Selected Solutions to Complex Analysis by Lars Ahlfors

Matt Rosenzweig
1
Contents
Chapter 4 - Complex Integration 4
Cauchys Integral Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.2.2 Exercise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.2.3 Exercise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.2.3 Exercise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Local Properties of Analytical Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.3.2 Exercise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.3.2 Exercise 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Calculus of Residues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.5.2 Exercise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.5.3 Exercise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.5.3 Exercise 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Harmonic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.6.2 Exercise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.6.2 Exercise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.6.4 Exercise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.6.4 Exercise 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.6.4 Exercise 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.6.5 Exercise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.6.5 Exercise 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Chapter 5 - Series and Product Developments 14
Power Series Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.1.1 Exercise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.1.2 Exercise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.1.2 Exercise 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Partial Fractions and Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.2.1 Exercise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.2.1 Exercise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.2.2 Exercise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.2.3 Exercise 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.2.3 Exercise 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.2.4 Exercise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.2.4 Exercise 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.2.5 Exercise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.2.5 Exercise 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Entire Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.3.2 Exercise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.3.2 Exercise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.5.5 Exercise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Normal Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.5.5 Exercise 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.5.5 Exercise 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2
Conformal Mapping, Dirichlets Problem 27
The Riemann Mapping Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.1.1 Exercise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.1.1 Exercise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Elliptic Functions 28
Weierstrass Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7.3.2 Exercise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.3.3 Exercise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.3.3 Exercise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.3.3 Exercise 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.3.3 Exercise 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.3.3 Exercise 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.3.3 Exercise 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.3.5 Exercise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3
Chapter 4 - Complex Integration
Cauchys Integral Formula
4.2.2 Exercise 1
Applying the Cauchy integral formula to f(z) = e
z
,
1 = f(0) =
1
2i
_
|z|=1
f(z)
z
dz 2i =
_
|z|=1
e
z
z
dz
Section 4.2.2 Exercise 2
Using partial fractions, we may express the integrand as
1
z
2
+ 1
=
i
2(z +i)

i
2(z i)
Applying the Cauchy integral formula to the constant function f(z) = 1,
1
2i
_
|z|=2
1
z
2
+ 1
dz =
i
2
_
1
2i
__
|z|=2
1
z +i
dz
i
2
_
1
2i
__
|z|=2
1
z i
dz = 0
4.2.3 Exercise 1
1. Applying Cauchys dierentiation formula to f(z) = e
z
,
1 = f
(n1)
(0) =
(n 1)!
2i
_
|z|=1
e
z
z
n
dz
2i
(n 1)!
=
_
|z|=1
e
z
z
n
dz
2. We consider the following cases:
(a) If n 0, m 0, then it is obvious from the analyticity of z
n
(1 z)
m
and Cauchys theorem that
the integral is 0.
(b) If n 0, m < 0, then by the Cauchy dierentiation formula,
_
|z|=2
z
n
(1z)
m
dz = (1)
m
_
|z|=2
z
n
(z 1)
|m|
dz =
_
0 n < [m[ 1
(1)
m
2i
(|m|1)!
n!
(n|m|+1)!
= (1)
|m|
2i
_
n
|m|1
_
n [m[
(c) If n < 0, m 0, then by a completely analogous argument,
_
|z|=2
z
n
(1z)
m
dz =
_
|z|=2
(1 z)
m
z
|n|
dz =
_
0 m < [n[ 1
(1)
|n|1
2i
(|n|1)!
m!
(m|n|+1)!
= (1)
|n|1
2i
_
m
|n|1
_
m n
(d) If n < 0, m < 0, then sincen([z[ = 2, 0) = n([z[ = 2, 1) = 1, we have by the residue formula that
_
|z|=2
(1 z)
m
z
n
= 2ires(f; 0) + 2ires(f; 1) =
_
|z|=
1
2
(1 z)
m
z
n
dz +
_
|z1|=
1
2
(1 z)
m
z
n
dz
4
Using Cauchys dierentiation formula, we obtain
_
|z|=2
(1 z)
m
z
n
dz =
_
_
|z|=
1
2
(1 z)
|m|
z
|n|
dz +
_
|z1|=
1
2
z
|n|
(1 z)
|m|
dz
_
=
2i
([n[ 1)!

([m[ +[n[ 2)!
([m[ 1)!
+
(1)
|m|
2i
([m[ 1)!

(1)
|m|1
([n[ +[m[ 2)!
([n[ 1)!
= 2i
__
[m[ +[n[ 2
[n[ 1
_

_
[m[ +[n[ 2
[n[ 1
__
= 0
3. If = 0, then it is trivial that
_
|z|=
[z a[
4
[dz[ = 0, so assume otherwise. If a = 0, then
_
|z|=
[z[
4
[dz[ =
_
1
0

4
2idt =
2i

3
Now, assume that a ,= 0. Observe that
1
[z a[
4
=
1
(z a)
2
(z a)
2
_
|z|=
[z a[
4
[dz[ =
_
|z|=
1
(z a)
2
(z a)
2
[dz[ =
_
1
0
1
(e
2it
a)
2
(e
2it
a)
2

2ie
4it
ie
4it
dt
= i
_
1
0
2ie
4it
(e
2it
a)
2
( ae
2it
)
2
dt =
i

_
|z|=
z
(
a

z)
2
(z a)
2
dz =
i
a
2
_
|z|=
z
(z

2
a
)
2
(z a)
2
dz
We consider two cases. First, suppose [a[ > . Then z(z a)
2
is holomorphic on and inside [z[ =
and

2
a
lies inside [z[ = . By Cauchys dierentiation formula,
_
|z|=
[z a[
4
[dz[ = 2i
i
a
2
_
(z a)
2
2z(z a)
3

z=

2
a
=
2
a
2
(

2
a
a)
2
_
1 2

2
a(

2
a
a)
_
=
2(
2
+[a[
2
)
(
2
[a[
2
)
3
=
2(
2
+[a[
2
)
([a[
2

2
)
3
Now, suppose [a[ < . Then

2
a
lies outside [z[ = , so the function z(z

2
a
)
2
is holomorphic on and
inside [z[ = . By Cauchys dierentiation formula,
_
|z|=
[z a[
4
[dz[ = 2i
i
a
2
_
(z

2
a
)
2
2z(z

2
a
)
3
_
z=a
=
2
a
2
(a

2
a
)
2
_
1 2
a
(a

2
a
)
_
=
2
([a[
2

2
)
2
(a +

2
a
)
a

2
a
=
2([a[
2
+
2
)
([a[
2

2
)
3
=
2([a[
2
+
2
)
(
2
[a[
2
)
3
4.2.3 Exercise 2
Let f : C C be a holomorphic function satisfying the following condition: there exists R > 0 and n N
such that [f(z)[ < [z[
n
[z[ R. For every r R, we have by the Cauchy dierentiation formula that for
all m > n,

f
(m)
(a)

m!
2
_
|z|=r
[z[
n
[z[
m+1
[dz[
m!
r
mn
Noting that mn 1 and letting r , we have that f
(m)
(a) = 0. Since f is entire, for every a C, we
may write
f(z) = f(a) +f

(a)(z a) + +
f
(n)
(a)
n!
(z a)
n
+f
n+1
(z)(z a)
n+1
z C
where f
n+1
is entire. Since f
n+1
(a) = f
(n+1)
(a) = 0 and a C was arbitary, we have that f
n+1
0 on C.
Hence, f is a polynomial of degree at most n.
5
Local Properties of Analytical Functions
4.3.2 Exercise 2
Let f : C C be an entire function with a nonessential singularity at . Consider the function g(z) = f
_
1
z
_
at z = 0. Let n N be minimal such that lim
z0
z
n
g(z) = 0. Then the function z
n1
g(z) has an analytic
continuation h(z) dened on all of C. By Taylors theorem, we may express h(z) as
z
n1
g(z) = h(z) = h(0)
..
cn1
+
h

(0)
1!
. .
cn2
z +
h

(0)
2!
z
2
+ +
h
(n1)
(0)
(n 1)!
. .
c0
z
n1
+h
n
(z)z
n
z ,= 0
where h
n
: C C is holomorphic. Hence,
lim
z0
g(z)
_
c
n1
z
n1
+
c
n2
z
n2
+ +c
0
_
= lim
z0
zh
n
(z) = 0
And
lim
z
g(z)
_
c
n1
z
n1
+
c
n2
z
n2
+ +c
0
_
= lim
z0
f(z) = f(0)
since f is entire. Note that we also obtain that c
0
= f(0). Hence, g(z)
_
cn1
z
n1
+
cn2
z
n2
+ +c
0

(we
are abusing notation to denote the continuation to all of C) is a bounded entire function and is therefore
identically zero by Liouvilles theorem. Hence,
z ,= 0, f(z) = c
n1
z
n1
+c
n2
z
n2
+ +c
0
Since f(0) = c
0
, we obtain that f is a polynomial.
4.3.2 Exercise 4
Let f : C C be a meromorphic function in the extended complex plane. First, I claim that
f has nitely many poles. Since the poles of f are isolated points, they form an at most countable subset
p
k

k=1
of C. By denition, the function

f(z) = f
_
1
z
_
has either a removable singularity or a pole at z = 0.
In either case, there exists r > 0 such that

f is holomorphic on D

(0; r). Hence, p

k

k=1
D(0; r). Since
this set is bounded, p
k

k=1
has a limit point p. By continuity, f(p) = and therefore p is a pole. Since p
is an isolated point, there must exist N N such that k N, p
k
= p.
Our reasoning in the preceding Exercise 2 shows that for any pole p
k
,= of order m
k
, we can write in a
neighborhood of p
k
f(z) =
_
c
m
k
(z p
k
)
m
k
+
c
m
k
1
(z p
k
)
m
k
1
+ +
c
1
z p
k
+c
0
_
. .
f
k
(z)
+g
k
(z)
where g
k
is holomorphic in a neighborhood of p
k
. If p = is a pole, then analogously,

f(z) =
_
c
m
z
m
+
c
m1
z
m1
+ +
c
1
z
+c
0
_
. .

f(z)
+ g

(z)
where g

is holomorphic in a neighborhood of 0. For clarication, the coecients c

n
depend on the pole,
but we omit the dependence for convenience. Set f

(z) =

f

_
1
z
_
and
h(z) = f(z) f

(z)
n

k=1
f
k
(z)
I claim that h is (or rather, extends to) an entire, bounded function. Indeed, in a neighborhood of each z
k
,
h can be written as h(z) = g
k
(z)

i=k
f
k
(z) and in a neighborhood of z

as h(z) = g

(z)

n
k=1
f
k
(z),
which are sums of holomorphic functions.

h(z) = h
_
1
z
_
is evidently bounded in a neighborhood of 0 since
the f
k
_
1
z
_
are polynomials and f
_
1
z
_
f

