Phys 507 HW 1

Cody Messick 11 April, 2013

Exercises
Using the group theory axioms, show that the inverse of each element is unique. Due to the inverse axiom, we know that a1 a = e b1 b = e This implies that a1 a = b1 b We know that a = b, thus a1 = b1 , which implies that the inverse of each element is unique. Show that any group whose order n is prime has the same structure as the cyclic group of order n. The cyclic group of order n is the dened as G {e, a, a1 , a2 , , an }, whereas a group of order n can be written as H = {e, a1 , a2 , , an }. Ill write out a multiplication table for H, but Ill use a1 a, a2 b, an z . e a1 a2 . . . an e e a1 a2 . . . an a1 a1 a2 a2 an an a1 a1 = a1 because there is already an occurrence of a1 in the row If a1 a1 = e, then a1 = (a1 )
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Problems
1. Which of the following describe groups, and which do not? Of the ones that do describes groups, which are Abelian? Justify your answers.

(a) Table 1 above; Table 1 describes an Abelian group. Closure is met, as can be seen by analysis of the table. The table is symmetric, which means that all of the elements commute under the groups operation. The fact that the elements commute implies that they associativity axiom is also met. There is an identity (e). And nally, a1 = c, b1 = d, c1 = a, and d1 = b, thus there exists an inverse for every element. 1

(b) Table 2 above; Table 2 does not describe a group. (a b) c = c c = b, a (b c) = a e = a, (a b) c = a (b c). Associativity is not met.

(c) The four matrices {0 , 1 , 2 , 3 }, under matrix multiplication. 0 is the 2 2 unit matrix, and 1,2,3 are the Pauli matrices. 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 i i 0 1 0 0 1

0 =

1 =

2 =

3 =

These four matrices are not a group. 1 2 = i3 , thus closure is not satised.

(d) The rational numbers under division; Rational numbers under division are not a group. Closure is not satised when dividing by zero.

(e) Unitary 3x3 matrices U with the determinant of U being equal to 1, under matrix multiplication. The denition of a unitary matrix is that U = U 1 . To show closure, consider two unitary matrices A and B. Also keep in mind that matrices have the property that (AB )1 = B 1 A1 and (AB ) = B A . (AB ) = B A General property of matrices = B 1 A1 Denition of unitary matrices (AB ) = (AB )
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Thus any product of two unitary matrices will itself be a unitary matrix. It should also be noted that the product of two 3x3 matrices will obviously be a 3x3 matrix, by the rules of matrix multiplication. To show associativity, Ill expand out (AB)C and A(BC) using summation notation. ((AB )C )ij = (AB )ik Ckj = Ail Blk Ckj (A(BC ))i j = Ai k (BC )k j = Ai k B k l C l j If we relabel our indices, dropping the primes on i and j, and taking k l and l k , its clear that (AB )C = A(BC ) = ABC . Thus associativity is satised. 1 0 0 0 1 0 has a determinant of 1 and is a 3x3 matrix, thus it is part of this group and is by denition the 0 0 1 identity matrix. Thus the identity axiom is satised. Any matrix with a determinant that is not equal to zero has an inverse. Thus the collection of all 3x3 unitary matrices with an identity of 1 do indeed have inverses, thus the inverse axiom is satised. Thus this is a group. To check if its Abelian, Ill compute the commutator [A,B]. [A, B ]ij = (AB )ij (BA)ij = Aik Bkj Bik Akj From this it is clear that some matrices commute, but not the entire group. Thus the group is non-Abelian.

