals, as well as groups (e.g., a classroom of students). In addition, the token economy has been demonstrated effective in home, school, institutional, and occupational settings. The token economy has been used to maintain a variety of behaviors, including social skills, classroom skills, personal-care skills, and academic skills, among others. Token economies that incorporate response cost have also been demonstrated effective in managing problem behavior, including aggression, disruption, and noncompliance, among others. Several studies have demonstrated the failure of a token economy to effectively change behavior. However, these failures were frequently the result of sub-optimal implementation of the token economy, rather than an inherent flaw with the procedure itself. This issue of treatment integrity is described further in the Complications section below. Research has also evaluated the long-term effectiveness of the token economy because some early studies indicated that behavior change did not maintain after the token economy was removed. However, the results of subsequent studies have shown that, with advanced planning, maintenance strategies such those described earlier can greatly improve the durability of a token economys treatment gains. 3. Relevant Target Populations and Exceptions Since its inception, clinicians and researchers have effectively used the token economy with a wide range of populations and behaviors across a variety of settings. With regard to specific populations, the token economy has been effectively implemented with children diagnosed with learning disabilities, conduct disorder, mental retardation, autism, among other conditions. Despite such widespread applicability, there are several learner characteristics that might render the token economy ineffective. First, if a child does not have the ability to physically exchange a token for a backup reinforcer or attend to the exchange, the token might not become a conditioned reinforcer. Second, a token economy might not be appropriate with children for whom few reinforcers have been identified. Third, some children might verbally refuse to participate in the token economy. However, this problem can typically be remedied by (a) including the child in the development of the system (e.g., selecting behaviors, tokens, and backup reinforcers), (b) allowing the child to view other children successfully participating in the

Token Economy 4 program, and (c) ignoring protests and restricting access to backup reinforcers outside of the token economy. In addition to considering whether a token economy is appropriate for a specific child or group of children, it is also important to consider its appropriateness as a behavior-management system for the person who plans to implement it. Along with his or her regularly scheduled duties, the implementer of a token economy must be able to establish and adjust the exchange ratio, consistently monitor behavior and appropriately deliver tokens, keep track of token earnings, and manage periodic exchanges. However, if the system is well designed and capably implemented, and the few learner characteristics mentioned earlier are considered, the token economy should prove to be an effective behavior-change strategy. 4. Complications Because of its complexity, a number of events can adversely affect the token economy. However, many of these can be anticipated and, thus, prevented. These events can be classified into two main areas: problems that occur during the development of the token economy and problems that arise after during its implementation. When developing a token economy, it is essential that the defining factors mentioned earlier are carefully considered such that target behaviors are properly defined, sufficient backup reinforcers are identified, tokens are not able to be counterfeited, an adequate exchange ratio is established, and so on. These are the prerequisites for an effective token economy and if they are not adequately designed the system might be compromised. It is also important to address two additional issues. First, the token economy should have strong administrative support from the individuals who are ultimately responsible for the environment in which it is implemented. For example, a teacher who implements a classroom-based token economy should have the support of the school principal. Similarly, a token economy conducted in a residential treatment facility should be adequately supported by the facilitys administrators. Such support is important for at least two reasons. First, additional expenses might be incurred when implementing a token economy (e.g., the cost of backup reinforcers). Second, the token economy, although highly effective, is essentially a simulated environment based on effective reinforcement. Some individuals might consider such a system too unnatural or even describe its contingencies as bribery. These opinions might at some point undermine the support of the program. If these opinions were those of an administrator, the token economy obviously might be jeopardized. However, if implemented consistently, the token economy can be a very effective way to manage behavior. Consequently, it is important that the person implementing the token economy be assisted and encouraged by his or her supervisors. After a token economy has been implemented, the most common obstacle to its effectiveness is poor treatment integrity. In other words, if the token economy is not implemented properly, then it obviously cannot be expected to function in an optimal manner. Common treatment integrity problems include failure to deliver tokens on the predetermined schedule (e.g., after every target behavior), failure to adjust the economy when it becomes unbalanced (e.g., when children begin hoarding tokens), failure to update the backup-reinforcer menu, and allowing access to the backup reinforcers outside of the token economy. Many of these problems occur for two reasons. First, the token economy requires consistent effort to implement, which can be difficult when someone has other duties to which he or she needs to attend. Second, when a token economy results in initial success, the individual responsible for

