"For I know the plans I have for you," declares the LORD, "plans to prosper you and not

to harm you, plans to give you hope and a future."

Jeremiah 29:11

NURSING FACTS IN BRIEF NURSING RESEARCH

 Research is a systematic, orderly process of studying concepts or phenomena. It is also an honest investigation which ensures that data presented are valid and reliable.  The main purpose of conducting research is to improve the quality of lives of people. Nursing Research, on the other hand, has the main purpose of improving the quality of care provided to clients.  The conduct of a research study observes the presence of the components of ORDER and SYSTEM, SYSTEM, CONTROL and MANIPULATION, MANIPULATION, EMPIRICISM and GENERALIZATION. GENERALIZATION. In the absence of such components, the inquiry will not be considered as a valid research study.  ORDER & SYSTEM is an important component of research which requires the inquiry to follow a logical series of steps from identifying the problem to obtaining and interpreting data.  CONTROL and MANIPULATION attempts to eliminate any factor that would destroy the relationship of the variables in the study. This component aims to increase research efficiency.  EMPIRICISM refers to gathering data which are based on objective reality and can be perceived through human senses.  GENERALIZATION refers to the applicability of research outcomes to the general population. It can be achieved if random sampling is used in the study and if extraneous variables are controlled.  In Random sampling, generalization is possible since all the members of the population were given equal chances to participate; thereby, all their characteristics are presumed to be represented in the sample.  Evidence-based practice refers to clinically competent care based on best scientific evidence available. Research plays an important role as the means to show scientific evidence.  The levels of evidence are ranked with META-ANALYSIS OF SEVERAL CONTROLLED STUDIES as the highest level (Level 1), SINGLE EXPERIMENTAL STUDY (Level 2), QUASIEXPERIMENTAL STUDY (Level 3), NON-EXPERIMENTAL STUDY (Level 4), REVIEW OF LITERATURE, PROGRAM EVALUATION, BENCHMARKING (Level 5) and OPINIONS FROM EXPERTS (Level 6) as the lowest level of evidence.  Logical reasoning is widely used in the conduct of research. DEDUCTIVE REASONING, which uses arguments to move from general to specific, is used in research when we form assumptions (generally acceptable facts about the study) and during analysis and interpretation of data when the findings of the study is compared to findings of other related researches.  INDUCTIVE REASONING, which uses arguments to move from specific to general, is used during generalization of the outcome of research to the population.  The types of research are classified according to purpose (Basic, Applied or Action), according to time element (Past-historical, present-descriptive and futureexperimental), according to statistical significance (Qualitative or Quantitative) and according to frequency of data gathering (Longitudinal or cross-sectional).  Basic research is conducted in pursuit of knowledge for knowledges sake with the purpose of generating and refining theories and constructs. It has no practical application to the population.  Applied research seeks to apply a scientific knowledge to solve problems, to make decisions, and to develop new programs or methods. Experimental studies are good examples of applied research.  Action research has the same purpose with that of applied research; it will only be the adequacy of related literature which will determine an APPLIED from an ACTION research.  Applied research will require extensive and adequate review of related literature for the outcome of the study to be generalized to the target population. Action research is conducted when there are limited related literatures on the topic and generalization is only applicable to the accessible population.  Qualitative research Involves study of phenomena and concepts which are not measurable. It uses narrative documentation in data gathering. Experiences, quality, attitudes are some of the basic examples of qualitative data.  Quantitative research is conducted on concepts which are measurable. It will use statistics to analyze & interpret data.  REPLICATION is the process of repeating a study using the same method, different subjects and different experimenters. It ensures that results are valid & reliable  The start of research is the identification of the PROBLEM, also known as the topic or the focus of the study. It may come from experiences, various literatures, interest of the researcher, theories and other concepts from related disciplines.  Communication of research aims is reflected through the problem statement, statement of purpose, research questions and hypothesis.  The problem statement has to reflect the nature of the inquiry, the context and its significance. It will be operationalized through the research questions, which are specific queries that researchers want to answer. Research questions are ACTION-ORIENTED

