DeepwaterHorizonoilspill

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Coordinates:284417.30N882157.40W

TheDeepwaterHorizonoilspill(alsoreferredtoasthe BPoilspill,theBPoildisaster,theGulfofMexicooil spill,andtheMacondoblowout)wasanoilspillinthe GulfofMexicoontheBPoperatedMacondoProspect, consideredthelargestaccidentalmarineoilspillinthe historyofthepetroleumindustry,estimatedtobebetween 8%and31%largerinvolumethantheearlierIxtocIoil spill.Followingtheexplosionandsinkingofthe DeepwaterHorizonoilrig,whichclaimed11 lives,[5][6][7][8]aseaflooroilgusherflowedunabatedfor threemonthsin2010.Thegushingwellheadwasnot cappeduntilafter87days,on15July2010.[7][9]Thetotal dischargeisestimatedat4.9millionbarrels(210million USgal780,000m3 ).[3] Amassiveresponseensuedtoprotectbeaches,wetlands, andestuariesfromthespreadingoil,usingskimmerships, floatingboom,controlledburns,and1.84millionUS gallons(7,000m3 )ofCorexitoildispersant.[10]After severalfailedeffortstocontaintheflow,thewellwas cappedanddeclaredsealedon19September2010.[11] However,themonthsofspill,alongwithresponseand cleanupactivities,causedextensivedamagetomarineand wildlifehabitatsandtheGulf'sfishingandtourism industries,[12]aswellashumanhealthproblems.[13] Environmentalandhealthconsequencesarecontinuing, withstudyandinvestigationongoing.Somereports indicatethewellsitemaybecontinuingtoleak.[14][15] Numerousinvestigationshaveexploredthecausesofthe explosionandspill.Notably,theU.S.government's September2011reportpointedtodefectivecementwork onthewell,findingBPmostatfaultbutalsofaulting DeepwaterHorizonoperatorTransoceanandcontractor Halliburton.[16][17]Earlierin2011,aWhiteHouse commissionlikewiseblamedBPanditspartnersfor makingaseriesofcostcuttingdecisionsandnothavinga systemsufficienttoensurewellsafety,butalsoconcluded thatthespillwasnotanisolatedincidentcausedby"rogue industryorgovernmentofficials,"butresultedfrom "systemic"rootcausesand,"absentsignificantreformin bothindustrypracticesandgovernmentpolicies,might wellrecur."[18]

DeepwaterHorizonoilspill

TheoilslickasseenfromspacebyNASA'sTerra satelliteon24May2010 Location GulfofMexiconearMississippi RiverDelta,UnitedStates

Coordinates 284417.30N882157.40W[1] Date Spilldate:20April15July2010 Wellofficiallysealed:19September 2010 Cause Cause Casualties Operator Wellheadblowout 11dead TransoceanundercontractforBP[2] Spillcharacteristics Volume 4.9millionbarrels(210,000,000US gallons780,000cubicmeters) 10%[3] 2,500to68,000sqmi(6,500to 180,000km2)[4]

Area

Thisarticleispartofaseriesaboutthe

DeepwaterHorizonoilspill
BP DeepwaterHorizonExplosionTimeline VolumeandextentClosureResponse EnvironmentalimpactHealthconsequences Economiceffects Reactions InvestigationLitigation

Thedisasterspawnedover130privatelawsuitsaswellas civilandcriminalfederalprosecutions.InNovember 2012,BPsettledthefederalcasebypleadingguiltyto11countsofmanslaughterrelatedtotheexplosionand fire,andagreeingtopayarecordbreaking$4.525billioninfinesandotherpayments.[19][20]BPfacesother potentialenormouspayoutstothousandsoffishermen,businessesandothersharmedbythespill.In November2012theEPAannouncedthatBPwillbetemporarilybannedfromseekingnewcontractswiththe USgovernmentbecauseofthecompany's"lackofbusinessintegrity"duringthedisaster.[21]

Compensation

Contents
1Background 1.1DeepwaterHorizondrillingrig 1.2Explosion 2Volumeandextentofoilspill 3Effortstostemtheflowofoil 3.1Shorttermefforts 3.2Considerationsofusingexplosives 3.3Permanentclosure 3.4Recurrentorcontinuedleakage 4Containment,collectionanduseofdispersants 4.1Containment 4.2Dispersal 4.3Removal 4.4Digestion 5Restrictionofpressaccess 6Consequences 6.1Environmentalimpact 6.2Healthconsequences 6.3Economy 6.4Offshoredrillingpolicies 7Reactions 7.1USreactions 7.2UKreactions 7.3Internationalreactions 8Legalaspectsandsettlements 8.1Investigations 8.2Spillresponsefund 8.3Civillitigationandsettlements 8.4Criminalcharges 8.5EnvironmentalJustice 9Seealso 10References 11Externallinks

11Externallinks 11.1Leadstateagencywebsites 11.2Newsmedia 11.3Interactivemaps 11.4Images 11.5Animationsandgraphics

Background
DeepwaterHorizondrillingrig
Mainarticle:DeepwaterHorizon TheDeepwaterHorizon wasa9yearoldsemi submersible,mobile, floating,dynamically positioneddrillingrig thatcouldoperatein watersupto10,000feet (3,000m)deep.[22]Built Locationofthe DeepwaterHorizonon20 bySouthKorean April2010 companyHyundai DeepwaterHorizonpriorto HeavyIndustries[23]and explosion.Partsoftherigproviding ownedbyTransocean,therigoperatedundertheMarshalleseflagof buoyancyarenotvisiblebelowthe convenience,andwascharteredtoBPfromMarch2008to [2] waterlineinthispicture. September2013. Itwasdrillinga35,050feet(10,680m)deep exploratorywellinapproximately5,100feet(1,600m)ofwater.The wellissituatedintheMacondoProspectinMississippiCanyonBlock252(MC252)oftheGulfofMexico,in theUnitedStates'exclusiveeconomiczone.TheMacondowellislocatedroughly41miles(66km)offthe Louisianacoast.[24][25]BPwastheoperatorandprincipaldeveloperoftheMacondoProspectwitha65% share,while25%wasownedbyAnadarkoPetroleumCorporation,and10%byMOEXOffshore2007,a unitofMitsui.[26]

Explosion
Mainarticle:DeepwaterHorizonexplosion Atapproximately9:45pmCDT,on20April2010,highpressuremethanegasfromthewellexpandedinto thedrillingriserandroseintothedrillingrig,whereitignitedandexploded,engulfingtheplatform.[27][28]At thetime,126crewmemberswereonboard:sevenBPemployees,79ofTransoceanandemployeesof variousothercompanies.[29]ElevenworkerswereneverfounddespiteathreedayCoastGuard(USCG) searchoperationandarebelievedtohavediedintheexplosion.[30][31]Ninetyfourcrewwererescuedby lifeboatorhelicopter,17ofwhomweretreatedforinjuries.[27][32]

Volumeandextentofoilspill
Mainarticle:VolumeandextentoftheDeepwaterHorizonoil spill Seealso:TimelineoftheDeepwaterHorizonoilspill Anoilleakwasdiscoveredontheafternoonof22Aprilwhenalarge oilslickbegantospreadattheformerrigsite.[33]WhileoriginallyBP authoritiesgavetheirbestestimateofaflowrateof1,000to5,000 Supplyboatscontinuedtobattlethe barrelsperday(160to790m3 /d),accordingtotheFlowRate fire,viewedfromaCoastGuard TechnicalGroup,(FRTG)62,000barrelsperday(9,900m3 /d)wasa helicopter [34][35][36] morerealisticfigure. Thetotalestimatedvolumeofleaked oilapproximated4.9millionbarrels(210,000,000USgal 780,000m3 )withplusorminus10%uncertainty.[3]Thismakesitthelargestaccidentaloilspillin history.[7][37]BPchallengesthisfigure,sayingthatthegovernmentoverestimatedthevolumehowever, emailsreleasedin2013showthatBP'sinternalestimatesmatchedthoseofFRTG.[38][39]BPalsoarguesthat governmentfiguresdonotreflectover810,000barrels(34millionUSgal129,000m3 )ofoilthatwas collectedorburnedbeforeitcouldentertheGulfwaters.[38] Accordingtothesatelliteimages,thespilldirectlyimpacted68,000 squaremiles(180,000km2 )ofoceanwhichiscomparabletothesize ofOklahoma.[4][40]ByearlyJune2010,oilhadwashedupon125 miles(201km)ofLouisiana'scoastandalongMississippi,Florida, andAlabamabarrierislandcoastlines.[41][42]Oilsludgeappearedin theIntracoastalWaterwayandonPensacolaBeachandtheGulf IslandsNationalSeashore.[43]InlateJune,oilreachedGulfPark Estates,itsfirstappearanceinMississippi.[44]InJuly,tarballs OilslickssurroundtheChandeleur reachedGrandIsleandtheshoresofLakePontchartrain.[45][46]In Islands,Louisiana,inthisaerial Septemberanewwaveofoilsuddenlycoated16miles(26km)of photo. LouisianacoastlineandmarsheswestoftheMississippiRiverin PlaqueminesParish.[47]InOctober,weatheredoilreachedTexas.[48] AsofJuly2011,about491miles(790km)ofcoastlineinLouisiana,Mississippi,AlabamaandFloridawere contaminatedbyoilandatotalof1,074miles(1,728km)hadbeenoiledsincethespillbegan.[49]Asof December2012,339miles(546km)ofcoastlineremainsubjecttoevaluationand/orcleanupoperations.[50] Concernswereraisedabouttheappearanceofunderwater,horizontallyextendedplumesofdissolvedoil. Researchersconcludedthatdeepplumesofdissolvedoilandgaswouldlikelyremainconfinedtothenorthern GulfofMexicoandthatthepeakimpactondissolvedoxygenwouldbedelayedandlonglasting.[51] Twoweeksafterthewellheadwascappedon15July2010,thesurfaceoilappearedtohavedissipated,while anunknownamountofsubsurfaceoilremained.[52]Estimatesoftheresidualrangedfroma2010NOAA reportthatclaimedabouthalfoftheoilremainedbelowthesurfacetoindependentestimatesofupto 75%.[53][54][55]Thatmeansthatover100millionUSgallons(2.4Mbbl)remainedintheGulf.[50]Asof January2011,tarballs,oilsheentrails,fouledwetlandsmarshgrassandcoastalsandswerestillevident.