_
1
z
_
= g

(z), which is holomorphic in a neighborhood of 0. By

Liouvilles theorem, h is a constant. It is immediate from the denition of h that f is a rational function.
6
Calculus of Residues
4.5.2 Exercise 1
Set f(z) = 6z
3
and g(z) = z
7
2z
5
z + 1. Clearly, f, g are entire, [f(z)[ > [g(z)[ [z[ = 1, and
f(z) + g(z) = z
7
2z
5
+ 6z
3
z + 1. By Rouches theorem, f and f + g have the same number of zeros,
which is 3 (counted with order), in the disk [z[ < 1.
Section 4.5.2 Exercise 2
Set f(z) = z
4
and g(z) = 6z + 3. Clearly, f, g are entire, [f(z)[ > [g(z)[ [z[ = 2. By Rouches theorem,
z
4
6z+3 has 4 roots (counted with order) in the open disk [z[ < 2. Now set f(z) = 6z and g(z) = z
4
+3.
Clearly, [f(z)[ > [g(z)[ [z[ = 1. By Rouches theorem, z
4
6z + 3 = 0 has 1 root in the in the open disk
[z[ < 1. Observe that if z 1 [z[ < 2 is root, then by the reverse triangle inequality,
3 = [z[

z
3
6

[z[

[z[
3
6

So [z[ (1, 2). Hence, the equation z

4
6z + 3 = 0 has 3 roots (counted with order) with modulus strictly
between 1 and 2.
4.5.3 Exercise 1
1. Set f(z) =
1
z
2
+5z+6
=
1
(z+3)(z+2)
. Then f has poles z
1
= 2, z
2
= 3 and by Cauchy integral formula,
res(f; z
1
) =
1
2i
_
|z+2|=
1
2
(z + 3)
1
(z + 2)
dz =
1
z + 3
[
z=2
= 1
res(f; z
2
) =
1
2i
_
|z+3|=
1
2
(z + 2)
1
(z + 3)
dz =
1
z + 2
[
z=3
1
2. Set f(z) =
1
(z
2
1)
2
=
1
(z1)
2
(z+1)
2
. Then f has poles z
1
= 1, z
2
= 1. Applying Cauchys dierentia-
tion formula, we obtain
res(f; z
1
) =
1
2i
_
|z+1|=1
(z 1)
2
(z + 1)
2
dz = 2(z 1)
3
[
z=1
=
1
4
res(f; z
2
) =
1
2i
_
|z1|=1
(z + 1)
2
(z 1)
2
dz = 2(z + 1)
3
[
z=1
=
1
4
3. sin(z) has zeros at k, k Z, hence sin(z)
1
has poles at z
k
= k. We can write sin(z) = (z
z
k
) [cos(z
k
) +g
k
(z)], where g
k
is holomorphic and g
k
(z
k
) = 0. By the Cauchy integral formula,
res(f; z
k
) =
1
2i
_
|zz
k
|=1
[f

(z
k
) +g
k
(z)]
1
(z z
k
)
dz =
1
f

(z
k
) +g(z
k
)
= (1)
k
4. Set f(z) = cot(z). Since sin(z) has zeros at z
k
= k, k Z and cos(z
k
) ,= 0, cot(z) has poles at
z
k
, k Z. We can write sin(z) = (z z
k
) [cos(z
k
) +g
k
(z)], where g
k
is holomorphic and g
k
(z
k
) = 0.
By Cauchys integral formula,
res(f; z
k
) =
1
2i
_
|zz
k
|=1
cos(z) [cos(z
k
) +g
k
(z)]
1
(z z
k
)
dz =
cos(z
k
)
cos(z
k
) +g
k
(z
k
)
= 1
5. It follows from (3) that f(z) = sin(z)
2
has poles at z
k
= k, k Z. We remark further that
g
k
(z) = cos(z
k
)(z z
k
)
2
+h
k
(z), where h
k
(z) is holomorphic. By the Cauchy dierentiation formula,
res(f; z
k
) =
1
2i
_
|zz
k
|=1
[cos(z
k
) +g
k
(z)]
2
(z z
k
)
2
dz = 2
g

k
(z
k
)
(cos(z
k
) +g
k
(z
k
))
3
= 0
7
6. Evidently, the poles of f(z) =
1
z
m
(1z)
n
are z
1
= 0, z
2
= 1. By Cauchys dierentiation formula,
res(f; z
1
) =
1
2i
_
|z|=
1
2
(1 z)
n
z
m
dz =
(n +m2)!
(n 1)!(m1)!
=
_
n +m2
m1
_
res(f; z
2
) =
(1)
n
2i
_
|z1|=
1
2
z
m
(z 1)
n
dz =
(1)
n
(1)
n1
(m+n 2)!
(m1)!
=
_
n +m2
n 1
_
4.5.3 Exercise 3
(a) Since a + sin
2
() = a +
1cos(2)
2
= 2 [(2a + 1) cos(2)], we have
_
2
0
d
a + sin
2
()
= 2
_
2
0
d
(2a + 1) cos(2)
=
_

0
dt
(2a + 1) cos(t)
=
_
0

d
(2a + 1) + cos()
=
_

0
d
(2a + 1) + cos()
where we make the change of variable = , and the last equality follows from the symmetry of
the integrand. Ahlfors p. 155 computes
_

0
dx
+cos(x)
=

2
1
for > 1. Hence,
_
2
0
d
a + sin
2
()
=

_
(2a + 1)
2
1
(b) Set
f(z) =
z
2
z
4
+ 5z
2
+ 6
=
z
2
(z
2
+ 3)(z
2
+ 2)
=
z
2
(z

3i)(z +

3i)(z

2i)(z +

2i)
For R >> 0,

1
: [R, R] C,
1
(t) = t;
2
: [0, ] C,
2
(t) = Re
it
and let be the positively oriented closed curve formed by
1
,
2
. By the residue formula and applying
the Cauchy integral formula to
e
iz
z+ai
to compute res(f; ai),
_

f(z)dz = 2ires(f;

3i) + 2ires(f;

2i)
It is immediate from Cauchys integral formula that
2ires(f;

3i) =
_
[zi

3[=
z
2
(z +i

3)
1
(z
2
+ 2)
1
(z i

3)
dz = 2i
(i

3)
2
((i

3)
2
+ 2)(2i

3)
=

3
2ires(f;

2i) =
_
[zi

2[=
z
2
(z +i

2)
1
(z
2
+ 3)
1
(z i

2)
dz = 2i
(i

2)
2
((i

2)
2
+ 3)(2i

2)
=

2
Using the reverse triangle inequality, we obtain the estimate

_
2
f(z)dz

R
3
[R
2
3[ [R
2
2[
0, R
Hence,
2
_

0
x
2
x
4
+ 5x
2
+ 6
=
_

x
2
x
4
+ 5x
2
+ 6
dx = (

2)
_

0
x
2
dx
x
4
+ 5x
2
+ 6
=
(

2)
2
8
(e) We may write
cos(x)
x
2
+a
2
= Re
e
ix
(x
2
+a
2
)
So set f(z) =
e
iz
z
2
+a
2
, which has simple poles at ai. First, suppose that a ,= 0. For R >> 0, dene

1
: [R, R] C,
1
(t) = t;
2
: [0, ] C,
2
(t) = Re
it
and let be the positively oriented closed curve formed by
1
,
2
. By the residue formula,
_

f(z)dz = 2ires(f; ai) = 2i

e
i(ai)
(2ai)
=
e
a
a

_
2
f(z)dz

_

0
e
iR[cos(t)+i sin(t)]
R
2
e
2it
+a
2
Re
it
dt

_

0
e
iRcos(t)
e
Rsin(t)
R
2
e
2it
+a
2
Re
it
dt

_

0
Re
Rsin(t)
R
2
a
2
dt
R
R
2
a
2
0, R
since e
Rsin(t)
1 on [0, ]. Hence,
_

0
cos(x)
x
2
+a
2
= Re
1
2
_

e
ix
x
2
+a
2
dx =
e
a
2a
If a = 0, then the integral does not converge.
(h) Dene f(z) =
log(z)
(1+z
2
)
, where we take the branch of the logarithm with arg(z) [

2
,
3
2
). For R >> 0,
dene

1
: [R,
1
R
] C,
1
(t) = t;
2
: [, ] C,
2
(t) =
1
R
e
it
;
3
: [
1
R
, R] C,
3
(t) = t;
4
: [0, ] C,
4
(t) = Re
it
and let be the positively oriented closed curve formed by the
i
.

_
2
f(z)dz

_

0

log [R[
1

+
3
2

1
R
2
1

1
R
dt
R(log [R[ +
3
2
)
[R
2
1[
0, R

_
4
f(z)dz

_

0
[log [R[ +it[
R
2
1
Rdt
R(log [R[ +)
R
2
1
0, R
By the residue formula and applying the Cauchy integral formula to f(z)/(z +i) to compute res(f; i),
_

f(z)dz = 2ires(f; i) = 2i
log(z)
(z +i)
[
z=i
= 2i

2
2i
=

2
2
Hence,

2
2
=
_
1
f(z)dz+
_
3
f(z)dz =
_

1
R
R
log(te
i
)
1 +t
2
dt+
_
R
1
R
log(t)
1 +t
2
dt =
_

1
R
R
log([t[)
1 +t
2
dt+
_
R
1
R
log(t)
1 +t
2
dt+
_

1
R
R
1
1 +t
2
dt
= 2
_
R
1
R
log(t)
1 +t
2
+
_
R
1
R
1
1 +t
2
dt = 2
_
R
1
R
log(t)
1 +t
2
+

2
2
where weve used
_

0
1
1+t
2
dt = lim
R
arctan(R) arctan(0) =

2
. Hence,
_
R
1
R
log(t)
1 +t
2
dt = 0
_

0
log(t)
1 +t
2
dt = 0
Lemma 1. Let U, V C be open sets, F : U V a holomorphic function, and u : V C a harmonic
function. Then u F : U C is harmonic.
Proof. Since uF is harmonic on U if and only if it is harmonic on any open disk contained in U about every
point, we may assume without loss of generality that V is an open disk. Then there exists a holomorphic
function G : V C such that u = Re(G). Hence, G F : U C is holomorphic and Re (G F) = u F,
which shows that u F is harmonic.
In what follows, a conformal map f : C is a bijective holomorphic map.
9
Harmonic Functions
4.6.2 Exercise 1
Let u : D

(0; ) R be harmonic and bounded. I am going to cheat a bit and assume Schwarzs theorem
for the Poisson integral formula, even though Ahlfors discusses it in a subsequent section. Let
P
u
(z) =
1
2
_
2
0
Re
re
i
z
re
i
+z
u(re
i
)d
denote the Poisson integral for u on some circle of xed radius r < . Since u is continuous, P
u
(z) is a
harmonic function in the open disk D(0; r) and is continuous on the boundary [z[ = r. We want to show
that u and P
u
agree on the annulus, so that we can dene a harmonic extension of u by setting u(0) = P
u
(0).
Dene
g(z) = u(z) P
u
(z)
and for > 0 dene
g

(z) = g(z) + log

_
[z[
r
_
0 < [z[ r
Then g is harmonic in D

(0; r) and continuous on the boundary. Furthermore, since u is bounded by

hypothesis and P
u
is bounded by construction on D(0; r), we have that g is bounded on D(0; r). g

(z) is
harmonic in D

(0; r) and continuous on the boundary since both its terms are. Since log
_
r
1
[z[
_
, z
0, we have that
limsup
z0
g

(z) < 0
Hence, there exists > 0 such that 0 < [z[ g

(z) 0. Since g

is harmonic on the closed annulus

[z[ r, we can apply the maximum principle. Hence, g

assumes its maximum in [z[ = [z[ = r.