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 Not all problems are researchable. Problems that are controversial and would have differing opinions from people (like debate topics) are not good researchable problems.  Researchable problems has to be NOVEL (original), SIGNIFICANT to the profession, the researcher has INTEREST and EXPERTISE on the topic, and has FEASIBILITY in terms of time, material and human resources, budget and ethical considerations.  Ethical principles that must be observed in research includes beneficence and non-maleficence, autonomy and justice.  The principle of beneficence and non-maleficence dictates that all participants to the study must not be harmed (physical or psychological) or exploited. The research should likewise provide benefits to the population.  Autonomy is observed when participants are their right to self determination. This is achieved when no threat, coercion or compensation was used in obtaining samples in the study.  The REVIEW OF LITERATURE is conducted to help researchers validate the novelty of the problem, obtain comparison of results from related studies and establish the framework of the study. Conceptual and Research literatures are the classifications of related literatures that are reviewed.  Conceptual literatures mostly contain theories, opinions and viewpoints of experts and authorities while Research literatures contain results from several research studies like theses and dissertations.   Primary sources of the review of literature describe studies written by the researchers themselves while secondary sources are those studies prepared by another person other than the original researcher.  Related literature must be current (not more than 5 years). Older documents can be used in the study if justification will be made that there are no recent literature or studies about the topic and the concepts presented in the literature is still relevant.  The framework is the conceptual underpinnings of a study; thereby, it is the studys backbone, background or support Theoretical and conceptual are the types of frameworks used in research.  Theory and research have a mutual relationship; a theory is developed through research, while research needs theories to form its study framework.  A theory which is not anymore studied in research will cease to exist.  A Theoretical Framework is based on a theory and has a more formal approach. A conceptual framework has a less formal approach and it is developed by the researcher.  A conceptual framework is created through analysis, the process of breaking down into parts, and synthesis, the process of putting together related concepts.  The HYPOTHESIS is a tentative answer to the statement of the problem and is the predicted relationship between the variables in research. It is a requirement for QUANTITATIVE but not for qualitative studies.

 The types of hypotheses are Null versus Research, Directional versus Nondirectional and Simple versus Complex.  A null or statistical hypothesis (expressing a NO RELATIONSHIP prediction) is stated if a statistical formula will be used. It provides a mind set of no relationship; thereby preventing any biases on the part of the researcher. An alternative hypothesis (expressing a SIGNIFICANT RELATIONSHIP) will be accepted if the NULL is rejected.  Directional hypothesis specifies the exact relationship between the variables and it is stated when researchers have a strong justification that it is the correct and exact relationship between the variables. Nondirectional simply states that there is a significant relationship but will not specify the relationship.  Hypothesis dictates the statistical test to be used in the study. A two-tailed test (possibility of yielding either of 2 results) is used for any NULL hypothesis stated while one-tailed test is used for a DIRECTIONAL hypothesis.  Variables in research are characteristics of individuals, things and events which vary (may be present or absent in some; with varying levels in individuals). Major variables in research include the Independent Variable, which is the presumed cause, and the Dependent Variable, the presumed effect of the phenomena.  Experimental design controls and manipulates the INDEPENDENT variable to observe its effect on the DEPENDENT variable, which will be measured in the study.  In Comparative studies, the INDEPENDENT variable is the characteristic which varies in the groups being compared and will not be controlled. The DEPENDENT variable is the point of comparison and will be measured in the study.  Extraneous (other terms are Intervening, Confounding) variables are other factors that can change the result of the study. They are controlled in research to have valid and generalizable results.  The RESEARCH DESIGN is the overall plan of the study to obtain the answers to the research questions. Procedures and strategies in conducting the study will be specified by the research design.  Structured designs are specified before data collection, and this is mostly seen in QUANTITATIVE studies. Flexible designs evolve (or emerge) during the collection of data, as seen in most QUALITATIVE studies.  QUALITATIVE studies have the following designs: Historical, Ethnology, Case studies, Phenomenology and Grounded-Theory research. They are all conducted in the NATURAL setting and collects narrative documentation of informants.  Historical researches are studies of past events. It collects from primary sources data, like interviews and examination of historical documents through EXTERNAL criticism of data (determination of the originality and genuineness of the document) and INTERNAL criticism of data (determination of the worth of the content).  Ethnology or ethnographic research studies the traditions, practices, beliefs of ethnic or cultural groups. They are conducted to understand the unique culture of identified groups.