Subsurfaceoilremainedoffshoreandinfinesilts.[56]InApril2012,oilwasstillfoundalongasmuchas200 miles(320km)ofLouisianacoastlineandtarballscontinuedtowashuponthebarrierislands.[57]In2013, somescientistsattheGulfofMexicoOilSpillandEcosystemScienceConferencesaidthatasmuchasone thirdoftheoilmayhavemixedwithdeepoceansediments,whereitrisksdamagetoecosystemsand commercialfisheries.[58]

Effortstostemtheflowofoil
Mainarticle:EffortstostemtheDeepwaterHorizonoilspill Seealso:Offshoreoilspillpreventionandresponse

Shorttermefforts
FirstBPunsuccessfullyattemptedtoclosetheblowoutpreventervalveson thewellheadwithremotelyoperatedunderwatervehicles.[59][60]Nextit placeda125tonne(280,000lb)containmentdomeoverthelargestleakand pipedtheoiltoastoragevessel.Whilethistechniquehadworkedin shallowerwater,itfailedherewhengascombinedwithcoldwatertoform methanehydratecrystalsthatblockedtheopeningatthetopofthedome.[61] Pumpingheavydrillingfluidsintotheblowoutpreventertorestricttheflow ofoilbeforesealingitpermanentlywithcement("topkill")alsofailed.[62][63] BPtheninsertedariserinsertiontubeintothepipeandastopperlikewasher aroundthetubepluggedtheendoftheriseranddivertedtheflowintothe insertiontube.[64]Thecollectedgaswasflaredandoilstoredontheboardof drillshipDiscovererEnterprise.[65]Beforethetubewasremoved,itcollected 924,000USgallons(22,000bbl3,500m3 )ofoil.[66]On3June2010,BP Oilcontainmentdomeunder removedthedamageddrillingriserfromthetopoftheblowoutpreventerand [67] constructioninPort coveredthepipebythecapwhichconnectedittoanotherriser. On16 Fourchon,Louisiana,at Juneasecondcontainmentsystemconnecteddirectlytotheblowout WildWellControlon26 preventerbegancarryingoilandgastoservicevesselswhereitwas April consumedinacleanburningsystem.[68]Thegovernment'sestimates suggestedthecapandotherequipmentwerecapturinglessthanhalfofthe leakingoil.[43]On10Julythecontainmentcapwasremovedtoreplaceitwithabetterfittingcap("TopHat Number10").[69][70]Mudandcementwerelaterpumpedinthroughthetopofthewelltoreducethepressure insideit,completingthetemporarymeasures.[9]

Considerationsofusingexplosives
InmidMay,UnitedStatesSecretaryofEnergyStevenChuassembledateamofnuclearphysicists,including hydrogenbombdesignerRichardGarwinandSandiaNationalLaboratoriesdirectorTomHunter.[71]Oil expertMatthewSimmonsmaintainedthatanuclearexplosionwastheonlywayBPcouldpermanentlyseal thewellandcitedsuccessfulSovietattemptstosealoffrunawaygaswellswithnuclearblasts.A spokespersonfortheUSEnergyDepartmentsaidthat"neitherEnergySecretaryStevenChunoranyone

else"everconsideredthisoption.[72][73]On24MayBPruledout conventionalexplosives,claimingthatifblastsfailedtoclogthewell, "wewouldhavedeniedourselvesallotheroptions."[74]

Permanentclosure
Transocean'sDevelopmentDrillerIIIstarteddrillingafirstreliefwell on2May.GSFDevelopmentDrillerIIstarteddrillingasecondrelief on16May.[75][76][77]On3August,firsttestoilandthendrilling mudwaspumpedataslowrateofapproximately2barrels(320L) perminuteintothewellhead.Pumpingcontinuedforeighthours,at theendofwhichtimethewellwasdeclaredtobe"inastatic condition."[78]On4August,BPbeganpumpingcementfromthe top,sealingthatpartoftheflowchannelpermanently.[79] On3Septemberthe300tonfailedblowoutpreventerwasremoved fromthewellandareplacementblowoutpreventerwas installed.[80][81]On16September,thereliefwellreachedits destinationandpumpingofcementtosealthewellbegan.[82]On19 September,NationalIncidentCommanderThadAllendeclaredthe well"effectivelydead"andsaidthatitposednofurtherthreattothe Gulf.[11]

The Q4000andthe Discoverer Enterpriseduringthefailedtopkill procedure

Recurrentorcontinuedleakage

Conceptdiagramofunderwateroil containmentdomesoriginallyplanned fortheDeepwaterHorizonoilspill. Atthisstage,therewere2remaining oilleaksfromthefallenpipeline.

OilslickswerereportedinMarch[83]andAugust2011,[84][85]in March[14]andOctober2012,[86][87]andinJanuary2013.[88]Repeatedscientificanalysesconfirmedthatthe sheenwasachemicalmatchforoilfromMacondowell.[89][90]TheUSCGinitiallysaidtheoilwastoo dispersedtorecoverandposednothreattothecoastline,[91]butlaterwarnedBPandTransoceanthatthey mightbeheldfinanciallyresponsibleforcleaningupthenewoil.[92]USGSdirectorMarciaMcNuttstated thattheriserpipecouldholdatmost1,000barrels(160m3 )becauseitisopenonbothends,makingit unlikelytoholdtheamountofoilbeingobserved.[93] InOctober2012,BPreportedthattheyhadfoundandpluggedleakingoilfromthefailedcontainmentdome, nowabandonedabout1,500feet(460m)fromthemainwell.[94][95][96]InDecember2012,theUSCG conductedasubseasurveynooilcomingfromthewellsorthewreckagewasfoundanditssourceremains unknown.[50][97]Inaddition,white,milkysubstancewasobservedseepingfromthewreckage.Accordingto BPandtheUSCGitis"notoilandit'snotharmful."[98] OceanographerIanMacDonaldsaid,"It'spossiblethatthewreckagein2010somehowopenedupanewfault ontheseafloor."[99]InMay2010,BPadmittedtheyhad"discoveredthingsthatwerebrokeninthesub surface"duringthe"topkill"effort.[100]

Containment,collectionanduseofdispersants

Mainarticle:DeepwaterHorizonoilspillresponse Thefundamentalstrategiesforaddressingthespillwerecontainment, dispersalandremoval.Insummer2010,approximately47,000people and7,000vesselswereinvolvedintheproject.By3October2012, federalresponsecostsamountedto$850million,mostlyreimbursed byBP.AsofJanuary2013,935personnelwerestillinvolved.By thattimecleanuphadcostBPover$14billion.[50] Itwasestimatedwithplusorminus10%uncertaintythat4.9million barrels(780,000m3 )ofoilwasreleasedfromthewell4.1million UnitedStatesEnvironmentalServices barrels(650 103 m3 )ofoilwentintotheGulf.[101]Thereportled workersprepareoilcontainment bytheDepartmentoftheInteriorandtheNOAAsaidthatof"75% boomsfordeployment [ofoil]hasbeencleanedupbyManorMotherNature",however onlyabout25%ofreleasedoilwascollectedorremovedwhileabout 75%ofoilremainedintheenvironmentinoneformoranother.[102]In2012,MarkusHuettel,abenthic ecologistatFSU,maintainedthatwhilemuchofBP'soilwasdegradedorevaporated,atleast60%remains unaccountedfor.[103]

Containment
Containmentboomsstretchingover4,200,000feet(1,300km)were deployed,eithertocorraltheoilorasabarriertoprotectamarsh, mangrove,shrimp/crab/oysterranchorotherecologicallysensitive area.Boomsextend1848inches(0.461.2m)aboveandbelowthe watersurfaceandwereeffectiveonlyinrelativelycalmandslow movingwaters.Includingonetimeusesorbentbooms,atotalof 13,300,000feet(4,100km)ofboomsweredeployed.[104]Booms werecriticizedforwashingupontheshorewiththeoil,allowingoil toescapeaboveorbelowtheboomandforineffectivenessinmore thanthreetofourfootwaves.[105][106][107]

TheLouisianabarrierislandplanwasdevelopedtoconstructbarrier islandstoprotectthecoastofLouisiana.Theplanwascriticisedfor itsexpenseandpoorresults.[108][109]Criticsallegethatthedecisiontopursuetheprojectwaspoliticalwith littlescientificinput.[110]TheEPAexpressedconcernthatthebermswouldthreatenwildlife.[111]

Anoilcontainmentboomdeployed bytheU.S.NavysurroundsNew HarborIsland,Louisiana.