But, g

(z) 0 [z[ = , by our choice of , and since u, P

u
agree on [z[ = r, we have that g

(z) = 0 [z[ = r.
Hence,
g

(z) 0 0 < [z[ r

Letting 0, we conclude that g(z) 0 0 < [z[ r, which shows that u P
u
on the annulus. Applying
the same argument to h = P
u
u, we conclude that u = P
u
on 0 < [z[ r. Setting u(0) = P
u
(0) denes a
harmonic extension of u on the closed disk.
4.6.2 Exercise 2
If f : = r
1
< [z[ < r
2
C is identically zero, then there is nothing to prove. Assume otherwise. Since
the annulus is bounded, f has nitely many zeroes in the region. Hence, for R, the function
g(z) = log [z[ + log [f(z)[
is harmonic in a
1
, , a
n
, where a
1
, , a
n
are the zeroes of f. Applying the maximum principle to
g(z), we see that [g(z)[ takes its maximum in . Hence,
log [z[ + log [f(z)[ = g(z) max log(r
1
) + log(M(r
1
)), log(r
2
) + log(M(r
2
)) z a
1
, , a
n

Thus, if [z[ = r, then we have the inequality

log(r) + log (M(r)) max log(r
1
) + log(M(r
1
)), log(r
2
) + log(M(r
2
))
We now nd R such that the two inputs in the maximum function are equal.
log(r
1
) + log(M(r
1
)) = log(r
2
) + log(M(r
2
)) log
_
r
1
r
2
_
= log
_
M(r
2
)
M(r
1
)
_
Hence, = log
_
M(r2)
M(r1)
__
log
_
r1
r2
__
1
. Exponentiating both sides of the obtained inequality,
M(r) exp
_
_
log(M(r
2
)) + log
_
M(r
2
)
M(r
1
)
_
log
_
r2
r
_
log
_
r1
r2
_
_
_
= exp
_
log(M(r
2
) + log
_
M(r
1
)
M(r
2
)
_

_
10
= M(r
1
)

M(r
2
)
1
where = log
_
r2
r
_
_
log
_
r2
r1
__
1
. I claim that equality holds if and only if f(z) = az

, where a C, R.
It is obvious that equality holds if f(z) is of this form. Suppose quality holds. Then by Weierstrasss extreme
value theorem, for some [z
0
[ = r, we have
[f(z
0
)[ = M(r) =
_
r
1
r
_

M(r
1
)

0
f(z
0
)

= r

1
M(r
1
)
But since the bound on the RHS holds for all r
1
< [z[ < r
2
, the Maximum Modulus Principle tells us that
z

f(z) = a C r
1
< [z[ < r
2
. Hence, f(z) = az

. But is an arbitrary real parameter, from which the

claim follows.
4.6.4 Exercise 1
We seek a conformal mapping of the upper-half plane H
+
onto the unit disk D. lemma The map given by
(z) = i
1 +z
1 z
is a conformal map of D onto H
+
and is a bijective continuous map of D onto R , where 1 . Its
inverse is given by

1
(w) =
w i
w +i
Proof. The statements about conformality and continuity follow from a general theorem about the group of
linear fractional transformations of the Riemann sphere (Ahlfors p. 76), so we just need to verify the images.
For z D,
Im((z)) = Im
_
i
1 +z
1 z

1 z
1 z
_
=
1 [z[
2
[1 z[
2
> 0
since [z[ < 1. Furthermore, observe that Im((z)) = 0 z D. In particular, (1) = . For w H
+
,

1
(w)

2
=
w i
w +i

w +i
w i
=
[w[
2
2Im(w) + 1
[w[
2
+ 2Im(w) + 1
< 1
by hypothesis that Im(z) > 0. Furthermore, observe that

1
(w)

= 1 Im(w) = 0.

U = U : D C is a piecewise continuous function since U is bounded and we therefore can ignore

the fact that (1) = . By Poissons formula, the function
P

U
(z) =
1
2
_
2
0
Re
e
i
+z
e
i
z

U(e
i
)d
is a harmonic function in the open disk D. By Lemma 1, the function
P
U
(z) = P

U

1
(z) =
1
2
_
2
0
Re
e
i
+
1
(z)
e
i

1
(z)

U(e
i
)d
is harmonic in H
+
. Fix w
0
D and let x
0
+iy
0
= z
0
=
1
(w
0
). Let P
w0
() denote the Poisson kernel. We
apply the change of variable t =
1
(e
i
) to obtain
1
2
P
w0
()
d
dt
=
1
2
1

z0i
z0+i

z0i
z0+i

ti
t+i

2

_
1
ti
t+i
_
2
2
ti
t+i
=
1
2
[z
0
+i[
2
[z
0
i[
2

(z
0
i)
ti
t+i
(z
0
+i)

2

((t +i) (t i))
2
2 [t +i[
2
=
2

y
0
[(z
0
i)(t +i) (t i)(z
0
+i)[
2
=
2

y
0
2 [z
0
t[
2
=
1

y
0
(x
0
t)
2
+y
2
0
11
Hence,
P
U
(x, y) =
1

y
(x t)
2
+y
2
U(t)dt
is a harmonic function in H
+
. Furthermore, since the value of P

U
(z) for [z[ = 1 is given by

U(z) at the points
of continuity and since
1
(D) = R , we conclude that
P
U
(x, 0) = P

U

1
(x, 0) =

U
1
(x, 0) = U(x, 0)
at the points of continuity x R.
4.6.4 Exercise 5
I couldnt gure out how to show that log [f(z)[ satises the mean-value property for z
0
= 0, r = 1 without
rst computing the value of
_

0
log sin()d.
Since sin() [0,

2
], 1

sin()
is continuous on [0,

2
], where weve removed the singularity at the
origin. Hence, for > 0,
_
2
0
log

sin()

d = lim
0
_
2

log

sin()

d =
_
2
0
log [[ d lim
0
_
2

log [sin()[ d
By symmetry, it follows that the improper integral
_

2
log [sin()[ d exists and therefore
_

0
log [sin()[ d
exists. Again by symmetry,
_
2
0
log(sin())d =
_
2
0
log cos()d, hence
_
2
0
log sin()d =
1
2
_
2
0
log sin() cos()d =
1
2
_
2
0
log
_
1
2
sin(2)
_
d =
1
2
_
2
0
sin(2)d

4
log(2)
=
1
4
_

0
sin()d

4
log(2)
where we make the change of variable = 2 to obtain the last equality. Since
_

0
log sin()d = 2
_
2
0
log sin()d,
we conclude that
_

0
log sin()d = log(2)
We now show that for f(z) = 1 + z, log [f(z)[ satises the mean-value property for z
0
= 0, r = 1. Observe
that
log

1 +e
i

=
1
2
log

(1 + cos())
2
+ sin
2
()

=
1
2
log

1 + 2 cos() + cos
2
() + sin
2
()

=
1
2
log [2 + 2 cos()[
= log [2[ +
1
2
log

1 + cos()
2

Substituting and making the change of variable 2 = ,

_
2
0
log

1 +e
i

d =
_
2
0
_
log 2 +
1
2
log

cos
2
()

_
d = 2 log 2+
_

0
log

1 + cos(2)
2

d = 2 log 2+
_

0
log cos
2
()d
By symmetry, integrating log cos
2
() over [0, ] is the same as integrating log

sin
2
()

over [0, ]. Hence,

_
2
0
log

1 +e
i

d = 2 log 2 +
_

0
log

sin
2
()

d = 2 log 2 + 2
_

0
log [sin()[ d = 0
12
4.6.4 Exercise 6
Let f : C C be an entire holomorphic function, and suppose that z
1
Re(f(z)) 0, z . By Schwarzs
formula (Ahlfors (66) p. 168), we may write
f(z) =
1
2i
_
||=R
+z
z
Re(f())
d

[z[ < R
Let > 0 be given and R
0
> 0 such that R R
0
,

Re(f(z))
z

< . Let R be suciently large that R >

R
2
> R
0
.
By Schwarzs formula,
R
2
[z[ < R,
[f(z)[
R
2
_
2
0

Re
i
+z
Re
i
z

d
R
2
_
2
0
R +[z[
R [z[
d = R
R +R
R
R
2
= 4R
Fix z C and let
R
2
> max R
0
, [z[. By Cauchys dierentiation formula,
[f

(z)[ =
1
2

_
|w|=
R
2
f(w)
(w z)
2
dw

1
2
_
2
0
R
2

f(
R
2
e
i
)

R
2
e
i
z

2
d

1
2
R
2
4R
_
2
0
1

R
2
[z[

2
d = 8
R
2
(R 2 [z[)
2
Letting R , we conclude that [f

(z)[ 8. Since z C was arbitrary, we conclude that [f

(z)[ 8 z C.
Since > 0 was arbitrary, we conclude that f

(z) = 0, which shows that f is constant.

4.6.5 Exercise 1
Let f : C C be an entire holomorphic function satisfying f(R) R and f(i R) i R. Since f(R) R,
f(z) f(z) vanishes on the real axis. By the limit-point uniqueness theorem that
f(z) = f(z) z C
Since f(iR) iR, f(z) +f(z) vanishes on the imaginary axis. By the limit-point uniqueness theorem that
f(z) = f(z) z C
Combining these two results, we have
f(z) = f(z) = f(z) = f(z) z C
4.6.5 Exercise 3
Let f : D C be holomorphic and satisfy [f(z)[ = 1 [z[ = 1. Let : C C be the linear
fractional transformation
(z) =
z i
z +i
Consider the function g =
1
f : H
+
C. By the maximum modulus principle, [f(z)[ 1 [z[ 1.
Hence, g : H
+
H
+
. Since [f(z)[ = 1 [z[ = 1,
1
(f(z)) R [z[ = 1. Hence,

f(R) R. By the Schwarz
Reection Principle, g extends to an entire function g : C C satisfying g(z) = g(z). Dene

f = g
1
: C C
Then

f is meromorphic in C since has a pole at z = i and
1
has a pole at z = 1. In particular,

f has nitely many poles. We proved in Problem Set 1 (Ahlfors Section 4.3.2 Exercise 4) that a function
meromorphic in the extended complex plane is a rational function, so we need to verify that

f doesnt have
an essential singularity at . But in a neighborhood of 0,

f
_
1
z
_
= g
_
i
1 +
1
z
1
1
z
_
= g
_
i
z + 1
z 1
_
which is evidently a meromorphic function. Alternatively, we note that [z[ 1,

f(z)

1 since g maps
H

onto H

. So the image of

f in a suitable neighborhood of is not dense in C. The Casorati-Weierstrass
theorem then tells us that

f cannot have an essential singularity at .
13
Chapter 5 - Series and Product
Developments
Power Series Expansions
5.1.1 Exercise 2
We know that in the region = z : Re(z) > 1 , (z) exists since