DR. CARL E. BALITA REVIEW CENTER TEL. NO. 735-4098/410-0250

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 Phenomenology studies the lived experiences shared by people while Case Studies are researches done on one person or a group of persons focusing on identifying and solving problems. Grounded Theory is about the development of a minor theory into a major or grand theory.  A design may also be classified according to the manipulation of variables. If the INDEPENDENT variable is controlled and manipulated, a control group is present and randomization is used in obtaining samples, it is a TRUE EXPERIMENTAL design.  A QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL design is conducted when only control and manipulation of the INDEPENDENT variable is seen but there is no randomization and/or control group.  When variables are observed in their natural environment and are not manipulated, it depicts a NONEXPERIMENTAL design.  Experiments are conducted for the following reasons: The immediate effect can be elicited or observed, variables can be manipulated and manipulation of variables will not pose ethical problems  If variables can be manipulated but will cause ethical problems, the study will be conducted using nonexperimental designs  Experiments are conducted in a controlled setting (LABORATORY setting) where a TREATMENT (independent variable) is given to an experimental group while is it withheld from another group (control group). The DEPENDENT variable will be measured after the treatment and the results from the two groups are compared to elicit the cause-effect relationship of the variables.  Experiments need to have INTERNAL and EXTERNAL validity. Interval validity is obtained when any change in the DEPENDENT variable can only be attributed to the INDEPENDENT variable.  Threats to Internal Validity include mortality (dropout of participants), instrumentation change, maturation, history (significant event occurred between the time of treatment and observation) and selection bias.  EXTERNAL validity is concerned with the degree to which the research outcome can be generalizable to the population. Threats to external validity include the Hawthorne effect (deliberate change in behavior of subjects caused by their awareness that they are being studied), Rosenthal Effect (change in behavior caused by the effect of the experimenter) and Halo Effect (biased effect of the researcher determining good and bad subjects).  This is an example of an experiment: The effect of the progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) on the blood pressure of hypertensive patients. PMR is the independent variable (cause) because it is the treatment and it will be controlled and manipulated by the researcher by giving it to the experimental group and withholding it to the control group. The dependent variable is BP because it will be observed and measured (effect) after the treatment.  NONEXPERIMENTAL studies are conducted is variables are measurable but cannot be manipulated and relationships are established through observation of natural phenomena.  The types of NONEXPERIMENTAL designs are classified according to purpose. If the purpose of the study is to simply DESCRIBE the population on phenomena, the design is DESCRIPTIVE.

 Descriptive studies are usually UNIVARIATE (one variable), although some descriptive studies have several variables but their relationships are nor being established. Survey, which is a self-report data investigation, is the most basic type of descriptive research.  This is an example of a descriptive study: The Level of Anxiety of preoperative elderly patients in tertiary hospitals. The lone variable in the study is Level of Anxiety, and the population is preoperative elderly patients.  CORRELATION evolves from descriptive through an additional purpose. Correlation has the purpose of describing the population and explaining relationships of variables. Correlation studies the relationship of two or more variables that co-exist (present in individuals).  Correlational studies usually do not identify INDEPENDENT and DEPENDENT variables since the variables are considered CORRELATIONAL and are not perceived to have a cause-effect relationship.  The findings in correlational studies are either a POSITIVE (the variables go to one direction), NEGATIVE (the variables go to opposite directions) or NO RELATIONSHIP exists between the variables.  This is an example of correlation: The relationship of leisure time (LT) and socio-economic status (SES) to the anxiety levels (AL) and academic performance (AP) of school-age children.  COMPARATIVE researches have the same purpose as correlation, with an additional purpose of comparing two or more groups. It is conducted either as a RETROSPECTIVE (inquiry starts with the dependent variable and goes back to the past for the cause) or PROSPECTIVE (inquiry starts with the independent variable and looks forward in the future for the effect) study.  In Comparative studies, the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE is the characteristic which varies in the groups while the DEPENDENT VARIABLE is the point of comparison and will be measured in the study.  This is an example of a comparative study: The difference in the level self esteem of elderly living in a nursing home and those living with their children at home. The independent variable is the type of home of elderly because this varied from the two groups. The dependent variable is level of self esteem, which is the point of comparison and will be measured in the study.  The term POPULATION refers to the total aggregate of all individuals relating to the topic. This is also known as the TARGET POPULATION when the same total aggregate are beneficiaries of the outcome of the study.  The ACCESSIBLE population is a group derived from the target population who are presumed to have the same characteristics as the target population. This is the group where the samples (actual study participants) will be drawn.  Probability Sampling is a procedure which gives equal chances for all members of the population to participate in the study. Generalization of result is possible with this type of sampling procedure.  Simple random requires that all the members of the population are part of the selection. It uses the simple procedure of drawlots to get samples.