Dispersal
ThespillwasalsonotableforthevolumeofCorexitoildispersantusedandforapplicationmethodsthatwere "purelyexperimental".[104]Altogether,1.84millionUSgallons(7,000m3 )ofdispersantswereusedofthis 771,000USgallons(2,920m3 )werereleasedatthewellhead.[10]Subseainjectionhadneverpreviouslybeen triedbutduetothespill'sunprecedentednatureBPtogetherwithUSCGandEPAdecidedtouseit.[112]Over 400sortieswereflowntoreleasetheproduct.[104]Althoughusageofdispersantswasdescribedas"themost effectiveandfastmovingtoolforminimizingshorelineimpact",[104]theapproachcontinuestobe

investigated.[113][114][115] A2011analysisconductedbyEarthjusticeandToxipediashowedthatthedispersantcouldcontaincancer causingagents,hazardoustoxinsandendocrinedisruptingchemicals.[116]Environmentalscientistsexpressed concernsthatthedispersantsaddtothetoxicityofaspill,increasingthethreattoseaturtlesandbluefintuna. Thedangersareevengreaterwhenpouredintothesourceofaspill,becausetheyarepickedupbythecurrent andwashthroughtheGulf.[117]AccordingtoBPandfederalofficialsdispersantusestoppedafterthecap wasinplacehowever,marinetoxicologistRikiOttclaimedthat dispersantusecontinuedafterthatdate.[118][119][120] CorexitEC9500AandCorexitEC9527Aweretheprincipal variants.[121]Thetwoformulationsareneithertheleasttoxic,northe mosteffective,amongEPA'sapproveddispersantsbutBPsaidit chosetouseCorexitbecauseitwasavailabletheweekoftherig explosion.[122][122][123]On19May,theEPAgaveBP24hoursto chooselesstoxicalternativestoCorexitfromtheNational AC130HerculesspraysCorexit ContingencyPlanProductScheduleandbeginapplyingthemwithin dispersantontotheGulfofMexico 72hoursofEPAapprovalorprovideadetailedreasoningwhyno approvedproductsmetthestandards.[124][125]On20May,BP determinedthatnoneofthealternativeproductsmetallthreecriteriaofavailability,nontoxicityand effectiveness.[126]On24May,EPAAdministratorLisaP.JacksonorderedEPAtoconductitsown evaluationofalternativesandorderedBPtoreducedispersantuseby75%.[127][128][129]BPreducedCorexit useby25,689to23,250USgallons(97,240to88,000l21,391to19,360impgal)perday,a9% decline.[130]On2August2010,theEPAsaiddispersantsdidnomoreharmtotheenvironmentthantheoil itselfandthattheystoppedalargeamountofoilfromreachingthecoastbybreakingitdownfaster.[118] However,someindependentscientistsandEPA'sownexpertscontinuetovoiceconcernsaboutthe approach.[131] UnderwaterinjectionofCorexitintotheleakmayhavecreatedtheoilplumesdiscoveredbelowthe surface.[123]Becausethedispersantswereappliedatdepth,muchoftheoilneverrosetothesurface.[132] Oneplumewas22miles(35km)long,morethanamilewideand650feet(200m)tall.[133]Inamajorstudy ontheplume,expertsfoundthemostworrisomeparttobetheslowpaceatwhichtheoilwasbreakingdown inthecold,40F(4C)wateratdepthsof3,000feet(910m).[134] Twoyearsafterthespill,astudyfoundthatCorexithadincreasedthetoxicityoftheoilbyupto52 times.[135]

Removal
Thethreebasicapproachesforremovingtheoilfromthewaterwere:combustion,offshorefiltration,and collectionforlaterprocessing.USCGsaid33millionUSgallons(120,000m3 )oftaintedwaterwas recovered,including5millionUSgallons(19,000m3 )ofoil.BPsaid826,800barrels(131,450m3 )hadbeen recoveredorflared.[136]Itiscalculatedthatabout5%ofleakedoilwasburnedatthesurfaceand3%was skimmed.[102]Onthemostdemandingday47,849peoplewereassignedontheresponseworks.[3]

FromApriltomidJuly2010411controlledinsitufiresremediatedapproximately265,000barrels (11,100,000USgal42,100m3 ).[104]Thefiresreleasedsmallamountsoftoxins,includingcancercausing dioxins.AccordingtoEPA'sreportthereleasedamountisnotenoughtoposeanaddedcancerrisktoworkers andcoastalresidents,whileasecondresearchteamconcludedthattherewasonlyasmalladdedrisk.[137] Oilwascollectedfromwaterbyusingskimmers.Intotal2,063variousskimmerswereused.[3]Foroffshore, morethan60openwaterskimmersweredeployed,including 12purposebuiltvehicles.[104]EPAregulationsprohibitedskimmers thatleftmorethan15partspermillion(ppm)ofoilinthewater. Manylargescaleskimmersexceededthelimit.[138]Duetouseof Corexittheoilwastoodispersedtocollect,accordingtoa spokespersonforshipownerTMT.[139]InmidJune2010,BP ordered32machinesthatseparateoilandwater,witheachmachine capableofextractingupto2,000barrelsperday(320m3 /d).[140][141] Afteroneweekoftesting,BPbegantoproceed[142]andby28June, Darkcloudsofsmokeandfire hadremoved890,000barrels(141,000m3 ).[143] Afterthewellwascaptured,thecleanupofshorebecamethemain taskoftheresponseworks.Twomaintypeofaffectedcoastwere sandybeachesandmarshes.Onbeachesthemaintechniqueswere siftingsand,removingtarballsanddiggingouttarmatsmanuallyor byusingmechanicaldevices.[3]Formarshestechniqueslikevacuum andpumping,lowpressureflush,vegetationcutting,and bioremediationwereused.[104]

emergeasoilburnsduringa controlledfireintheGulfofMexico, May6,2010.

Digestion
Dispersantsaresaidtofacilitatethedigestionoftheoilbymicrobes. Mixingdispersantswithoilatthewellheadwouldkeepsomeoil belowthesurfaceandintheory,allowmicrobestodigesttheoil beforeitreachedthesurface.Variousriskswereidentifiedand evaluated,inparticularthatanincreaseinmicrobialactivitymight reducesubseaoxygenlevels,threateningfishandotheranimals.[144]
TheTaiwaneseretrofittedskimmer, AWhale

Severalstudiessuggestthatmicrobessuccessfullyconsumedpartoftheoil.[50][145]BymidSeptember,other researchclaimedthatmicrobesmainlydigestednaturalgasratherthanoil.[146]DavidL.Valentine,a professorofmicrobialgeochemistryatUCSantaBarbara,saidthattheiroilgobblingpropertieshadbeen grosslyoverstated.[147] SomeexpertssuggestedthatthebacteriamayhavecausedhealthissuesforGulfresidents,suchasan outbreakofskinrashes.GeneticallymodifiedAlcanivoraxborkumensiswasaddedtothewaterstospeed digestion.[147][148]

Restrictionofpressaccess

OnMay18,2010,McClatchyNewspapersreportedthatBPhasbeendesignatedthelead"Responsible Party"undertheOilPollutionActof1990(oneofkeypiecesoflegislationunderwhichoilspillgovernance intheUnitedStatesisdetermined),whichmeanttheBPwasnotonlylegalliableforcostsofcleaningupthe spill,butthatithadoperationalauthorityincoordinatingtheresponsetothespill.[149]Thisiswhatthelaw wasdesigntoaccomplish,toensurethatanentitywithexpertiseandafinancialstakeinhavingthespillbe containedandcleanedupquickly,isrunningtheoperation.[150] Inthefirstfewweeksaftertheexplosion,"BPkeptatightlidonimagesoftheoilleakingintothegulf"and thefirstvideoimageswerereleasedMay12,andfurthervideoimageswerereleasedbymembersofCongress whohadbeengivenaccesstothembyBP.[151]Journalistssoughtaccesstotheoilspillandsurrounding areas,andinlateMayandJunereportsemergedthatjournalistsinparticularwerebeingblockedfromthespill zone,ontheground,inboatsonthewater,andfromtheair,includingareasthatwereopentothepublic,by localandfederalauthoritieswhoexplicitlycitedBP'sauthority.[151][152][153][154][155][156][157] AuthoritiesandBPgenerallyrespondedbyindicatingthattherewerenopoliciesrestrictingjournalists: "'NeitherBPnortheU.S.CoastGuard,whoarerespondingtothespill,haveanyrulesinplacethatwould prohibitmediaaccesstoimpactedareasandweweredisappointedtohearofthisincident,'saidRobWyman, alieutenantcommanderfortheCoastGuard,inastatementrespondingtotheCBSepisode(inwhichaTV crewfilmedaboatwithBPcontractorsand2coastguardofficersblockingthemfromabeach).'Infact, mediahasbeenactivelyembeddedandallowedtocoverresponseeffortssincethisresponsebegan,withmore than400embedsaboardboatsandaircrafttodate.'"[156]Additionally,themessageinresponsewasthatBP andtheauthoritieswanted"toprovideaccesstothestorywhilemaintainingthepropersafety parameters."[156] TheNewYorkTimesreportontheissueconcludedbysaying:"Mediaaccessindisastersituationsisalways anissue.Butthesituationinthegulfisespeciallynettlesomebecausejournalistshavetodependonthe governmentandBPtogainaccesstosomuchoftheaffectedarea.MichaelOreskes,seniormanagingeditor attheAssociatedPress,likenedthesituationtoreportersbeingembeddedwiththemilitaryinAfghanistan. 'Thereisacontinuedefforttokeepcontrolovertheaccess,'Mr.Oreskessaid.'Andeveninplaceswherethe governmentiscooperatingwithustoprovideaccess,itsstillaproblembecauseitsstillaccessobtained throughthegovernment.'"[151]