1
n
z

=
1
n
Re(z)

n
Im(z)i

=
1
n
Re(z)

e
log(n)Im(z)i

=
1
n
Re(z)
and therefore

n=1

1
n
z

is a convergent harmonic series; absolute convergence implies convergence by com-

pleteness. Dene
N
(z) =

N
n=1
1
n
z
. Clearly,
N
is the sum of holomorphic functions on the region . I claim
that (
N
)
NN
converge uniformly to on any compact subset K . Since K is compact and z Re(z)
is continuous, by Weierstrasss Extreme Value Theorem z
0
K such that Re(z
0
) = inf
zK
Re(z). In
particular, Re(z
0
) > 1 since z
0
. Hence,

1
n
z

1
n
Re(z)

1
n
Re(z0)
. So by the Triangle Inequality,
z ,

n=1
1
n
z

n=1

1
n
z

n=1
1
n
Re(z0)
<

n=1
1
n
Re(z0)
<
By Weierstrasss M-test, we attain that
n
uniformly on K. Therefore by Weierstrasss theorem, is
holomorphic in and

(z) = lim
N

N
(z) = lim
N
N

n=1
log(n)e
log(n)z
= lim
N
N

n=1
log(n)
n
z
=

n=1
log(n)
n
z
Section 5.1.1 Exercise 3
Lemma 2. Set a
n
= (1)
n+1
. If

n=1
an
n
z
converges for some z
0
. Then

n=1
an
n
z
converges uniformly on
z C with Re(z) Re(z
0
).
Proof. If

n=1
an
n
z
0
conveges, there exists an M > 0 which bounds the partial sums. Let m N N. Using
summation by parts, we may write
N

n=m
a
n
n
z
=
N

n=m
a
n
n
z0
1
n
zz0
=
1
N
zz0
m1

n=1
a
n
n
z0

N1

n=m
_
n

k=1
a
k
k
z0
_
_
1
(n + 1)
zz0

1
n
zz0
_
Hence,

n=m
a
n
n
z

M
1
[N
zz0
[
+M
1
[n
zz0
[
+M
N1

n=m

1
(n + 1)
zz0

1
n
zz0

Observe that

1
(n + 1)
zz0

1
n
zz0

e
log(n+1)(zz0)
e
log(n)(zz0)

1
z z
0
_
log(n+1)
log(n)
e
t(zz0)
dt

14

1
[z z
0
[
_
log(n+1)
log(n)
e
t(Re(z)Re(z0))
dt =
[Re(z) Re(z
0
)[
[z z
0
[

e
log(n+1)(Re(z)Re(z0))
e
log(n)(Re(z)Re(z0))

e
log(n)(Re(z)Re(z0))
e
log(n+1)(Re(z)Re(z0))
=
1
n
Re(z)Re(z0)

1
(n + 1)
Re(z)Re(z0)
Since this last expression is telescoping as the summation ranges over n, we have that

n=m
a
n
n
z

M
N
Re(z)Re(z0)
+
M
m
Re(z)Re(z0)
+M

1
N
Re(z)Re(z0)

1
m
Re(z)Re(z0)

2M
m
Re(z)Re(z0)
+
M
m
Re(z)Re(z0)

_
m
N
_
Re(z)Re(z0)
1

4M
m
Re(z)Re(z0)
0, m
Hence, the partial sums of

N
n=1
an
n
zz
0
are Cauchy and therefore converge by completeness.
Corollary 3. If

n=1
an
n
z
converges for some z = z
0
, then

n=1
an
n
z
conveges uniformly on compact subsets
of Re(z) Re(z
0
).
Proof. Let K Re(z) Re(z
0
) be compact. Since z Re(z) is continuous, there exists z
1
K such that
Re(z) Re(z
1
) z K. Since Re(z
1
) Re(z
0
),

n=1
an
n
z
1
converges. The proof of the preceding lemma
shows that we have a uniform bound

n=m
a
n
n
z

4M
m
Re(z)Re(z0)

4M
m
Re(z1)Re(z0)
where M depends only on z
0
. The claim follows immediately from the M-test and completeness.
Since the series f(z) =

n=1
an
n
z
converges if we take z R
>0
(the well-known alternating series), we
have by the lemma that

n=1
an
n
z
converges Re(z) > 0. We now show that this series is holomorphic on the
region Re(z) > 0.
Dene a sequence of functions (f
N
)
NN
by
f
N
=
N

n=1
(1)
n+1
n
z
It is clear that f
N
is holomorphic, being the nite sum of holomorphic functions. Set = z C : Re(z) > 0
and let K be compact. Since the f
N
are just the partial sums of the series, we have by the corollary to
the lemma that f
N
f uniformly on K. By Weierstrasss theorem, f is holomorphic in .
To see that (1 2
1z
)(z) =

n=1
an
n
z
on Re(z) > 1, observe that
(1 2
1z
)
N

n=1
1
n
z

N

n=1
(1)
n+1
n
z
=
N

n=1
1
n
z
2
N

n=1
1
(2n)
z

N

n=1
(1)
n+1
n
z
= 2

N<n2N
n is even
1
n
z
Since

n=1
1
n
z
is absolutely convergent, we see that by taking N suciently large, the RHS can be made
less than for > 0 given.
5.1.2 Exercise 2
Dierentiating
_
1 2z +z
2
_

1
2
with respect to z, we obtain
p
1
() =
2 2z
2(1 2z +z
2
)
3
2
[
z=0
=
To compute higher order Legendre polynomials, we dierentiate
_
1 2z +z
2
_

1
2
and its Taylor series to
obtain the equality
z
(1 2z +z
2
)
3
2
=

n=1
nP
n
()z
n1

1 2z +z
2
= (1 2z +z
2
)

n=1
nP
n
()z
n1
15
Hence,

n=0
P
n
()z
n

n=0
P
n
()z
n+1
=

n=0
nP
n
()z
n1

n=0
2nP
n
()z
n
+

n=0
nP
n
()z
n+1
Invoking elementary limit properties and using the fact that a function is zero if and only if all its Taylor
coecients are zero, we may equate terms to obtain the recurrence
P
n+1
() P
n
() = (n + 2)P
n+2
() 2(n + 1)P
n+1
() +nP
n
()
P
n+2
() =
1
n + 2
[(2n + 3)P
n+1
() (n + 1)P
n
()]
So,
P
2
() =
1
2
_
3
2
1
_
P
3
() =
1
3
_
5
1
2
(3
2
1) 2
_
=
1
2
_
5
3
3
_
P
4
() =
1
4
_
7
1
2
(5
3
3) 3
1
2
(3
2
1)
_
=
1
8
(35
4
30
2
+ 3)
5.1.2 Exercise 3
Observe that
sin(z)
z
=
1
z

n=0
(1)
n
(2n + 1)!
z
2n+1
=

n=0
(1)
n
(2n + 1)!
z
2n
So,
sin(z)
z
,= 0 in some open disk about z = 0. Hence, the function z log
_
sin(z)
z
_
is holomorphic in an open
disk about z = 0, where we take the principal branch of the logarithm. Substituting,
log
_
sin(z)
z
_
= log
_
1
_
1
sin(z)
z
__
=

m=1
_
1

n=0
(1)
n
(2n+1)!
z
2n
_
m
m
=

m=1
_
1
3!
z
2

1
5!
z
4
+
1
7!
z
6
[z
8
]
_
m
m
Set P(z) =
1
3!
z
2

1
5!
z
4
. Then
log
_
sin(z)
z
_
=
_
z
6
7!
+
P(z) + [z
8
]
1
+
P(z)
2
+ [z
8
]
2
+
P(z)
3
+ [z
8
]
3
_
=
_
z
2
3!

z
4
5!
+
z
6
7!
+
1
2
_
z
4
(3!)
2

2z
6
(3!)(5!)
_
+
z
6
3(3!)
3
+ [z
8
]
_
=
1
6
z
2

1
180
z
4

1
2835
z
6
+ [z
8
]
Partial Fractions and Factorization
5.2.1 Exercise 1
From Ahlfors p. 189, we obtain for [z[ < 1,
z cot(z) = z
_
1
z
+ 2

n=1
z
z
2
n
2
_
= 1 2z
2

n=1
1
n
2

1
1
z
2
n
2
= 1 2z
2

n=1
1
n
2
_

k=0
_
z
2
n
2
_
k
_
16
where we expand
z
2
n
2
using the geometric series. Since both series are absolutely convergent, we may inter-
change the order of summation to obtain
z cot(z) = 1 2z
2

k=0
_

n=1
1
n
2(k+1)
_
z
2k
= 1 2

k=0
(2k)z
2k
We now compute the Taylor series for z cot(z).
z cot(z) = z
cos(z)
sin(z)
= iz
e
iz
+e
iz
e
iz
e
iz
= iz
e
i2z
+ 1
e
i2z
1
=
2iz
e
2iz
1
+
iz(e
2iz
1)
e
2iz
1
= iz +
2iz
e
2iz
1
Let [z[ <
1
2
. Then
z cot(z) = iz +
2iz

k=1
(2iz)
k
k!
= iz +
1
1
_

k=1
(2iz)
k
(k+1)!
_ = iz +

n=0
_

k=1
(2iz)
k
(k + 1)!
_
n
= iz +

k=0
B
k
k!
(2iz)
k
where we may use the geometric expansion since

k=1
(2iz)
k
(k+1)!

k=1
[2z[
k
< 1 ([z[ <
1
2
), and the
change in the order of summation is permitted since the series are absolutely convergent. According to
Ahlfors, the numbers B
k
are called Bernoulli numbers, the values of which one can look up. Since the two
series representations for z cot(z) are equal, the coecients must agree. Hence,
(2) =
1
2
(2i)
2
B
2
2!
=

2
6
(4) =
1
2
(2i)
4
B
4
4!
=
16
4
6
60 =

4
90
(6) =
1
2
(2i)
6
B
6
6!
=
32
6
42 6!
=

6
21 45
=

6
945
5.2.1 Exercise 2
We rst observe that

n=
1
z
3
n
3
converges absolutely, being comparable to

n=1
1
n
3
. For z ,= 0, we may write (after some laborious compu-
tation, which can be found at the end of the solutions)
1
z
3
n
3
=
1
(z n)(z ne
i
2
3
)(z ne
i
4
3
)
=
1
(z n)(e
i
2
3
z n)(e
i
4
3
z n)
=
A
z n
+
B
ze
i
4
3
n
+
C
ze
i
2
3
n
where
C =
e
2
3
i
3z
2
B =
e
4
3
i
3z
2
A =
1
3z
2
Ahlfors p. 189 shows that lim
m

m
m
1
zn
= cot(z), 0 < [z[ < 1. Hence, for 0 < [z[ < 1,
lim
m
m

m
1
z
3
n
3
=
1
3z
2
lim
m
m

m
1
z n
+
e
2
3
i
3z
2
lim
m
m

m
1
ze
i
2
3
n
+
e
4
3
i
3z
2
lim
m
m

m
1
ze
i
4
3
n
=
cot(z)
3z
2
+
e
2
3
i
cot(e
2
3
i
z)
3z
2
+
e
4
3
i
cot(e
4
3
i
)
3z
2
17
5.2.2 Exercise 2
In what follows, we will restrict ourselves to z D(0; 1). For n Z
0
, dene
P
n
(z) = (1 +z)
_
1 +z
2
_