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 Stratified random sampling is a more extensive procedure with an initial step of classifying individuals according to their common characteristics into different strata, after which, equal number of samples are taken from each of the strata. It is done to ensure that all the characteristics of the population are well represented.  Cluster sampling forms groups according to the individuals proximity (geographical location). There will be random selection of clusters, and when a cluster is drawn, all its members will be the sample in the study.  Systematic sampling uses a sampling interval (the result of dividing the number of population over the number of samples needed) in getting its study participants.  The sample Size in Quantitative Studies are computer using the Slovins Formula, a widely-used formula which accounts for a margin of error in sampling. In using the formula, the researcher is recognizing that about 1%-5% of the samples taken are not fully representing the population in the study.  Homogeneity of the population refers to consideration in sampling where there are similarities in the characteristics of the members of the population. Effect Size, on the other hand, refers to the consideration when the independent variable in the study really affects the dependent variable. These considerations will allow the researcher to get a smaller number of samples than what is required.  Attrition is a consideration when the nature of the study will have a big possibility of having drop outs of samples. When this is considered, the researcher must get a higher number of samples than what is ideal.  The plan of the study is presented through a RESEARCH PROPOSAL. This should include Chapters 1, 2 and 3 of the research paper, budget proposal and the timetable of activities. A PILOT STUDY follows the proposal, which is necessary to validate research instruments and to Identify and control extraneous variables.  Research instruments undergo reliability (test for accuracy and consistency) and validity (test for appropriateness; that instrument measures intended concept) testing before it can used in data gathering. Mechanical instruments are mostly tested under reliability testing while written instruments (questionnaires, interview guides) are both tested on reliability and validity.  Face Validity refers to a first glance examination of the written instruments by experts. The result should reveal that upon cursory examination, the instrument is measuring intended concept.  Content Validity requires a correlational coeffiecient computation of the scores of a pilot group in a long version (instrument being validated) and a shorter, but valid version of an instrument measuring the same concept. The instrument will get content validity when the CVI (Content Validity Index) is within the range of a strong positive relationship (+0.7 to +0.9)  Data are gathered in research through three methods: Self report, observation and biophysiologic measurements. All these data collection method uses process recording (actual data gathering)  Self report gathers subjective data through distribution of questionnaires to respondents or interviews using a guide.

 Observational method gathers objective data from study participants through the use of human senses with the aid of simple mechanical instruments.  Biophysiologic measurement uses extensive devices to monitor the reaction of the body to a certain stimuli (e.g. stress test)  The Likert Scale is the most common behavioral scale used in written instruments. It is characterized by series of declarative sentences and a range of responses usually from strongly agree to strongly disagree. It uses the Interval level of measurement in assigning scores to each responses.  Data are categorized according to different Levels of Measurement namely nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. Nominal level of Measurement, considered the lowest level, is used for coding. These are categories with no ranking (e.g. gender male, female)  Ordinal level of Measurement is presented as categories with hierarchy but no numbers. (e.g. level of anxiety; educational attainment). Ordinal and Nominal levels of measurements will be analyzed using nonparametric statistics.  Interval and Ratio levels of Measurement both deal with real numbers and will be analyzed using parametric statistics. Interval will not have a possible zero point (e.g. body temperature) while Ratio will have a true zero point (e.g. score in an exam).  Data in Qualitative research is analyze using logical reasoning and analysis. Data for Quantitative research is analyzed using statistics.  Descriptive statistics are used to describe the population on a concept or phenomena. Measures of Central Tendency are descriptive statistics that are used to describe population on their commonalities or averages. Mean, mode, median are examples.  Measures of Variability are used to describe whether population is homogeneous or heterogeneous. Standard deviation (summary of average deviation from the mean) and Range (highest score minus the lowest score) are its common examples.  Correlational statistics like Pearsons r, Spearman rho, Correlational Coefficient, Scatter plot, are used to describe relationship/s of variables and shows whether a positive, negative or no relationship exists between 2 variables. If more than two (3 or more) variables are used in the study, Multiple Regression statistics will be used.  Tests of Difference are used to show the CAUSE-EFFECT relationship of variables by comparing the results of two or more groups. For two groups being compared, statistics used are T-test, paired T-test, Chi square. If more than 2 groups are being compared, use the ANOVA (Analysis of Variance).

Notes: ________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ "Confidence is the hinge on the door to success."
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DR. CARL E. BALITA REVIEW CENTER TEL. NO. 735-4098/410-0250