Consequences
Environmentalimpact
Mainarticle:EnvironmentalimpactoftheDeepwaterHorizonoilspill Thegreatestimpactwasonmarinespecies.Thespillareahosted8,332species,includingmorethan 1,200fish,200birds,1,400molluscs,1,500crustaceans,4seaturtlesand29marinemammals.[158][159]In additiontothe14speciesunderfederalprotection,thespillthreatened39morerangingfrom"whalesharksto seagrass".[160]DamagetotheoceanfloorespeciallyendangeredtheLouisianapancakebatfishwhoserange isentirelycontainedwithinthespillaffectedarea.[161]Theoilcontainedapproximately40%methaneby weight,comparedtoabout5%foundintypicaloildeposits.[162]Methanecanpotentiallysuffocatemarinelife andcreate"deadzones"whereoxygenisdepleted.[162]DuringaJanuary2013flyover,formerNASA

physicistBonnySchumakernoteda"dearthofmarinelife"inaradius30to50miles(48to80km)around thewell.[163]InMarch2012,adefinitivelinkwasfoundbetweenthedeathofaGulfcoralcommunityand thespill.[164][165][166] Thespillwaterscontained40timesmorePolycyclicaromatichydrocarbons(PAH)thanbeforethespill.[167] PAHisoftenlinkedtooilspillsandincludescarcinogensandchemicalsthatposevarioushumanhealthrisks. ThePAHsweremostconcentratedneartheLouisianaCoast,butlevelsalsojumped23foldinareasoff Alabama,MississippiandFlorida.[167]PAHscanharmmarinespeciesdirectlyandmicrobesusedtoconsume theoilwouldreducemarineoxygenlevels.[168]Estimatesstatethatonly2%ofthecarcassesofkilled mammalswererecovered.[169]Inthefirstbirthingseasonfordolphinsafterthespill,deadbabydolphins washedupalongMississippiandAlabamashorelinesatabout10timesthenormalnumber.[170]Oilwas discoveredondeaddolphinsalongtheGulfCoast.Fifteenofthe406dolphinsthatwashedashoreinthefirst 14monthshadoilontheirbodiestheoilfoundoneightwaslinkedtothespill.[171]ANOAA/BPstudyin thesummerof2011foundthat"manyofthe32dolphinsstudiedwereunderweight,anemicandsuffering fromlungandliverdisease,whilenearlyhalfhadlowlevelsofahormonethathelpsthemammalsdealwith stressaswellasregulatingtheirmetabolismandimmunesystems".[172]Otherconditionsincludeddrastically lowweightandlowbloodsugar.[173] Theoilanddispersantmixture,includingPAHs,permeatedthefoodchainthrough zooplankton.[167][174][175]Signsofanoilanddispersantmixwerefoundundertheshellsoftinybluecrab larvae.[176]Theuseofdispersantmadeoilsinkfasterandmoredeeplyintobeaches,andpossibly groundwatersupplies.CorexitallowedthePAHstopermeatesandwhere,duetoalackofsunlight, degradationisslowed.[163][177]Sometypesofspidersandotherinsectsbecamefarlessnumerous.[172] MigratorybirdscarriedchemicalsfromthespillasfarasMinnesota.Thevastmajorityofasmallsampleof Pelicaneggstestedcontained"petroleumcompoundsandCorexit".[115] Inthesummerof2010,scientistsreportedimmenseunderwaterplumesofdissolvedoil[178]inadditiontoan 80squaremile(210km2 )"killzone"surroundingtheblownwell.[179]Fishwithoozingsoresandlesions werefirstnotedbyfishermeninNovember2010.[180]DispersantandPAHsfromoilarebelievedtohave caused"disturbingnumbers"ofmutatedfishthatscientistsandcommercialfishersbeganseeingin2012, including50%ofshrimpfoundlackingeyesandeyesockets.[181][182]Priortothespill,approximately1/10 of1%ofGulffishhadlesionsorsores.AreportfromtheUniversityofFloridasaidthatmanylocations showed20%offishwithlesions,whilelaterestimatesreach50%.[180]NOAAstatedthatdolphinsand whalesweredyingattwicethenormalratein2011.[183]Scientistsin2012reportedfinding"alarming numbers"ofmutatedcrab,shrimpandfishresultingfromchemicalsreleasedduringthespill.[180] Environmentalimpactscontinue,andresearchisongoing.Twoyearsafterthespillbegan,tarballscontinued towashupalongtheGulfcoast.[184]AfterHurricaneIssachittheGulfinSeptember2012,about565,000 pounds(256,000kg)ofoiledmaterialtracedtothespillwasbroughttoland.[185]Hugetarmatswere uncoveredduringthestorm,promptingbeachclosures.[186][187]In2013,researchersfoundthatoilonthe bottomoftheseafloordoesnotseemtobedegrading,andobservedaphenomenoncalled"dirtyblizzard":oil causeddeepoceansedimentstoclumptogether,fallingtotheoceanfloorattentimesthenormalrateinan "underwaterrainofoilyparticles."Theresultcouldhavelongtermeffectsonbothhumanandmarinelife becauseoilcouldremaininthefoodchainforgenerations.[188]Thesameresearchsuggestedthatasmuchas onethirdoftheoilremainsintheGulf.[188]

Healthconsequences
Mainarticle:HealthconsequencesoftheDeepwaterHorizonoilspill By21June,143spillexposurecaseshadbeenreportedtotheLouisianaDepartmentofHealthandHospitals (DHH)108ofthosecasesinvolvedworkersinthecleanupefforts,while35werereportedbygulf residents.[189]Chemicalsfromtheoilanddispersantarebelievedtobethecauseoftheseillnessesasthe additionofdispersantscreatedanevenmoretoxicsubstance(PAHs)whenmixedwithcrudeoil.Mike Robicheux,aLouisianaphysicianwhohasbeentreatingpeoplesickfromexposuretotoxicchemicals, describeditasthebiggestpublichealthcrisisfromachemicalpoisoninginthehistoryofthiscountry"[190]In addition,theincreasedriskofmentaldisordersandstressrelatedhealthproblemswerenotedshortlyafterthe spill.[191][192] Asurveyofthehealtheffectsofthespilloncleanupworkersreported"eye,noseandthroatirritation respiratoryproblemsbloodinurine,vomitandrectalbleedingseizuresnauseaandviolentvomitingepisodes thatlastforhoursskinirritation,burningandlesionsshorttermmemorylossandconfusionliverandkidney damagecentralnervoussystemeffectsandnervoussystemdamagehypertensionandmiscarriages".Dr. JamesDiaz,writingfortheAmericanJournalofDisasterMedicine,saidtheseailmentsappearingintheGulf reflectedthosereportedafterpreviousoilspills,liketheExxonValdez.Diazwarnedthat"chronicadverse healtheffects,includingcancers,liverandkidneydisease,mentalhealthdisorders,birthdefectsand developmentaldisordersshouldbeanticipatedamongsensitivepopulationsandthosemostheavilyexposed". Diazalsobelievesneurologicaldisordersshouldbeexpected.[193] AftertestingthebloodofBPcleanupworkersandresidentsinLouisiana,Mississippi,Alabama,andFlorida forVolatileOrganicCompounds(VOC's),foundinBP'soilandinCorexit,environmentalscientistWilma Subrasayssheis"findingamounts5to10timesinexcessofthe95thpercentile."Subraexplainsthe "presenceofthesechemicalsinthebloodindicatesexposure."[194][195]Twoyearsafterthespill,astudy intitiatedbytheNationalInstituteforOccupationalSafetyandHealthfoundbiomarkersmatchingtheoilfrom thespillinthebodiesofcleanupworkers.Otherstudieshavereportedavarietyofmentalhealthissues,skin problems,breathingissues,coughing,andheadaches.[196]In2013,duringthethreeday"GulfofMexicoOil Spill&EcosystemScienceConference",[197]findingsdiscussedincludeda'"significantpercentage"ofGulf residentsreportingmentalhealthproblemslikeanxiety,depressionandPTSD.Thesestudiesalsoshowedthat thebodiesofformerspillcleanupworkerscarrybiomarkersof"manychemicalscontainedintheoil".[198] Growingconcernsregardingthelatenteffectsofexposure,promptedtheNationalInstituteofHealth(NIH)to launcha10yearlongitudinalstudytotrackhealthoutcomesassociatedwiththecleanup.Theprincipalgoal oftheGulfLongtermFollowupStudy(GuLFSTUDY)istoidentifylinksbetweenresponseworkers physicalandmentalhealthsymptomsandexposuretooilanddispersantsusedinthecleanup.Presently, responseworkers,volunteersandcontrolsnotinvolvedinthecleanuparebeingactivelyrecruitedto participate.Thecasecontrolstudywillcommencewithaninitialinhomevisit,duringwhichvitalswillbe recordedandspecimenscollected.Participantswillthenbeaskedtocompletesubsequentquestionnaires every2yearstotrackchangesintheirhealth.[199]Theinformationcollectedinthisstudywillprovide invaluableinsightintotheeffectsofexposurestooilandcleanupdispersantsatanunprecedentedlevel. Additionally,thestudysfindingsmaybeusedtohelpinfluencepolicydecisionsonhealthcareandhealth servicesintheaffectedregion.[200]