_
1 +z
2
n
_
=
n

i=1
_
1 +z
2
i
_
First, I claim that (1 z)P
n
(z) = (1 z
2
n+1
). Suppose the claim is true for some n, then
(1 z)P
n+1
(z) = [(1 z)P
n
(z)] (1 +z
2
n+1
) = (1 z
2
n+1
)(1 +z
2
n+1
) =
_
1 z
2
n+2
_
=
_
1 z
2
(n+1)+1
_
The base case is trivial, so the result follows by induction. Therefore,

P
n
(z)
1
1 z

1
1 [z[
[(1 z)P
n
(z) 1[ = [z[
2
n+1
0, n
since [z[ < 1. Since
1
1|z|
, [z[ are bounded on any compact subset of D(0; 1), we remark that the convergence
is uniform on compact subsets of D(0; 1).
5.2.3 Exercise 3
First, note that even though the function z

z is not entire for any branch choice, the function f(z) =
cos(

z) is. Indeed, substituting into the denition of cos(z),

f(z) =

n=0
(1)
n
(2n)!
(

z)
2n
Since changing the choice of branch only results in a sign change, we see that (

z)
2n
= z
n
, and therefore
f(z) =

n=0
(1)
n
(2n)!
z
n
which is evidently an entire function, being a power series with innite radius of convergence. Observe that
f(z) has zero set
_
_
(2n+1)
2
_
2
: n Z
_
. Since sin(z +

2
) = cos(z), cos(z) can be written as
cos(z) =
_
z +
1
2
_

n=0
_
1
z +
1
2
n
_
e
z+
1
2
n
=
_
z +
1
2
_

n=0
_
2n 1
2n

2z
2n
_
e
1
2n
+
z
n
=

2
_
1
z
1
2
_

n=0
2n 1
2n
_
1
z
2n1
2
_
e
1
2n
+
z
n
=

2

n=1
_
1
1
4n
2
_
_
1
z
2
(2n1)
2
4
_
Using the innite product representation of sin(z), we have
2

=
sin
_

2
_

2
=

n=1
_
1
_

2
_
2
n
2

2
_
=

n=1
_
1
4
n
2
_
Hence,
cos(z) =

n=1
_
1
z
2
(2n1)
2
4
_
cos(z) =

n=1
_
_
_1
z
2
_
(2n1)
2
_
2
_
_
_
Hence, f(z) has the canonical product representation
f(z) =

n=1
_
_
_1
z
_
(2n1)
2
_
2
_
_
_
Since

n=1
_
(2n 1)
2
_
2
=

2
4

n=1
1
(2n 1)
2
<
being comparable to

1
n
2
, we see that f(z) is an entire function of genus zero.
18
5.2.3 Exercise 4
Let f(z) be an entire function of genus h. Let a
n
,= 0
nN
denotes the (at most countable) set of nonzero
zeroes of f and h
c
denote the genus of the canonical product. We may write
f(z) = z
m
e
g(z)

n=1
_
1
z
a
n
_
e
z
an
+
1
2
(
z
an
)
2
++
1
hc
(
z
an
)
hc
where g(z) is a polynomial and h = max (deg(g(z)), h
c
). Hence,
f(z
2
) = z
2m
e
g(z
2
)

n=1
_
1
z
2
a
n
_
e
z
2
an
+
1
2

z
2
an

2
++
1
hc

z
2
an

hc
= z
2m
e
g(z
2
)

n=1
_
1
z

a
n
__
1 +
z

a
n
_
e
z

an
+
1
2

an

2
++
1
2hc+1

an

2hc+1
e
z

an
+
1
2

an

2
++
1
2hc+1

an

2hc+1
where weve chosen some branch of the square root. If we dene b
1
=

a
1
, b
2
=

a
1
, . Then

f(z) = f(z
2
) = z
2m
e
g(z
2
)

n=1
_
1
z
b
n
_
e
z
bn
+
1
2
(
z
bn
)
2
++
1
2hc+1
(
z
bn
)
2hc+1
the breaking up of the product being justied since the individual products converge absolutely by virtue of

1
[b
n
[
2hc+1+1
=

1
[a
n
[
hc+1
<
I claim that the genus of

f is bounded from below by h. If h = 0, then there is nothing to prove; assume
otherwise. If h = deg(g(z)) > 0, then

h deg(g(z
2
)) > h; so assume that h = h
c
. We will show that the
genus

h
c
of the canonical product associated to (b
n
) is bounded from below by 2h
c
. Suppose

h
c
< 2h
c
. Since
a
n
and therefore b
n
by continuity, we have that for all n suciently large [b
n
[ > 1. So it suces
to consider the case

h
c
= 2h
c
1. Then
>

n=1
1
[b
n
[

hc+1
=

n=1
1
[b
n
[
2hc1+1
=

n=1
1
[a
n
[
hc
But this shows that the genus of the canonical product associated to (a
n
) is at most h
c
1, which is obviously
a contradiction. Taking f to be a polynomial shows that this bound is sharp.
I claim that the genus of

f is bounded from above by 2h+1. Indeed, 2h+1 2 deg(g(z)) = deg(g(z
2
)), and
we showed above that

h
c
2h
c
+ 1 2h + 1. This bound is also sharp since we can take
f(z) =

n=1
_
1
z
n
2
_
f(z
2
) =

n=0
_
1
z
n
_
e
z
n
f(z) is clearly an entire function of genus 0, and the genus of the canonical product associated to (n)
nZ
is
1, from which we conclude the genus of f(z
2
) is 1 .
5.2.4 Exercise 2
Using Legendres duplication formula for the gamma function (Ahlfors p. 200),

_
1
6
_
=

_
2
1
6
_
2
12
1
6

_
1
6
+
1
2
_
1
=

2
2
3

_
1
3
_

_
2
3
_
Applying the formula (z)(1 z) =

sin(z)
(Ahlfors p. 199), we obtain

_
1
6
_
=

2
2
3

_
1
3
_

_
1
3
_
sin
_

1
3
_

= 2

1
3
_
3

_1
2
_

_
1
3
__
2
19
5.2.4 Exercise 3
It is clear from the denition of the Gamma function that for each k Z
0
,
f(z) =
_
_
1 +
z
k
_
(z) k ,= 0
z(z) k = 0
extends to a holomorphic function in an open neighborhood of k. We abuse notation and denote the extension
also by
_
1 +
z
k
_
(z) and z(z). lemma For any k Z
>0
,
(z) =
(z +k)

k
j=1
(z +j 1)
z / Z
Proof. Recall that (z) has the property that the (z +1) = z(z). We proceed by induction. The base case
is trivial, so assume that (z) =
(z+k)

k
j=1
(z+j1)
for some k N. Then
(z + (k + 1))

k+1
j=1
(z +j 1)
=
((z +k) + 1)

k+1
j=1
(z +j 1)
=
(z +k)(z +k)

k+1
j=1
(z +j 1)
=
(z +k)

k
j=1
(z +j 1)!
= (z)
Corollary 4. For any k Z
0
,
lim
zk
(z k)(z) =
(1)
k
[k[!
Proof. Fix k Z
0
. Immediate from the preceding lemma is that
lim
z|k|
(z +[k[)(z) = lim
z|k|
(z +[k[)
(z +[k[ + 1)

k+1
j=1
(z +[j[ 1)
=
(1)
(1) (2) ([k[)
=
(1)
k
[k[!
Let k Z
0
. Then
res (; k) =
1
2i
_
|zk|=
1
2
(z)dz =
1
2i
_
|zk|=
1
2
(1
z
k
)(z)
1
z
k
dz =
1
2i
_
|zk|=
1
2
(z k) (z)
z k
dz
Since the function
_
1 +
z
k
_
(z) extends to a holomorphic function in a neighborhood of k, by Cauchys
integral formula,
1
2i
_
|zk|=
1
2
(z k) (z)
z k
dz = (z k) (z)[
z=k
=
(1)
k
[k[!
where use the preceding lemma to obtain the last equality. Thus,
res (; k) =
(1)
k
[k[!
k Z
0
5.2.5 Exercise 2
Lemma 5.
_

0
log
_
1
1 e
2x
_
dx =

12
Proof. Let 1 >> > 0. Consider the function
log(1z)
z
, which has the power series representation
log(1 z)
z
=
1
z

n=1
1
n
z
n
=

n=1
1
n
z
n1
[z[ < 1
20
with the understanding that the singularity at z = 0 is removable. Since the convergence is uniform on
compact subsets, we may integrate over the contour

: [0, 1 ] C,

(t) = t term by term, Thus,

_

log(1 z)
z
dz =
_
1
0
log(1 t)
t
dt =

n=1
1
n
2
(1 )
n

n=1
1
n
2
=

2
6
]
since the function f(x) =

n=1
x
n
n
2
is left-continuous at x = 1. Hence,
_
1
0
log(1 t)
t
dt =

n=1
1
n
2
=

2
6
We now make the change of variable t = e
2x
to obtain

2
6
=
_

0
log(1 e
2x
)
e
2x
2e
2x
dx = 2
_

0
log(1 e
2x
)dx
which gives
_

0
log
_
1
1 e
2x
_
dx =
_

0
log
_
1 e
2x
_
dx =

12
For x R
>0
, Stirlings formula (Ahlfors p. 203-4) for (z) tells us that
(x) =

2x
x
1
2
e
x
e
J(x)
where
J(x) =
1

_

0
x

2
+x
2
log
_
1
1 e
2
_
d
The preceding lemma tells us that
J(x) =
1
x

1

_

0
x
2
x
2
+
2
log
_
1
1 e
2
_
d
1
x

1

_

0
log
_
1
1 e
2
_
d =
1
x

1

12
=
1
12x
where weve used 0 <
x
2
x
2
+
2
1 . Set
(x) = 12xJ(x)
It is obvious that (x) > 0 and (x) < 1 since
x
2
x
2
+
2
< 1 almost everywhere, and therefore the preceding
inequality is strict. We thus conclude that
(x) =

2x
x
1
2
e
x
e
(x)
12x
0 < (x) < 1
5.2.5 Exercise 3
Take f(z) = e
z
2
, and for R >> 0, dene

1
: [0, R] C,
1
(t) = t;
2
: [0,

4
] C,
2
(t) = Re
it
;
3
: [0, R] C,
3
(t) = (R t)e
i

4
and let be the positively oriented closed curve dened by the
i
.