Token Economy 5 the system might perceive that because things have improved the program can be relaxed. However, one of the reasons the token economy works is that, because of its precision, specific behaviors are effectively reinforced. Treatment integrity needs to be maintained in a token economy so that it remains a successful reinforcement system. 5. Case Illustration Ms. Andrews was the teacher of a small, self-contained classroom for preadolescents who were unable to participate in general education because of problem behaviors associated with emotional disorders. Although each student already had an individualized behavior plan for his or her most troublesome behaviors (e.g., aggression), many of them also failed to exhibit a number of classroom behaviors that are important for academic success. For example, it was not uncommon for students to skip class, arrive to class late, refuse to participate, and fail to turn in homework. Consequently, Ms. Andrews requested special consultation with the schools behavior management specialist, Mr. Garcia. Mr. Garcia suggested that Ms. Andrews develop and implement a token economy in her classroom because it is an effective way to manage the behavior of a group of children who exhibit similar behavioral deficits. He shared with her a book on how to design an effective token economy and met with her on a regular basis to help her design the system. Together they developed a list of target behaviors for which the students could earn tokens. These behaviors included arriving to class on time, participating in class discussions, and turning in assignments, among others. Ms. Andrews posted on a wall in the classroom the list of target behaviors along with a clear definition for each or them. She then discussed the list with her students and teacher assistants, carefully explaining each behavior and answering all of their questions. Ms. Andrews made a few minor adjustments to the list based on the discussion. Ms. Andrews then developed a classroom store, in which students could exchange their tokens for backup reinforcers. Ms. Andrews observed the students during free time for one week and noted the items and activities in which the students most frequently engaged. She also asked the students what items they would like to have available in the store. After obtaining a small token-economy budget from the schools principal, Ms. Andrews stocked the store with a variety of backup reinforcers. Ms. Andrews and Mr. Garcia considered several types of tokens for the system and eventually decided to use points that would be recorded by her in a notebook, as well as by the students at their desks. They then assigned a specific point value to each target behavior and a specific cost to each backup reinforcer, taking care to establish a balanced economy. They also decided to allow students to visit the store at the end of each school day. Students could purchase something from the store at that time or bank their points for later use. However, all points expired at the end of the week to prevent hoarding. Thus, students began each week with a zero balance. In addition to the token economy, Mr. Garcia developed for Ms. Andrews a simple data collection and graphing form to allow her to track the target behaviors of each student. Ms. Andrews used the form for two weeks before the token economy was implemented to identify students baselines so she could objectively determine whether the token economy resulted in behavioral improvement. Finally, Ms. Andrews met with her students and teacher assistants on a Friday afternoon to explain the details of the token economy. The target behaviors, point values, backup

Token Economy 6 reinforcers, data collection, and exchange times were carefully discussed. The token economy was implemented the next Monday morning. After implementing the token economy for one month, Ms. Andrews observed substantial improvements in her students behaviors, including a small but noticeable increase in attendance. In addition, students generally seemed to like the program. One unexpected problem occurred when several students were observed rushing through their homework assignments so they could earn points for turning them in; thus, the accuracy of their work was poor. After identifying the problem, Ms. Andrews changed the definition of the target behavior by adding a requirement that the assignment also earn a grade of C or better. This change seemed to adequately address the problem. Students continued to turn in their homework assignments more often than before, but the quality of the work had improved. After a successful first month, Ms. Andrews scheduled bimonthly meetings with Mr. Garcia to discuss a variety of issues, including how to adjust the economy, how to update the store, and how to eventually remove the token economy while maintaining behavior change. 6. Suggested Readings Ayllon, T. (1999). How to use token economy and point systems (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: PROED. Ayllon, T., & Azrin, N. (1968). The token economy: A motivational system for therapy and rehabilitation. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Ayllon, T., & Milan, M. A. (2002). Token economy: Guidelines for operation. In M. Hersen & W. H. Sledge (Eds.), Encyclopedia of psychotherapy (pp. 829-833). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (1987). Applied behavior analysis. Columbus, OH: Merrill. Kazdin, A. E. (1982). The token economy: A decade later. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 15, 431-445. Kazdin, A. E., & Bootzin, R. R. (1972). The token economy: An evaluative review. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 5, 343-372. Thibideau, S. F. (1998). How to use response cost (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.