Solubiliy: Affected by bonding, and usually a substance will only dissolve if the strength of the new bonds formed

d is the same, or greater than the strength of the bonds that are broken. Ionic compounds dissolve in polar substances such as water, because the ions are attracted to the polar molecules and they surround the ions and pull them away from the ionic lattice. This releases energy known as the hydration enthalpy. This can only happen if the hydration enthalpy is big enough to overcome the lattice enthalpy. (Hydration vs. Lattice) Alcohols are soluble in water, because they form hydrogen bonds with it. Non-polar molecules wont form hydrogen bonds with water, so dont dissolve in it. E.g. halogenoalkanes like chlorobutane. Generally like dissolves like

Example question: State and explain the solubility of hexane in water Hexane molecules are held together by London forces. Water molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds. Hexane cant make hydrogen bonds with water, so the two liquids do not mix or dissolve in each other immiscible.

Redox Oxidation number: the number of electrons that need to be lost or gained to become a neutral atom. Uncombined elements are 0 F is always -1, group 1 are +1, group 2 are +2, oxygen is -2 (except in peroxides H2O2 where its -1), H is +1 (except metal hydrides where its -1) Oxidation numbers in a neutral compound add up to zero, and in a polyatomic ion add up to the charge. Ionic half equations are used for redox processes when oxidation and reduction take place together in a reaction.

If species are reduced, electrons are on the LEFT If species are oxidised, electrons are on the RIGHT Half equations are then added together for the full redox equation E.g. : The overall equation for the oxidation of I - ions by MnO4- ions is obtained from the two half equations:

MnO4- + 8H+ + 5eAnd

Mn2+ + 4H2O

2I-

I2 + 2e-

For oxidising agents that contain OXYGEN, e.g. MnO 4- , you will need H+ on the LEFT and H2O on the RIGHT (oxygen cant swim) The MnO4- half equation has 5e- but the I- equation has 2e- , so to make them both have the same number of electrons (so they can cancel out when the equations are added together), the MnO 4- equation has to be multiplied by 2, and the I- equation multiplied by 5, so that they both have 10eThey are then added together to give:

2MnO4- + 16H+ + 10I

2Mn2+ + 8H2O + 5I2

Disproportionation: when one species is both oxidised AND reduced at the same time

e.g.:

Cl2 + H2O 0

HCl + HClO -1 +1