_
2
f(z)dz

_
4
0
e
Rcos(2t)iRsin(2t)
Rie
it
dt

_
4
0
e
Rcos(2t)
Rdt
Since cos(2t) is nonnegative and cos(2t) 2t (this is immediate from
d
dt
cos(2t) = 2 sin(2t) 2 on [0,

4
])
for t [0,

4
], we have
_
4
0
e
Rcos(2t)
Rdt
_
4
0
e
2Rt
Rdt =
1
2
_
e
R

2
1

0, R
21
Since f is an entire function, by Cauchys theorem,
0 =
_

f(z)dz =
_
1
f(z)dz +
_
2
f(z)dz +
_
3
f(z)dz
and letting R ,
_

0
e
x
2
dx = lim
R
e
i

4
_
R
0
e
(Rt)
2
e
i

2
dt = lim
R
e
i

4
_
R
0
e
i(Rt)
2
dt = e
i

4
_

0
e
iy
2
dy
where we make the substitution y = R t. Substituting
_

0
e
x
2
dx = 2
1

,
_

0
cos(x
2
)dx i
_

0
sin(x
2
)dx =
_

0
e
ix
2
dx = e
i

2
=

2
i

2
Equating real and imaginary parts, we obtain the Fresnel integrals
_

0
cos(x
2
)dx =

2
_

0
sin(x
2
)dx =

2
Entire Functions
5.3.2 Exercise 1
We will show that the following two denitions of the genus of an entire function f are equivalent:
1. If
f(z) = z
m
e
g(z)

n=1
_
1
z
a
n
_
e

h
j=1
1
j
(
z
an
)
j
where h is the genus of the canonical product associated to (a
n
), then the genus of f is max (deg(g(z)), h).
If no such representation exists, then f is said to be of innite genus.
2. The genus of f is the minimal h Z
0
such that
f(z) = z
m
e
g(z)

n=1
_
1
z
a
n
_
e

h
j=1
1
j
(
z
an
)
j
where deg(g(z)) h. If no such h exists, then f is said to be of innite genus.
Proof. Suppose f has nite genus h
1
with respect to denition (1). If h
1
= h, then deg(g(z)) h
1
. Hence,
f is of a nite genus h
2
with respect to denition (2), and h
2
h
1
. Assume otherwise. By denition of the
genus of the canonical product, the expression

n=1
h1

j=h+1
1
j
_
z
a
n
_
j
=
h1

j=h+1
1
j
_

n=1
1
a
j
n
_
z
j
denes a polynomial of degree h
1
. Hence, we may write
f(z) = z
m
e
g(z)

n=1

h
1
j=h+1
1
j
(
z
an
)
j

n=1
_
1
z
a
n
_
e

h
1
j=1
1
j
(
z
an
)
j
= z
m
e
g(z)

n=1
_
1
z
a
n
_
e

h
1
j=1
1
j
(
z
an
)
j
where we g(z) is a polynomial of degree h
1
. Hence, f is of nite genus h
2
with respect to denition (2) and
h
2
h
1
.
Now suppose that f has nite genus h
2
with respect to denition (2). Reversing the steps of the previous
argument, we attain that f has nite genus h
1
with respect to denition (1), and h
1
h
2
. It follows
immediately that denitions (1) and (2) are equivalent if f has nite genus with respect to either (1) and
(2), and by proving the contrapositives, we see that (1) and (2) are equivalent for all entire functions f.
22
5.3.2 Exercise 2
lemma Let a C and r > 0. Then
inf
|z|=r
[z [a[[ = [r [a[[ and sup
|z|=r
[z [a[[ = r +[a[
Proof. By the triangle inequality and reverse inequality, we have the double inequality
[r [a[[ = [[z[ [a[[ [z [a[[ [z[ +[a[ = r +[a[
Hence, inf [z [a[[ [r [a[[ and sup [z [a[[ r +[a[. But these values are attained at z = r and z = r,
respectively.
By Weierstrasss extreme value theorem, [f[ and [g[ attain both their maximum and minimum on the
circle [z[ = r at z
M,f
, z
M,g
and z
m,f
, z
m,g
, respectively. The preceding lemma shows that z
M,g
= r and
z
m,g
= r. Consider the expression

f(z)
g(z)

z
m

n=1
_
1
z
an
_
z
m

n=1
_
1
z
|an|
_

n=1
[z a
n
[
[z [a
n
[[
We have

f(z
M,f
)
g(z
M,g
)

f(z
M,f
)
g(r)

n=1

re
i
M,f
a
n

r +[a
n
[
=

n=1

re
i(
M,f
arg(an))
[a
n
[

r +[a
n
[

n=1
sup
|z|=r
[z [a
n
[[
r +[a
n
[
=

n=1
r +[a
n
[
r +[a
n
[
= 1
Hence, [f(z
M,f
)[ [g(z
M,g
)[. Since
[z
m,f
a
n
[ =

re
i(
m,f
arg(an))
[a
n
[

[r [a
n
[[ n N
we have that

f(z
m,f
)
g(z
m,g
)

f(z
m,f
)
g(r)

n=1
[z
m,f
a
n
[
[r [a
n
[[

n=1
[z
m,f
a
n
[
[z
m,f
a
n
[
= 1
Hence, [f(z
m,f
)[ [g(z
m,g
)[.
5.5.5 Exercise 1
Let be a xed region and T be the family of holomorphic functions f : C with Re(f(z)) > 0 z .
I claim that T is normal. Consider the family of functions
( =
_
g : C : g = e
f
for some f T
_
Since Re(f(z)) > 0 f T, we have

e
f(z)

e
Re(f(z))iIm(f(z))

e
Re(f(z))

1
Hence, ( is uniformly bounded on compact subsets of and is therefore a normal family. Fix a sequence
(f
n
)
nN
T, and consider the sequence g
n
= e
fn
. (g
n
) has a convergent subsequence (g
n
k
) which converges
to a holomorphic function g on compact sets (Weierstrasss theorem). Since g
n
k
is nonvanishing for each k,
g is either identically zero or nowhere zero by Hurwitz theorem. If g is identically zero, then it is immediate
that f
n
k
tends to uniformly on compact sets. Now, suppose that g is nowhere zero. g(K) D 0
is compact by continuity. By the Open Mapping Theorem, for each z K, there exists r > 0 such that
D(g(z); r) g() D 0. The disks D(g(z); 4
1
r) form an open cover of g(K), so by compactness,
g(K)
n
_
i=1
D(g(z
i
); 4
1
r
i
)
n
_
i=1
D(g(z
i
); 2
1
r
i
)
n
_
i=1
D(g(z
i
); r
i
) D 0
23
On each D(g(z
i
); r
i
), we can choose a branch of the logarithm such that log(z) is holomorphic on D(g(z
i
); r
i
),
and in particular uniformly continuous on D(g(z
i
); 2
1
r
i
). For each i, choose
i
> 0 such that
w, w

D(g(z
i
); r
i
) [w w

[ <
i
[log(w) log(w

)[ <
Set = min
1in

i
, choose k
0
N such that k k
0
[g
n
k
(z) g(z)[ < z K. Then for 1 i n,
k k
0

log
_
e
fn
k
(z)
_
log(g(z))

< z g
1
_
D(g(z
i
); 2
1
r
i
)
_
It is not a priori true that log(e
fn
k
(z)
) = f
n
k
(z); the imaginary parts dier by an integer multiple of 2i.
But the function given by
1
2i
_
log(e
fn
k
(z)
) +f
n
k
(z)

is continuous and integer-valued on any open disk

about each z
i
in , and therefore must be a constant m Z in that disk as a consequence of connectedness.
Taking a new covering of g(K), if necessary, such that D(g(z
i
); r
i
) is contained in the image under g of such a
disk (which we can do by the Open Mapping Theorem), we may assume that for each z g
1
(D(g(z
i
); r
i
)),
2m
i
= lim
k
_
log
_
e
fn
k
(z)
_
+f
n
k
(z)
_
= log(g(z)) + lim
k
f
n
k
(z)
Taking k
0
N larger if necessary, we conclude that
k k
0

log
_
e
fn
k
(z)
_
log(g(z))

= [f
n
k
(z) [log(g(z)) + 2m
i
][ < z g
1
_
D(g(z
i
); 2
1
r
i
)
_
Since K

n
i=1
g
1
_
D(g(z
i
); 2
1
r
i
)
_
, we conclude from the uniqueness of limits that f
n
k
(z) converges to
lim
k
f
n
k
(z) uniformly on K.
Suppose in addition that Re(f) : f T is uniformly bounded on compact sets. I claim that T is then
locally bounded. Let K be compact, and let L > 0 be such that Re(f)(z) L z K f T. Then

e
f(z)

= e
Re(f(z))
e
L
z K f T
Hence,
_
g = e
f
: f T
_
is a locally bounded family, and therefore its derivatives are locally bounded. Since
Re(f) > 0 f T, we have that
[f

(z)[

(z)e
f(z)

= [g

(z)[
which shows that f

: f T is a locally bounded family. Since K is compact, there exist z

1
, , z
n
K
and r
1
, , r
n
> 0 such that K

n
i=1
D(z
i
;
ri
2
) and D(z
i
; r
i
) . By Cauchys theorem,
f(z) =
_
[zi,z]
f

(z)dz z D
_
z
i
;
r
i
2
_
[f(z)[ M
i
r
i
z D
_
z
i
;
r
i
2
_
where [z, z
i
] denotes the straight line segment, and M
i
is a uniform bound for f

: f T on D(z
i
; 2
1
r
i
).
Setting M = max
1in
M
i
and r = max
1in
r
i
, we conclude that
[f(z)[ Mr z K f T
Normal Families
5.5.5 Exercise 3
Let f : C C be an entire holomorphic function. Dene a family of entire functions T by
T = g : C C : g(z) = f(kz), k C
Fix 0 r
1
< r
2
. I claim that T is normal (in the sense of Denition 3 p. 225) in the annulus
r
1
< [z[ < r
2
if and only if f is a polynomial.
Suppose f = a
0
+ a
1
z + + a
n
z
n
is a polynomial, where a
n
,= 0. By Ahlfors Theorem 17 (p. 226), it
suces to show that the expression
(g) =
2 [g

(z)[
1 +[g(z)[
2
g T
24
is locally bounded. Since g(z) = f(kz) for some k C, it suces to show that
2[f

(z)[
1+|f(z)|
2
is bounded on C.
The function F(z) given by
F(z) =
2

_
z
1
_

1 +[f(z
1
)[
2
=
2

a
1
z
2n
+ 2a
2
z
2n1
+ +na
n
z
n+1

[z[
2n
+[a
0
z
n
+a
1
z
n1
+ +a
n
[
2
is continuous in a neighborhood of 0 with F(0) ,= + since a
n
,= 0. Hence, [F(z)[ M
1
[z[ , which
shows that
2 [f