However,theinterpretationoftheoutcomesfromobservationalepidemiologicstudies,suchastheGuLF STUDY,issubjecttolimitations.First,thesestudydesignsdonothaverigorouscontroloverexternal variablesthatmayinfluencetheresultsandtherefore,theycanonlyprovidelimitedinformationregarding cause.InfactinacommenttotheAFP,BPsuggestedthatmanyofthehealthproblemssufferedbyresponse workersdidnotdeviatesignificantlyfromthoseexpectedamongaworkforceofsimilarsizeundernormal conditions.[201]Anotherlimitationofepidemiologicstudiesisthatitisoftendifficulttodirectlymeasure exposures.Forinstance,healthoutcomesforresponseworkersarelikelytovarysubstantiallybasedonthe concentrationofexposureandmethodofabsorption.Manyworkedindifferentareasatdifferenttimesofthe cleanup,sotheirexposurewouldhavefluctuatedmakingithardtoassignalevelofexposuretoaparticular outcome.[202]Additionally,becauseexposurepathwaysdiffereddependingonaworkerstask,establishing anoutcomerelateddosealsopresentsachallenge.Alsonoinitialbaselinemeasureswerecollectedfrom workersbeforetheywereexposed,whichmakesitdifficulttoassesstheimpactofexposure.[203]Thisisntto saythereisnovalueintheinformationthesestudiesprovide,onejustneedstoexerciseprudenceindrawing specificconclusionsfromtheresults.

Economy
Mainarticle:EconomicandpoliticalconsequencesoftheDeepwaterHorizondisaster ThespillhadastrongeconomicimpacttoBPasalsotheGulfCoast'seconomysectorssuchasoffshore drilling,fishingandtourism.OnBP'sexpendituresonthespillincludedthecostofthespillresponse, containment,reliefwelldrilling,grantstotheGulfstates,claimspaid,andfederalcosts,includingfinesand penalties.[204]AsofMarch2012,BPestimatedthecompany'stotalspillrelatedexpensesdonotexceed $37.2billion.[205]However,bysomeestimationspenaltiesthatBPmayberequiredtopayhavereachedas highas$90billion.[206]Inaddition,inNovember2012theEPAannouncedthatBPwillbetemporarily bannedfromseekingnewcontractswiththeUSgovernment.[21]Duetothelossofthemarketvalue,BPhad droppedfromthesecondtothefourthlargestofthefourmajoroilcompaniesby2013.[207]Duringthecrisis, BPgasstationsintheUnitedStatesreportedsalesoffbetween10and40%duetobacklashagainstthe company.[208] LocalofficialsinLouisianaexpressedconcernthattheoffshoredrillingmoratoriumimposedinresponseto thespillwouldfurtherharmtheeconomiesofcoastalcommunitiesastheoilindustryemploysabout58,000 Louisianaresidentsandhascreatedanother260,000oilrelatedjobs,accountingforabout17%ofall Louisianajobs.[209]NOAAhadclosed86,985squaremiles(225,290km2 ),orapproximately36%ofFederal watersintheGulfofMexico,forcommercialfishingcausing$2.5billioncostforthefishing industry.[210][211][212]TheU.S.TravelAssociationestimatedthattheeconomicimpactoftheoilspillon tourismacrosstheGulfCoastoverathreeyearperiodcouldexceedapproximately$23billion,inaregion thatsupportsover400,000travelindustryjobsgenerating$34billioninrevenueannually.[213][214]

Offshoredrillingpolicies
Mainarticles:UnitedStatesoffshoredrillingdebateand2010UnitedStatesdeepwaterdrilling moratorium Seealso:HornbeckOffshoreServicesLLCv.Salazar

On30April2010PresidentBarackObamaorderedthefederalgovernmenttoholdtheissuingofnew offshoredrillingleasesandauthorizedinvestigationof29oilrigsintheGulfinanefforttodeterminethe causeofthedisaster.[215][216]Laterasixmonthoffshoredrilling(below500feet(150m)ofwater) moratoriumwasenforcedbytheUnitedStatesDepartmentoftheInterior.[217]Themoratoriumsuspended workon33rigs.[217]On22June,aUnitedStatesfederaljudgeontheUnitedStatesDistrictCourtforthe EasternDistrictofLouisianaMartinLeachCrossFeldmanwhenrulinginthecaseHornbeckOffshore ServicesLLCv.Salazar,liftedthemoratoriumfindingittoobroad,arbitraryandnotadequatelyjustified.[217] ThebanwasliftedinOctober2010. On28April2010,theNationalEnergyBoardofCanada,whichregulatesoffshoredrillingintheCanadian ArcticandalongtheBritishColumbiaCoast,issuedalettertooilcompaniesaskingthemtoexplaintheir argumentagainstsafetyruleswhichrequiresameseasonreliefwells.[218]On3MayCaliforniaGovernor ArnoldSchwarzeneggerwithdrewhissupportforaproposedplantoallowexpandedoffshoredrilling projectsinCalifornia.[219][220]On8July,FloridaGovernorCharlieCristcalledforaspecialsessionofthe statelegislaturetodraftanamendmenttothestateconstitutionbanningoffshoredrillinginstatewaters,which thelegislaturerejectedon20July.[221][222]

Reactions
Mainarticle:ReactionstotheDeepwaterHorizonoilspill

USreactions
On30AprilPresidentObamadispatchedtheSecretariesoftheDepartmentofInteriorandHomeland Security,aswellastheEPAAdministratorandNOAAtotheGulfCoasttoassessthedisaster.[223]Inhis15 JunespeechObamasaid,"ThisoilspillistheworstenvironmentaldisasterAmericahaseverfaced...Makeno mistake:wewillfightthisspillwitheverythingwe'vegotforaslongasittakes.WewillmakeBPpayforthe damagetheircompanyhascaused.Andwewilldowhatever'snecessarytohelptheGulfCoastanditspeople recoverfromthistragedy."[224]InteriorSecretaryKenSalazarstated,"Ourjobbasicallyistokeeptheboot ontheneckofBritishPetroleum."[225]SomeobserverssuggestedthattheObamaadministrationwasbeing overlyaggressiveinitscriticisms,whichsomeBPinvestorssawasanattempttodeflectcriticismofhisown handlingofthecrisis.[226]RandPaulaccusedPresidentObamaofbeingantibusinessand"un American".[225] PublicopinionpollsintheU.S.weregenerallycriticalofthewaythePresidentObamaandthefederal governmenthandledthedisasterandtheywereextremelycriticalofBPsresponse.AcrosstheUS,thousands participatedindozensofprotestsatBPgasstationsandotherlocations,[227][228][229]reducingsalesatsome stationsby10%to40%.[230] Industryclaimedthatdisastersareinfrequentandthatthisspillwasanisolatedincidentandrejectedclaimsof alossofindustrycredibility.[231]TheAmericanPetroleumInstitute(API)statedthattheoffshoredrilling industryisimportanttojobcreationandeconomicgrowth.[231][232]CEOsfromthetopfiveoilcompaniesall agreedtoworkharderatimprovingsafety.APIannouncedthecreationofanoffshoresafetyinstitute,separate fromAPI'slobbyingoperation.[233]

TheOrganizationforInternationalInvestment,aWashingtonbasedadvocateforoverseasinvestmentinthe UnitedStates,warnedthattheheatedrhetoricwaspotentiallydamagingthereputationofBritishcompanies withoperationsintheUnitedStatesandcouldsparkawaveofU.S.protectionismthatwouldrestrictBritish firmsfromgovernmentcontracts,politicaldonationsandlobbying.[234][235]