2. Consider the group G of transformations that leave a square invariant (called C4v ). It consists of 3 {e, C4 , C2 , C4 , x , y , d1 , d2 }, corresponding to the identity (e), clockwise rotations by /2, and 3/2 about the 3 center (C4 , C2 , C4 respectively); reections about the x and y axex (x , y ); and reections about the diagonal axes passing through the rst quadrant (i.e. the axis runs from upper left to lower right) and second quadrant (i.e. lower 2

left to upper right), called d1 and d2 respectively. (a) Construct the multiplication table for the group. See attached paper for drawings. 3 e C4 C2 C4 x y d1 d2 3 e e C4 C2 C4 x y d1 d2 3 C4 C2 C4 e d1 d2 y x C4 3 C2 C4 e C4 y x d2 d1 C2 3 3 C4 C4 e C4 C2 d2 d1 x y 3 x d2 y d1 e C2 C4 C4 x 3 y y d1 x d2 C2 e C4 C4 3 C4 C4 d1 d1 x d2 y e C2 3 d2 d2 y d1 x C4 C4 C2 e (b) Determine the conjugacy classes. First, the obvious one. (e) = {e} Now to calculate (C4 ).
1 x C 4 x =

x C4 x = eC4 e = C4
1 C4 C4 C4 = 3 x d1 = C4 1 3 x C4 x = C4 1 y C4 y =

C4 e = C4
1 C4 C4 C4

= C4

y C4 y =
3 y d2 = C4 1 3 y C4 y = C4

1 C2 C4 C2 =

C2 C4 C2 =
3 C2 C4 = C4 1 C2 C4 C2 = C4

1 d1 C4 d 1 =

d1 C4 d1 =
3 d1 y = C4 1 3 d1 C4 d 1 = C4 1 d2 C4 d 2 =

3 3 1 C4 C4 (C4 ) = 3 C4 C4 C4 = 3 C4 C2 = C4 3 3 1 3 C4 C4 (C4 ) = C4

d2 C4 d2 =
3 d2 x = C4 1 3 d2 C4 d 2 = C4

Thus,
3 (C4 ) = {C4 , C4 }

. Note that this also means

3 3 (C4 ) = {C4 , C4 }

Now to nd C2 .
1 x C2 x =

eC2 e = C2
1 C4 C2 C4 3 C4 C2 C4

x C2 x = x y = C2
1 x C2 x = C2 1 y C2 y =

= =

C4 C4 = C2
1 C4 C2 C4 = C2

y C 2 y = y x = C2
1 = C2 y C2 y

1 C2 C2 C2 =

C2 e = C2
1 C2 C2 C2 = C2 1 d1 C2 d 1 =

d1 C2 d1 =
3 3 1 C4 C2 (C4 ) 3 C4 C2 C4

= =

d1 d2 = C2
1 d1 C2 d 1 = C2

3 3 C4 C4 = C2 3 3 1 C4 C2 (C4 ) = C2 1 d2 C2 d 2 =

d2 C2 d2 = d2 d1 = C2
1 d2 C2 d 2 = C2

(C2 ) = {C2 } Now to nd (x ). ex e = x

1 C4 x C4 3 C4 x C4 1 x x x =

x e = x = =
1 y x y = 1 x x x = x

C4 d1 = y
1 C4 x C4 = y

y x y = y C2 = x
1 y x y = x

1 C2 x C2

C2 x C2 = C2 y = x
1 C2 x C2 = x 1 d1 x d 1 =

d1 x d1 =
3 d1 C4 = y 1 d1 x d 1 = y

3 3 1 C4 x (C4 ) = 3 C4 x C4 = 3 C4 d2 = y 3 3 1 C4 x (C4 ) = y

1 d2 x d 2 =

d2 x d2 = d2 C4 = y
1 d2 x d 2 = y

Thus, (x ) = (y ) = {x , y }

Now to nd (d1 ). ed1 e = d1

1 C4 d1 C4 = 3 C4 d1 C4 =

C4 y = d2
1 C4 d1 C4 = d1

1 C2 d1 C2 =

C2 d1 C2 = C2 d2 = d1
1 C2 d1 C2 = d1

The properties of conjugate elements tell us that when a b and b c, then a c. Thus we know that because no elements thus far have been conjugate to sigmad1 or d2 , that d1 can only be conjugate to itself and d2 . Thus I am done. (d1 ) = (d2 ) = {d1 , d2 }