(z)[
1 +[f(z)[
2
M
1
[z[
1

2[f

(z)[
1+|f(z)|
2
is continuous on the compact set D(0;
1

) and therefore bounded by some M

2
. Taking M =
max M
1
, M
2
, we obtain the desired result.
Now suppose that T is normal in r
1
< [z[ < r
2
. If f is bounded, then were done by Liouvilles theorem.
Assume otherwise. Let (f
n
)
nN
T be a sequence given by
f
n
(z) = f(
n
z) for some
n
C
where
n
, n . Since T is normal, (f
n
) has a subsequence (f
n
k
)
kN
which either tends to ,
uniformly on compact subsets of r
1
< [z[ < r
2
, or converges to some limit function g in likewise fashion.
Fix > 0 small and consider the compact subset r
1
+ [z[ r
2
. If f
n
k
g, then I claim that f
is bounded on C, which gives us a contradiction. Indeed, x z
0
C. Since (f
n
k
) converges uniformly on
r
1
+ [z[ r
2
, (f
n
k
) is uniformly bounded by some M > 0 on this set. Let [
n
k
(r
1
+)[ [z
0
[. By
the Maximum Modulus Principle, [f(z)[ is bounded on the disk D(0; [
n
k
(r
1
+)[) by some [f(w)[ for some
w on the boundary. Hence,
[f(z
0
)[ [f(w)[ = [f
n
k
(z)[ M for some z [z[ = r
1
+
Since z
0
was arbitrary, we conclude that f is bounded.
I now claim that f has nitely many zeroes. Suppose not. Let (a
n
)
nN
be the sequence of zeroes of f ordered
by increasing modulus, and consider the sequence of functions f
n
(z) = f
n
(r
1
a
n
z), where r
1
< r < r
2
is
xed. Our preceding work shows that (f
n
) has a subsequence (f
n
k
) which tends to on the compact set
[z[ = r. But this is a contradiction since f
n
k
(r) = 0 k N.
If we can show that f has a pole at , then were done by Ahlfors Section 4.3.2 Exercise 2 (Problem Set
1). Let f
n
(z) = f(nz), and let (f
n
k
)
kN
be a subsequence which tends to on compact sets. Let M > 0
be given. Fix r
1
< r < r
2
. Then f
n
k
uniformly on [z[ = r, so there exists k
0
N such that for
k k
0
, [f
n
k
(z)[ > M [z[ = r. Taking k
0
larger if necessary, we may assume that [f(z)[ > 0 [z[ rn
k0
.
Let z C, [z[ rn
k0
, and choose k so that n
k
r > [z[. By the Minimum Modulus Principle, [f[ assumes its
minimum on the boundary of the annulus n
k0
r [w[ rn
k
. But
min
_
inf
|w|=n
k
0
r
[f(w)[ , inf
|w|=n
k
r
[f(w)[
_
> M
and therefore,
[f(z)[ inf
n
k
0
r|w|n
k
r
[f(w)[ > M
Since z was arbitrary, we conclude that [f(z)[ > M [z[ rn
k0
. Since M > 0 was arbitrary, we conclude
that f has a pole at .
5.5.5 Exercise 4
Let T be a family of meromorphic functions in a given region , which is not normal in . By Ahlfors
Theorem 17 (p. 226), there must exist a compact set K such that the expression
(f)(z) =
2 [f

(z)[
1 +[f(z)[
2
f T
25
is not locally bounded on K. Hence, we can choose a sequence of functions (f
n
) T and of points (z
n
) K
such that
2 [f

n
(z
n
)[
1 +[f
n
(z
n
)[
2
, n
Suppose for every z , there exists an open disk D(z; r
z
) on which T is normal, equivalently (f) is lo-
cally bounded. Let M
z
> 0 bound (f) on the closed disk D(z; 2
1
r
z
). The collection
_
D(z; 2
1
r
z
) : z K
_
forms an open cover of K. By compactness, there exist nitely many disks D(z
1
; 2
1
r
1
), , D(z
n
; 2
1
r
n
)
such that
K
n
_
i=1
D(z
i
; 2
1
r
i
) and i = 1, , n [(f)(z)[ M
i
z D(z
i
; 2
1
r) f T
Setting M = max
1in
M
i
, we conclude that
[(f)(z)[ M z K f T
This is obviously a contradiction since lim
n
(f
n
)(z
n
) = +. We conclude that there must exist z
0

such that T is not normal in any neighborhood of z
0
.
26
Conformal Mapping, Dirichlets
Problem
The Riemann Mapping Theorem
6.1.1 Exercise 1
Lemma 6. Let f : C be a holomorphic function on a symmetric region (i.e. = ). Then the
function g : C, g(z) = f(z) is holomorphic.
Proof. Writing z = x+iy, if f(z) = u(x, y) +iv(x, y), where u, v are real, then g(z) = u(x, y) iv(x, y) =
u(x, y) + i v(x, y). It is then evident that g is continuous and u, v have C
1
partials. We verify the Cauchy-
Riemann equations.
u
x
(x, y) =
u
x
(x, y);
u
y
(x, y) =
u
y
(x, y)
v
x
(x, y) =
v
x
(x, y);
v
y
(x, y) =
v
y
(x, y)
The claim follows immediately from the fact that u, v satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations.
Let C be simply connected symmetric region, z
0
be real, and f : D be the unique conformal
map satisfying f(z
0
) = 0, f

(z
0
) > 0 (as guaranteed by the Riemann Mapping Theorem). Dene g(z) = f(z).
Then g : D is holomorphic by the lemma and bijective, being the composition of bijections; hence, g is
conformal. Furthermore, g(z
0
) = 0 since z
0
, f(z
0
) R. Since
0 < f

(z
0
) =
u
x
(z
0
) =
u
x
(z
0
) = g

(z
0
)
we conclude by uniqueness that f = g. Equivalently, f(z) = f(z) z .
6.1.1 Exercise 2
Suppose now that is symmetric with respect to z
0
(i.e. z 2z
0
z ). I claim that f satises
f(z) = 2f(z
0
) f(2z
0
z) = f(2z
0
z)
Dene g : D by g(z) = f(2z
0
z). Clearly, g is conformal, being the composition of conformal maps,
and g(z
0
) = 0. Furthermore, by the chain rule, g

(z
0
) = f

(z
0
) > 0. We conclude from the uniqueness
statement of the Riemann Mapping Theorem that g(z) = f(z) z .
27
Elliptic Functions
Weierstrass Theory
7.3.2 Exercise 1
Let f be an even elliptic function periods
1
,
2
. If f is constant then there is nothing to prove, so assume
otherwise. First, suppose that 0 is neither a zero nor a pole of f. Observe that since f is even, its zeroes
and poles occur in pairs. Since f is elliptic, f has the same number of poles as zeroes. So, let a
1
, , a
n
,
and b
1
, , b
n
denote the incongruent zeroes and poles of f in some fundamental parallelogram P
a
, where
a
i
, a
j
mod M, b
i
, b
j
mod M i, j and where we repeat for multiplicity. Dene a function g by
g(z) = f(z)
_
n

k=1
(z) (a
k
)
(z) (b
k
)
_
1
and where is the Weierstrass p-function with respect to the lattice generated by
1
,
2
. I claim that g
is a holomorphic elliptic function. Since (z) (a
k
) and (z) (b
k
) have double poles at each z M
for all k, g has a removable singularity at each z M. For each k, (z) (b
k
) has the same poles as
and is therefore an elliptic function of order 2. Since b
k
,= 0 and is even, it follows that (z) (b
k
) has
zeroes of order 1 at z = b
k
. From our convention for repeating zeroes and poles, we conclude that g has
a removable singularity at b
k
. The argument that g has removable singularity at each a
k
is completely
analogous. Clearly,
g(z +
1
) = g(z +
2
) = g(z) for z / a
i
+M b
i
+M M
so by continuity, we conclude that g is a holomorphic elliptic function with periods
1
,
2
and is therefore
equal to a constant C. Hence,
f(z) = C
n

k=1
(z) (a
k
)
(z) (b
k
)
Since f is even, its Laurent series about the origin only has nonzero terms with even powers. So if f vanishes
or has a pole at the origin, the order is 2m, m N. Suppose that f vanishes with order 2m. The function
given by

f(z) = f(z) (z)

m
is elliptic with periods
1
,
2
.

f has a removable singularity at z = 0, since (z)
k
has a pole of order 2k at
z = 0. Hence, we are reduced to the previous case of elliptic function, so applying the preceding argument,
we conclude that

f(z) = C
n

k=1
(z) (a
k
)
(z) (b
k
)
f(z) =
C
(z)
m
n

k=1
(z) (a
k
)
(z) (b
k
)
If f has a pole of order 2m at the origin, then the function given by

f(z) =
f(z)
(z)
m
is elliptic with periods
1
,
2
and has a removable singularity at the origin. From the same argument, we
conclude that
f(z) = C(z)
m
n

k=1
(z) (a
k
)
(z) (b
k
)
28
7.3.2 Exercise 2
Let f be an elliptic function with periods
1
,
2
. By Ahlfors Theorem 5 (p. 271), f has the same number
of zeroes and poles counted with multiplicity. Let a
1
, , a
n
, b
1
, , b
n
denote the incongruent zeroes and
poles of f, respectively, where we repeat for multiplicity. By Ahlfors Theorem p. 271,

n
k=1
b
k
a
k
M, so
replacing a
1
by a

1
= a
1
+

n
k=1
b
k
a
k
, we may assume without loss of generality that

n
k=1
b
k
a
k
= 0.
Dene a function g by
g(z) = f(z)
_
n

k=1
(z a
k
)
(z b
k
)
_
1
where is the entire function (Ahlfors p. 274) given by
(z) = z

=0
_
1
z

_
e
z
w
+
1
2
(
z
w
)
2
g has removable singularities at a
i
+ M, b
i
+ M for 1 i n. I claim that g is elliptic with periods
1
,
2
.
Recall (Ahlfors p. 274) that satises
(z +
1
) = (z)e
1(z+

1
2
)
and (z +
2
) = (z)e
2(z+

2
2
)
z C
where
2

1

1

2
= 2i (Legendres relation). Hence, for z , b
i
+M, a
i
+M,
g(z +
1
) = f(z +
1
)
_
n

k=1
(z a
k
+
1
)
(z b
k
+
1
)
_
1
= f(z)
_
n

k=1
(z a
k
)e
1(za
k
+

1
2
)
(z b
k
)e
1(zb
k
+

1
2
)
_
1
= e
1

n
k=1
a
k
b
k
f(z)
_
n

k=1
(z a
k
)
(z b
k
)
_
1
= g(z)
By continuity, we conclude that g(z +
1
) = g(z) z C. Analogously, for z , b
i
+M, a
i
+M,
g(z +
2
) = f(z +
2
)
_
n

k=1
(z a
k
+
2
)
(z b
k
+
2
)
_
1
= f(z)
_
n

k=1
(z a
k
)e
2(za
k
+

2
2
)
(z b
k
)e
2(zb
k
+

2
2
)
_
1
= e
2

n
k=1
a
k
b
k
f(z)
_
n

k=1
(z a
k
)
(z b
k
)
_
1
= g(z)
By continuity, we conclude that g(z +
2
) = g(z) z C. Since g is an entire elliptic function, it is constant
by Ahlfors Theorem 3 (p. 270). We conclude that for some C C,
f(z) = C
n

k=1
(z a
k
)
(z b
k
)
7.3.3 Exercise 1
Fix a rank-2 lattice M C and u / M. Then
(z) (u) =
(z u)(z +u)
(z)
2
(u)
2
Proof. I rst claim that the RHS is periodic with respect to M. Let
1
,
2
be generators of M and let

2

2

1
= 2i. For z / M,

(z +
1
u)(z +
1
+u)
(z +
1
)
2
(u)
2
=
(z u)e
1(zu+

1
2
)
(z +u)e
1(z+u+

1
2
)
(z)
2
e
21(z+

1
2
)
(u)
2
=
(z u)(z +u)e
21(z+

1
2
)
(z)
2
(u)
2
e
21(z+

1
2
)
=
(z u)(z +u)
(z)
2
(u)
2
= f(z)
29
The argument for
2
is completely analogous. The RHS has zeroes at u and a double pole at 0. Hence, by
the same reasoning used above, we see that
(z) (u) = C
(z u)(z +u)
(z)
2
(u)
2
for some C C
To nd conclude that C = 1, we rst note that (z) (u) has a coecient of 1 for the z
2
term in its
Laurent expansion. If we show that the Laurent expansion of the f(z) also has a coecient of 1 for the z
2
,
then it follow from the uniquenuess of Laurent expansions that C = 1.