UKreactions
IntheUK,therewasangerattheAmericanpressandnewsoutletsforthemisuseoftheterm"British Petroleum"forthecompanyanamewhichhasnotbeenusedsinceBritishPetroleummergedwiththe Americancompany,Amoco,in1998toformBP.ItwassaidthattheU.S.was'dumping'theblameontothe BritishpeopleandtherewerecallsforBritishPrimeMinisterDavidCamerontoprotectBritishinterestsin America.Britishpensionfundmanagers(whohavelargeholdingsofBPsharesandrelyuponitsdividends) acceptedthatwhileBPhadpaycompensationforthespillandtheenvironmentaldamage,theyarguedthat thecosttothecompany'smarketvaluefromthePresidentObama'scriticismwasfaroutweighingthedirect cleanupcosts.[226] InitiallyBPdownplayedtheincidentitsCEOTonyHaywardcalledtheamountofoilanddispersant "relativelytiny"incomparisonwiththe"verybigocean."[236]Later,hedrewanoutpouringofcriticismwhen hesaidthatthespillwasadisruptiontoGulfCoastresidentsandhimselfadding,"Youknow,I'dlikemylife back."[237]BP'schiefoperatingofficerDougSuttlescontradictedtheunderwaterplumediscussionnoting,"It maybedowntohowyoudefinewhataplumeishereTheoilthathasbeenfoundisinveryminute quantities."[238]InJune,BPlaunchedaPRcampaignandsuccessfullybidforseveralsearchtermsrelatedto thespillonGoogleandothersearchenginessothatthefirstsponsoredsearchresultlinkeddirectlytothe company'swebsite.[239][240]On26July2010,itwasannouncedthatCEOTonyHaywardwastoquitand wouldbereplacedbyBobDudley,whoisanAmericancitizenandpreviouslyworkedforAmoco.[241][242]

Internationalreactions
TheU.S.StateDepartmentlisted70assistanceoffersfrom23countries,allbeinginitiallydeclinedbutlater8 hadbeenaccepted.[243][244]TheUSCGactivelyrequestedskimmingboatsandequipmentfromseveral countries.[245]

Legalaspectsandsettlements
Investigations
Mainarticle:DeepwaterHorizoninvestigation IntheUnitedStatestheDeepwaterHorizoninvestigationincludedseveralinvestigationsandcommissions, amongothersreportsbyNationalIncidentCommanderThadAllen,USCG,NationalCommissionontheBP DeepwaterHorizonOilSpillandOffshoreDrilling,BureauofOceanEnergyManagement,Regulationand Enforcement(BOEMRE),NationalAcademyofEngineering,NationalResearchCouncil,Government AccountabilityOffice,NationalOilSpillCommission,andChemicalSafetyandHazardInvestigation Board.[50]TheRepublicoftheMarshallIslandsMaritimeAdministratorconductedaseparateinvestigationon themarinecasualty.[2]BPconducteditsinternalinvestigation.

Aninvestigationofthepossiblecausesoftheexplosionwaslaunchedon22April2010bytheUSCGandthe MineralsManagementService.[27]On11MaytheUnitedStatesadministrationrequestedtheNational AcademyofEngineeringconductanindependenttechnicalinvestigation.[246]TheNationalCommissionon theBPDeepwaterHorizonOilSpillandOffshoreDrillingwasestablishedon22Mayto"considertheroot causesofthedisasterandofferoptionsonsafetyandenvironmentalprecautions."[247]Theinvestigationby UnitedStatesAttorneyGeneralEricHolderwasannouncedon1June2010.[248]AlsotheUnitedStates HouseCommitteeonEnergyandCommerceconductedanumberofhearings,includinghearingsofTony HaywardandheadsofAnadarkoandMitsui'sexplorationunit.[68][249]AccordingtotheUSCongressional investigation,therig'sblowoutpreventer,builtbyCameronInternationalCorporation,hadahydraulicleak andafailedbattery,andthereforefailed.[250] On8September2010,BPreleaseda193pagereportonitswebsite.Thereportplacessomeoftheblamefor theaccidentonBPbutalsoonHalliburtonandTransocean.[251]Thereportfoundthaton20April2010, managersmisreadpressuredataandgavetheirapprovalforrigworkerstoreplacedrillingfluidinthewell withseawater,whichwasnotheavyenoughtopreventgasthathadbeenleakingintothewellfromfiringup thepipetotherig,causingtheexplosion.TheconclusionwasthatBPwaspartlytoblame,aswas Transocean,whichownedtherig.[252]Respondingtothereport,TransoceanandHalliburonplacedallblame onBP.[253] On9November2010,areportbytheOilSpillCommissionsaidthattherehadbeen"arushtocompletion" onthewellandcriticisedpoormanagementdecisions."Therewasnotacultureofsafetyonthatrig,"theco chairsaid.[254] TheNationalCommissionontheBPDeepwaterHorizonOilSpillandOffshoreDrillingreleasedafinal reporton5January2011.[255][256]ThepanelfoundthatBP,Halliburton,andTransoceanhadattemptedto workmorecheaplyandthushelpedtotriggertheexplosionandensuingleakage.[257]Thereportstatedthat "whetherpurposefulornot,manyofthedecisionsthatBP,Halliburton,andTransoceanmadethatincreased theriskoftheMacondoblowoutclearlysavedthosecompaniessignificanttime(andmoney)."[257]BP releasedastatementinresponsetothis,saying,that"evenpriortotheconclusionofthecommission's investigation,BPinstitutedsignificantchangesdesignedtofurtherstrengthensafetyandrisk management."[258]Transocean,however,blamedBPformakingthedecisionsbeforetheactualexplosion occurredandgovernmentofficialsforpermittingthosedecisions.[259]Halliburtonstatedthatitwasacting onlyupontheordersofBPwhenitinjectedthecementintothewallofthewell.[258][260]ItcriticizedBPfor itsfailuretorunacementbondlogtest.[259]Inthereport,BPwasaccusedofninefaults.[258][260]Onewas thatithadnotusedadiagnostictooltotestthestrengthofthecement.[257]Anotherwasignoringapressure testthathadfailed.[258]Stillanotherwasfornotpluggingthepipewithcement.[257]Thestudydidnot, however,placetheblameonanyoneoftheseevents.Rather,itconcludedthat"notwithstandingthese inherentrisks,theaccidentofApril20wasavoidable"andthat"itresultedfromclearmistakesmadeinthe firstinstancebyBP,HalliburtonandTransocean,andbygovernmentofficialswho,relyingtoomuchon industry'sassertionsofthesafetyoftheiroperations,failedtocreateandapplyaprogramofregulatory oversightthatwouldhaveproperlyminimizedtheriskofdeepwaterdrilling."[258][260]Thepanelalsonoted thatthegovernmentregulatorsdidnothavesufficientknowledgeorauthoritytonoticethesecostcutting decisions.[257]

On23March2011,BOEMRE(formerMMS)andtheUSCGpublishedtheforensicexaminationreporton blowoutpreventer,preparedbyDetNorskeVeritas.[261]Thereportconcludedthattheprimarycauseof failurewasthattheblindshearramsfailedtofullycloseandsealduetoaportionofdrillpipetrappedbetween theshearingblocks. TheUSgovernmentreportissuedinSeptember2011statedthatBPisultimatelyresponsibilityforthespill, andthatHalliburtonandTransoceansharesomeoftheblame.[16][262]Thereportstatesthatthemaincause wasthedefectivecementjob,andHalliburton,BPandTransoceanwere,indifferentways,responsiblefor theaccident.[16]Thereportstatedthat,althoughtheeventsleadingtothesinkingofDeepwaterHorizonwere setintomotionbythefailuretopreventawellblowout,theinvestigationrevealednumeroussystems deficiencies,andactsandomissionsbyTransoceananditsDeepwaterHorizoncrew,thathadanadverse impactontheabilitytopreventorlimitthemagnitudeofthedisaster.Thereportalsostatesthatacentralcause oftheblowoutwasfailureofacementbarrierallowinghydrocarbonstoflowupthewellbore,throughthe riserandontotherig,resultingintheblowout.ThelossoflifeandthesubsequentpollutionoftheGulfof Mexicoweretheresultofpoorriskmanagement,lastminutechangestoplans,failuretoobserveandrespond tocriticalindicators,inadequatewellcontrolresponse,andinsufficientemergencybridgeresponsetrainingby companiesandindividualsresponsiblefordrillingattheMacondowellandfortheoperationofthedrilling platform.[16]