(z u)(z +u)
(z)
2
(u)
2
=
(z
2
u
2
)

=0
_
1
zu

_
e
zu

+
1
2
(
zu

)
2

=0
_
1
z+u

_
e
z+u

+
1
2
(
z+u

)
2
z
2
(u)
2
_

=0
_
1
z

_
e
z

+
1
2
(
z

)
2
_
2
=

=0
_
1
zu

_
e
zu

+
1
2
(
zu

)
2

=0
_
1
z+u

_
e
z+u

+
1
2
(
z+u

)
2
(u)
2
_

=0
_
1
z

_
e
z

+
1
2
(
z

)
2
_
2
. .
g1(z)
+
1
z
2

u
2

=0
_
1
zu

_
e
zu

+
1
2
(
zu

)
2

=0
_
1
z+u

_
e
z+u

+
1
2
(
z+u

)
2
(u)
2
_

=0
_
1
z

_
e
z

+
1
2
(
z

)
2
_
2
. .
g2(z)
Observe that both g
1
(z) and g
2
(z) are holomorphic in a neighborhood of 0 since we have eliminated the
double pole at 0. Hence, the coecient of the z
2
in the Laurent expansion of f(z) is given by g
2
(0). But
since is an odd function, it is immediate that g
2
(0) = 1.
7.3.3 Exercise 2
With the hypotheses of the preceding problem,

(z)
(z) (u)
= (z u) +(z +u) 2(z)
Proof. For z ,= u+M, we can choose a branch of the logarithm holomorphic in a neighborhood of (z)(u).
Taking the derivative of the log of both sides and using the chain rule,

(z)
(z) (u)
=

z
_
log((z u)) + log((z u)) log((u)
2
(z)
2
)

(z u)
(z u)
+

(z +u)
(z +u)

2

(z)
(z)
= (z u) +(z +u) 2(z)
where weve used

(w)
(w)
= (w) w C (Ahlfors p. 274).
7.3.3 Exercise 3
With the same hypotheses as above, for z ,= u +M,
(z +u) = (z) +(u) +
1
2

(z)

(u)
(z) (u)
Proof. Since the last term has a removable singularity at z = u+M, by continuity, we may also assume that
z ,= u +M. First, observe that by replacing switching u and z in the argument for the last identity, we have
that

(u)
(z) (u)
= [(u z) +(z +u) 2(u)] = (z u) (z +u) + 2(u)
30
where weve used the fact that (z) is odd and therefore (z) =

(z)
(z)
is also odd. Hence,

(z)

u
(z) (u)
= ((z u) +(z +u) 2(z)) ((z u) (z +u) + 2(u)) = 2(z +u) 2(z) 2(u)
The stated identity follows immediately.
7.3.3 Exercise 4
By Ahlfors Section 7.3.3 Exercise 3,
(z +u) = (z) +(u) +
1
2
_

(z)

(u)
(z) (u)
_
Dierentiating both sides with respect to z and using

(w) = (w) w C M, we obtain

(z +u) = (z) +
1
2
_

(z)
(z) (u)

(

(z)

(u))

(z)
((z) (u))
2
_
We seek an expression for

(z) in terms of (z). For z ,=

1
2
,
2
2
,
1+2
2
+M,

(z)
2
= 4(z)
3
g
2
(z) g
2
2

(z)

(z) = 12(z)
2

(z) g
2

(z)

(z) = 6(z)
2

g
2
2
We conclude from continuity that

(z) = 6(z)
2

g2
2
. Substituting this identity in,
(z +u) = (z) +
1
2
_
6(z)
2

g2
2
(z) (u)

(

(z)

(u))

(z)
((z) (u))
2
_
Applying the same arguments as above except taking u to be variable, we obtain that
(z +u) = (u) +
1
2
_

6p(u)
2

g2
2
p(z) p(u)
+
(

(z)

(u))

(u)
((z) (u))
2
_
Hence,
2(z+u) = (z)+(u)+
1
2
_
6((z)
2
(u)
2
)
(z) (u)

(

(z)

(u))
2
((z) (u))
2
_
2
= 2(z)+2(u)
1
2
_

(z)

(u)
(z) (u)
_
2
(z +u) = (z) (u) +
1
4
_

(z)

(u)
(z) (u)
_
2
7.3.3 Exercise 5
Using the identity obtained in the previous exercise, we have by the continuity of that
(2z) = lim
uz
(z +u) = lim
uz
_
(z) (u) +
1
4
_

(z)

(u)
(z) (u)
_
2
_
= lim
uz
_
_
(u) (z) +
1
4
_

(z)

(u)
zu
(z)(u)
zu
_2
_
_
= 2(z) +
1
4
_

(z)

(z)
_
2
where we use the continuity of w w
2
to obtain the last expression.
31
7.3.3 Exercise 7
Fix u, v / M such that [u[ , = [v[, and dene a function f : C M C by
f(z) = det
_
_
(z)

(z) 1
(u)

(u) 1
(v)

(v) 1
_
_
=

(z)((u) (v)) +

(u)((z) (v)) +

(v)((z) (u))
= (

(u) +

(v))
. .
A
(z) + ((v) (u))
. .
B

(z) +(

(u)(v) +

(v)(u))
. .
C
where we use Laplace expansion for determinants. By our choice of u, v and the fact that the Weierstrass
function is elliptic of order 2, B ,= 0. Hence, f(z) is an elliptic function of order 3 with poles at the lattice
points of M. Since the determinant of any matrix with linearly dependent rows is zero, f has zeroes at u, v.
Since f has order 3, it has a third zero z, and by Abels Theorem (Ahlfors p. 271 Theorem 6),
u v +z 0 mod M z = v u
We conclude that
det
_
_
(z)

(z) 1
(u)

(u) 1
(u +z)

(u +z) 1
_
_
= 0
7.3.5 Exercise 1
Since is invariant under (2) and (2) is generated by the linear fractional transformations + 1
and
1
, it suces to show that J( + 1) = J() and J(
1
) = J(). Recall that satises the
functional equations
( + 1) =
()
() 1
and
_

_
= 1 ()
So,
J( + 1) =
4
27
(1 ( + 1) +( + 1)
2
)
3
( + 1)
2
(1 ( + 1))
2
=
4
27
(1 ()(() 1)
1
+()
2
(() 1)
2
)
3
()
2
(() 1)
2
(1 ()(() 1)
1
)
2

(() 1)
6
(() 1)
6
=
4
27
_
(() 1)
2
()(() 1) +()
2
_
3
()
2
(() 1)
2
=
4
27
(1 () +()
2
)
3
()
2
(() 1)
2
= J()
and
J
_

_
=
4
27
_
1 (1 ()) + (1 ())
2
_
3
(1 ())
2
(1 (1 ()))
2
=
4
27
_
1 () +()
2
_
3
()
2
(1 ())
2
= J()
Observe that
J() =
4
27
_
1 () +()
2
_
3
()
2
(1 ())
2
=
4
27
(() e
i

3
)
3
(() e
i

3
)
3
()
2
(1 ())
2
So, J() assumes the value 0 on
1
__
e
i

3
__
. Since is a bijection on

, J() has two zeroes, each

of order 3. We proved in Problem Set 8 that
g
2
= 4(e
1
e
2
+e
1
e
3
+e
2
e
3
) = 0
for = e
i
2
3
. So using the identity for J() proved below, J(e
i
2
3
) = 0. Using the invariance of J() under
, we see that J(e
i

3
) = 0.
J() assumes the value 1 on
1
(
1
, ,
6
), where the
i
are the roots of degree 6 the polynomial
p(z) = 4(1 z +z
2
)
3
27z
2
(1 z)
2
It is easy to check that
e
3
=
_
1 +i
2
; i
_
=
_
i + 1
2
; i
_
= e
3
e
3
= 0
32
Since e
1
+e
2
+e
3
= 0 (see below for argument), we have e
1
= e
2
and therefore
(i) =
e
3
e
2
e
1
e
2
=
1
2
Since each point in H
+
is congruent modulo 2 to a point in

, maps this fundamental conformally

onto C 0, 1, and J() is invariant under , we conclude J() assumes the value 1 at = i, 1 + i,
i+1
2
. I
claim that these are these are the only possible points up to modulo 2 congruence. Suppose J() = 1 for
/
_
i, 1 +i,
i+1
2
_
. If we let S
1
, , S
6
denote the complete set of mutually incongruent transformations, then
since /
_
e
i

3
, e
i
2
3
_
(otherwise J() = 0), S
1
, , S
6

are distinct, hence the (S

i
) are distinct
roots of p(z), and we obtain that p(z) has more than 6 roots, a contradiction. Moreover, this argument shows
that the polynomial p(z) has three roots, which by inspection, we see are given by
_
1,
1
2
, 2
_
.
I claim that J() assumes the value 1 with order 2 at = i, 1 + i,
i+1
2
. We need to show that the zeroes of
p(z) are each of order 2. Indeed, one can verify that
p(z) = 4(1 z +z
2
)
3
27z
2
(1 z)
2
= (z 2)
2
(2z 1)
2
(z + 1)
2
Substituting =
e3e2
e1e2
, we have
J() =
4
27
_
1 (e
3
e
2
)(e
1
e
2
)
1
+ (e
3
e
2
)
2
(e
1
e
2
)
2
_
3
(e
3
e
2
)
2
(e
1
e
2
)
2
(e
1
e
3
)
2
(e
1
e
2
)
2
=
4
27
_
(e
1
e
2
)
2
(e
3
e
2
)(e
1
e
2
) + (e
3
e
2
)
2
_
3
(e
3
e
2
)
2
(e
1
e
3
)
2
(e
1
e
2
)
2
=
4
27
_
e
2
1
2e
1
e
2
+e
2
2
e
3
e
1
+e
3
e
2
+e
2
e
1
e
2
2
+e
2
3
2e
3
e
2
+e
2
2
_
3
(e
3
e
2
)
2
(e
1
e
3
)
2
(e
1
e
2
)
2
Since
4z
3
g
2
z g
3
= 4(z e
1
)(z e
2
)(z e
3
) = 4(z
2
(e
1
+e
2
)z +e
1
e
2
)(z e
3
) = 4(e
1
+e
2
+e
3
)z
2
+
we have that e
1
+e
2
+e
3
= 0 and so,
0 = (e
1
+e
2
+e
3
)
2
= e
2
1
+e
2
2
+e
2
3
+ 2e
1
e
2
+ 2e
1
e
3
+ 2e
2
e
3
e
2
1
+e
2
2
+e
3
3
= 2 (e
1
e
2
+e
1
e
3
+e
2
e
3
)
Substituting this identity in,
J() =
4
27
(2(e
1
e
2
+e
2
e
3
+e
1
e
3
) (e
1
e
2
+e
2
e
3
+e
1
e
3
))
3
(e
3
e
2
)
2
(e
1
e
3
)
2
(e
1
e
2
)
2
= 4
(e
1
e
2
+e
2
e
3
+e
1
e
3
)
3
(e
3
e
2
)
2
(e
1
e
3
)
2
(e
1
e
2
)
2
33