Spillresponsefund
Mainarticle:GulfCoastClaimsFacility Seealso:KennethFeinberg On16June2010,afterBPexecutivesmetwithPresidentObama,BPannouncedandestablishedtheGulf CoastClaimsFacility(GCCF),a$20billionfundtosettleclaimsarisingfromtheDeepwaterHorizon casualty.[68][263]Thefundwastobeusedfornaturalresourcedamages,stateandlocalresponsecosts,and individualcompensation,butcouldnotbeusedforfinesorpenalties.[68]PriortoestablishingtheGCCF, emergencycompensationwaspaidbyBPfromaninitialfacility.[264] TheGCCFwasadministratedbyattorneyKennethFeinberg.Thefacilitybeganacceptingclaimson23 August2010.[263]On8March2012,afterBPandateamofplaintiffs'attorneysagreedtoaclassaction settlement,acourtsupervisedadministratorPatrickJuneautookoveradministration.[265][266]Untilthismore thanonemillionclaimsof220,000individualandbusinessclaimantswereprocessedandmorethan$6.2 billionwaspaidoutfromthefund.97%ofpaymentsweremadetoclaimantsintheGulfStates.[264]InJune 2012,thesettlementofclaimsthroughtheGCCFwasreplacedbythecourtsupervisedsettlementprogram. Duringthistransitionperiodadditional$404millioninclaimswerepaid.[267] TheGCCFanditsadministratorFeinberghadbeencriticizedabouttheamountandspeedofpaymentsas wellasalackoftransparency.[268]AnindependentauditoftheGCCF,announcedbyAttorneyGeneralEric Holder,wasapprovedbySenateon21October2011.[269]AnauditorBDOConsultingfoundthat7,300 claimantswerewronglydeniedorunderpaid.Asaresultabout$64millionofadditionalpaymentswas made.[265]

Civillitigationandsettlements

Mainarticle:DeepwaterHorizonlitigation Seealso:HornbeckOffshoreServicesLLCv.Salazar By26May2010,over130lawsuitsrelatingtothespillhadbeenfiled[270]againstoneormoreofBP, Transocean,CameronInternationalCorporation,andHalliburtonEnergyServices,[271]althoughitwas consideredlikelybyobserversthatthesewouldbecombinedintoonecourtasamultidistrictlitigation.[271] On21April2011,BPissued$40bnworthoflawsuitsagainstrigownerTransocean,cementerHalliburton andblowoutpreventermanufacturerCameron.Theoilfirmallegedfailedsafetysystemsandirresponsible behaviourofcontractorshadledtotheexplosion,includingclaimsthatHalliburtonfailedtoproperlyuse modellingsoftwaretoanalyzesafedrillingconditions.[272]Thefirmsdenytheallegations. On2March2012,BPandplaintiffsagreedtosettletheirlawsuits.Thedealwouldsettleroughly100,000 claimsfilledbyindividualsandbusinessesaffectedbythespill.[205][273]On13August,BPaskedUSDistrict JudgeCarlBarbiertoapprovethesettlement,sayingitsactions"didnotconstitutegrossnegligenceorwillful misconduct".[274]On13January2013,JudgeBarbierapprovedamedicalbenefitsportionofBP'sproposed $7.8billionpartialsettlement.Peoplelivingforatleast60daysalongoilimpactedshoresorinvolvedinthe cleanupwhocandocumentoneormorespecifichealthconditionscausedbytheoilordispersantsare eligibleforbenefits,asarethoseinjuredduringcleanup.[275]BPalsoagreedtospend$105millionoverfive yearstosetupaGulfCoasthealthoutreachprogramandpayformedicalexaminations.[38]Accordingtoa grouppresentingtheplaintiffs,thedealhasnospecificcap.[276]BPsaysthatithas$9.5billioninassetsset asideinatrusttopaytheclaims,andthesettlementwillnotincreasethe$37.2billionthecompanybudgeted forspillrelatedexpenses.[205] On14November2012,BPandtheUSDepartmentofJusticereachedasettlement.BPwillpay$4.5billion infinesandotherpayments,thelargestofitskindinUShistory.Inaddition,theU.S.governmenttemporary bannedBPfromnewfederalcontractsoverits"lackofbusinessintegrity".[277][278]Thepleawasaccepted byJudgeSarahVanceoftheUnitedStatesDistrictCourtfortheEasternDistrictofLouisianaon31January 2013.[279]Thesettlementincludespaymentsof$2.394billiontotheNationalFishandWildlifeFoundation, $1.15billiontotheOilSpillLiabilityTrustFund,$350milliontotheNationalAcademyofSciencesforoil spillpreventionandresponseresearch,$100milliontotheNorthAmericaWetlandConservationFund, $6milliontoGeneralTreasuryand$525milliontotheSecuritiesandExchangeCommission.[19][50] On3January2013theUSJusticeDepartmentannounced"TransoceanDeepwaterInc.hasagreedtoplead guiltytoviolatingtheCleanWaterActandtopayatotalof$1.4billionincivilandcriminalfinesand penalties".[280]$800millionisgoestoGulfCoastrestorationTrustFund,$300milliontotheOilSpill LiabilityTrustFund,$150milliontotheNationalWildTurkeyFederationand$150milliontotheNational AcademyofSciences.MOEXOffshore2007agreedtopay$45milliontotheOilSpillLiabilityTrustFund, $25milliontofiveGulfstateand$20milliontosupplementalenvironmentalprojects.[50] ThetrialconcerningpayoutsandfinesundertheCleanWaterActandtheNaturalResourcesDamage Assessmentandpayoutstoimpactedstatesstartedon25February2013intheUnitedStatesDistrictCourtfor theEasternDistrictofLouisianainNewOrleans.Thetrial'sfirstphaseistodeterminetheliabilityofBP, Transocean,Halliburton,andothercompanies,andiftheyactedwithgrossnegligenceandwillful misconduct.[281][282]ThesecondphasescheduledinSeptember2013willfocusontheflowrateoftheoil andthethirdphasescheduledin2014willconsiderdamages.[283]Accordingtotheplaintiffs'lawyersthe

majorcauseofanexplosionwasthemishandlingofarigsafetytest,whileinadequatetrainingofthestaff, poormaintenanceoftheequipmentandsubstandardcementwerealsomentionedasthingsleadingtothe disaster.[282][283]AccordingtoTheWallStreetJournaltheU.S.governmentandGulfCoaststateshave preparedanoffertoBPfor$16billionsettlement.However,itisnotclearifthisdealhasbeenofficially proposedtoBPandifBPhasacceptedit.[284]

Criminalcharges
Mainarticle:DeepwaterHorizonlitigation Inadditiontotheprivatelawsuitsandcivilgovernmentalactions,thefederalgovernmentchargednumerous personsandentitiesinvolvedwithfederalcrimes. TheJusticeDepartmentfiledthefirstcriminalchargeagainstKurtMix,aBPengineerinApril2012,for obstructingjusticebydeletingmessagesshowingthatBPknewtheflowratewasthreetimeshigherthan initialclaimsbythecompany,andknewthat"TopKill"wasunlikelytosucceed,butclaimed otherwise.[285][286][287]ThreemoreBPemployeeswerechargedinNovember2012:[288]DonaldVidrine andRobertKaluza,twositemanagerswerechargedwithmanslaughterforactingnegligentlyintheir supervisionofkeysafetytestsperformedontherigpriortotheexplosionandfailuretoalertonshore engineersofproblemsinthedrillingoperation,[288]andDavidRainey,BP'sformervicepresidentfor explorationintheGulfofMexico,waschargedwithobstructingCongress.[289]Twoemployeesarecharged withobstructionofjusticeandforlyingtofederalinvestigators.[285]AttorneyGeneralEricHoldersaidthat thecriminalinvestigationisnotyetoverandthatmorecompanyofficialscouldbecharged.[19][288] IntheNovember2012resolutionofthefederalchargesagainstit,BPalsoagreedtopleadguiltyto11felony countsrelatedtothedeathsofthe11workersandpaida$4Bfine.[19] Thesettlementresultinginthe$1.4billionTransoceanfinealsoincludedTransocean'spleadingguiltytoa misdemeanorcharge.

EnvironmentalJustice
TheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)isguidedbyExecutiveOrder12,898tomakeenvironmental justicepartofitsmission.[290]Environmentaljusticeisdescribedinpartasadisproportionateburdenthatis placedonlowincomecommunitiesandcommunitiesofcolor.ThepurposeofthisExecutiveOrderisto ensurethatallindividualsshouldbetreatedfairly,withnogreaterharmorriskforanyparticulargroup.The BPDeepwaterHorizonOilSpillledtosomeissuesofunfairnessandviolationofenvironmentaljustice. Therewereworkerswhosetrainingwasquestionedasbeingadequate,aswellas,disproportionaldumpingof excessiveoilwaste.Theamountofwaste,andthemethodofitsdisposalinthegulf,createdasituationthat violatedenvironmentaljustice.Oilysolidwasteconsistingofoilsoakedcontainmentbooms,debrisandsoils, tarballsandpattiesarenotconsideredhazardouswasteduetoanexemptionthatexistsforoilandgas.Itis identifiedasExplorationandProductionWasteandcanbedisposedofinmunicipallandfills.[290]Mostofthe 96,000tonsofwastecollectedovera6monthperiodwasdisposedofinmunicipallandfillsintheGulf.There weretwolandfillsinparticularthatreceivedalmosthalfofallthiswaste.TheSpringhillLandfillin Campelton,Floridareceived24,247.4tonsand76%oftheresidentsthatlivedwithinaonemileradiusare peopleofcolor.TheAlliedWasteColonialLandfillinSorrento,Louisianareceived22,704.8tonsand34.7%

oftheresidentsthatlivedwithinaonemileradiusarepeopleofcolor.[291]Thisisadisproportionateamount ofdumpinginareaswheretheresidentsarepeopleofcolor.Furthermore,thisisaverylargeamountofwaste thatisnotconsideredhazardouswastebecauseoftheE&Pexemption.Thefuturehealtheffectsintheseareas areofconcern. Thecleanupworkersincludedindividualswhowerepreviouslyunemployed,homeless,possiblyprisoners. Thesepopulationsareoftenundereducated.[290]Furthermore,immigrantworkersareoftencompromisedby languagebarrierissues.Thiscreatesagreaterpotentialforadecreasedabilitytounderstandworkplacesafety measures.Thereissomequestioningwithregardstocomplianceoftrainingforheatstressanduseofpersonal protectiveequipment.Thereisalsoalackofdefinitiveinformationastohowmanyworkershadmedical screeningtocheckforpreexistinghealthconditions.[292]Nomandatedregulationexiststohaveworkers demonstrateskillsaftertraining,whichwouldensureunderstandingofsafetyrequirements.[290]Worker populationsthatincludeundereducatedandimmigrantpopulationswithlanguagebarriersareaparticularly vulnerablepopulation.Knowingaboutpreexistinghealthconditionsisimportantforthewellbeingand futurehealthoftheseworkersaswell.Riskofunfairnessissuesareraisedunderthesecircumstances. TheEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyhasinitiatednineprojectgrantstoaddresssomeoftheenvironmental justiceissuesintheGulfRegion.Theintentofthesecooperativeagreementsistoprovidesupportforthe communitiesofAlabama,Florida,Louisiana,Mississippi,andTexas,followingtheBPDeepwaterHorizon OilSpill.Thegrantssupportthefollowingninenonprofitcommunitybasedprojects:AlabamaCoastal Foundation,BayouLandResourceConservation&DevelopmentCouncil,CitizensAgainstToxicExposure (CATE),TheDeepSouthCenterforEnvironmentalJusticeInc.,FaithAnswers,JapaneseAmericanCitizens League,LouisianaBucketBrigade(LBB),MaryQueenofVietnamCommunityDevelopmentCorporation (MQVN),andTeachingResponsibleEarthEducation.Thesegroupsprovideworkshopsanddevelopeasyto readeducationalmaterials.AnexampleofthisistheCitizensGuidetoUnderstandingSamplingand MonitoringDataAftertheDeepwaterHorizonOilSpillwhichpurposeistoteachaboutthequalityofair andwaterandhowtobesureseafoodissafetoeat.Otherfocusareasofthegrantprojectsinclude:education ofhealthimpactsandhealthprotection,demystifyingscientificdataandongoingresearch,oilcleanupsafety training,learningtotracktheamountofwastedisposal,learningmethodsofsamplingtobeabletomonitor theenvironmentandmakeinformeddecisionsregardingfishingandwherechildrenplayandswim. Translatorsareusedwhenneededtoinsurecomprehension,suchasintheAsiancommunities.An Earthkeepersprogramisutilizedtoincreasestudentknowledgeabouttheenvironmentandhelptodecrease fearsandstresstheymayexhibitasaresultofhavingexperiencedtheoilspill.[293] Environmentaljusticeissuesintheaftermathofthisspillwillcontinuetobeaddressed.TheObama AdministrationhasenforcedExecutiveOrder12,898inanefforttomakeenvironmentaljusticeanintegral partofprotectinghumanhealthandtheenvironment.[290]

Seealso
Listofindustrialdisasters Listofoilspills OffshoreoilandgasintheUSGulfofMexico TimelineoftheDeepwaterHorizonoilspill

References

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Externallinks
OilSpillCommission(http://www.oilspillcommission.gov/)FinalreporttothePresident DeepwaterBPOilSpill(http://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/energyandenvironment/deepwaterbpoil spill)atWhitehouse.gov DeepwaterHorizonIncident,GulfofMexico(http://deepwaterhorizon.noaa.gov/)fromtheNational OceanicandAtmosphericAdministration(NOAA) DeepwaterHorizonJointInvestigation(http://www.deepwaterinvestigation.com/)bytheU.S.Coast GuardandMineralManagementService RestoreTheGulf.gov(http://www.restorethegulf.gov/)officialU.S.GovernmentWebsite,takingover contentandfunctionsfromDeepwaterHorizonResponsesite BPReportonAccident,8September2010,14Mbpdfdownload (http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/incident_response/STAGIN G/local_assets/downloads_pdfs/Deepwater_Horizon_Accident_Investigation_Report.pdf) BridgetheGulfProject(http://bridgethegulfproject.org/)StorytellinginitiativeledbyGulfCoast residents Smithsonian'sOceanPortal(http://ocean.si.edu/oceanandyou/gulfoilspill/) ScienceinaTimeofCrisis:WHOI'sresponsetotheDeepwaterHorizonOilSpill (http://www.whoi.edu/deepwaterhorizon/)amultimediapresentationfromWoodsHoleOceanographic Institution ApproachesforEcosystemServicesValuationfortheGulfofMexicoAftertheDeepwaterHorizonOil Spill:InterimReportbytheNationalAcademyofSciences(http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php? record_id=13141) ErikStokstad(20130208)."BPResearchDollarsYieldSignsofCautiousHope" (http://www.sciencemag.org/content/339/6120/636.summary?sid=afdc38fe36d84607b42e d0ee805ba72a).Sciencemag.org.Retrieved20130225. CDCOilSpillResponseResourcesNIOSHWorkplaceSafetyandHealthTopic (http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/oilspillresponse/)

Leadstateagencywebsites
FloridaDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtection(DEP)(http://www.dep.state.fl.us/deepwaterhorizon/) Emergency.Louisiana.gov(http://emergency.louisiana.gov/) MississippiDEQ (http://www.deq.state.ms.us/MDEQ.nsf/page/Main_OilSpillLinksandPublicInformation2010?

OpenDocument) StateofFloridaOilSpillAcademicTaskForce(http://oilspill.fsu.edu/)

Newsmedia
Fullcoverage(http://www.cspanarchives.org/videoLibrary/blog/?p=485)onCSPANvideolibrary Fullcoverage(http://www.democracynow.org/topics/bp_oil_spill)onDemocracyNow Fullcoverage(http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/spotlight/bpoilspill/)onAlJazeeraEnglish Fullcoverage(http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2010/gulf.coast.oil.spill/)onCNN Fullcoverage(http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/bpoilspill)onTheGuardian Fullcoverage(http://www.latimes.com/topic/environmentalissues/environmentalpollution/water pollution/gulfofmexicooilspill%282010%29EVHST0000243.topic)fromtheLosAngelesTimes Fullcoverage(http://www.webcitation.org/5rMyaj3tf)fromTheMiamiHerald Fullcoverage(http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/o/oil_spills/index.html)from TheNewYorkTimes Fullcoverage(http://www.nola.com/news/gulfoilspill/)fromTheTimesPicayune(NewOrleans) Fullcoverage(http://www.al.com/news/gulfoilspill/)fromthePressRegister(Mobile,Alabama) Fullcoverage(http://topics.wsj.com/subject/D/deepwaterhorizonoilspill/6051)fromTheWallStreet Journal Fullcoverage(http://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/Issues/Environment/BP_Oil_Spill_topic.html) collectednewsandcommentaryatTheWashingtonPost Fullcoverage(http://www.grittv.org/?s=BP+)fromGRITtv Fullcoverage(http://topics.gannett.com/oil+spill/?template=newspress)fromTheNewsPress(Ft. Myers,FL)

Interactivemaps
MappingtheResponsetoBPOilSpillintheGulfofMexico (http://www.geoplatform.gov/gulfresponse/)(GeoPlatform.gov) GulfOilSpillTracker(http://oilspill.skytruth.org/)interactivemapandformforcitizenreporting (SkyTruth.org) MapandEstimatesoftheOilSpilled(http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2010/05/01/us/20100501 oilspilltracker.html)(TheNewYorkTimes) WhereOilHasMadeLandfall(http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2010/05/27/us/20100527oil landfall.html)(TheNewYorkTimes)

Images
GulfOilSpill2010ProjectedTrajectory(http://gohsep.la.gov/oilspill.aspx)fromLouisianaEarth RigfireatDeepwaterHorizon21April,'10(http://www.ireport.com/docs/DOC435316?hpt=C2) videoatCNNiReport GOES13satelliteimages(http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/goes/blog/archives/5240)ontheCIMSSSatellite Blog

Animationsandgraphics
BBCNewsinteractiveanimationtothedisasterandblockingefforts (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10317116) NewYorkTimes(http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2010/05/25/us/20100525topkilldiagram.html) explodedviewdiagramsonthemethodsusedtostoptheoilspill Graphic:Wheretheoilandgaswent(http://www.heraldtribune.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article? AID=/20120109/GRAPHICS02/120109575&template=graphics&tc=ar) Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deepwater_Horizon_oil_spill&oldid=549530248" Categories: DeepwaterHorizonoilspill Thispagewaslastmodifiedon9April2013at17:54. TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmay apply.Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy. WikipediaisaregisteredtrademarkoftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.