Modern testing methods prevent century-old dangers The Benefits of Potable Water Testing For centuries ships have

effectively been mobile incubators of infection, playing a significant role in the transmission of deadly diseases around the world. Records dating back to the fourteenth century reveal that ports often denied entry to ships suspected of carrying plague in an effort to control the spread of infectious disease. Moreover, in the nineteenth century as international trade boomed, the spread of cholera pandemics is thought to have been transposed by merchant ships. Yet, perhaps surprisingly, the outbreak of dangerous diseases onboard ship is not an outdated phenomenon. If left unchecked, many of these diseases remain as deadly as those from yesteryear. Contamination can occur directly from source waters as well as during loading, storage and distribution, so the importance of good hygiene during potable water loading and maintaining adequate disinfection of supplies onboard cannot be overstated. Continuously monitoring the quality of water is the only way to ensure against nasty outbreaks of potentially lethal waterborne diseases, including legionella, cholera, salmonella and Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (E. coli) - the pathogen most frequently associated with outbreaks of waterborne diseases. Risk factors include contaminated port water, inadequate treatment, improper loading techniques, poor design and maintenance of storage tanks, ingress of contamination during repair and maintenance, cross-connections, back siphonage, and insufficient residual disinfectant. Regulations To manage these risks, the World Health Organisation (WHO), in line with the International Health Regulations 2005, has drafted the Guide to Ship Sanitation, which specifically details the systems that require monitoring, the method and frequency of monitoring, and recordkeeping requirements. An industry bible. endorsed by the IMO, this has become the official global reference on health requirements for ship construction and operation. Vessels from passenger, general cargo and naval ships to fishing vessels, tankers and offshore oil rigs are all required to conform to these standards. In line with this, it is a regulatory requirement for ships that bunker or produce their own water to ensure that a biocide treatment is present throughout the potable water network; most use chlorine. It is written into many marine guidance notes (e.g. Health Protection Agency 2003 Guidelines For Water Quality On Board Merchant Ships Including Passenger Vessels) to ensure that chlorine is present at tap outlets on board ship at 0.2mg/l free chlorine. To achieve this, potable water tanks should be dosed with chlorine to approximately 1-2ppm total available chlorine (max 5ppm). Effervescent chlorine tablets that dissolve rapidly without mixing can simply be added to the tank; one tablet in 315 litres water is equal to 1ppm total available chlorine. This should be supplemented by the superchlorination of tanks and pipework every six months, which involves shock dosing chlorine at 50ppm (24 hours) or 100ppm (1 hour). WHO guidance on drinking water also states that potable water should be absent of pathogenic bacteria, with a concentration level of zero CFU per 100ml water. Coliforms and E. coli are pathogenic and provide good indicators of the presence or absence of any pathogens. For example if coliforms or E. coli are absent, then the presence of other pathogens is unlikely, and vice versa. In addition, the WHO and HPA state general aerobic bacteria (TVC) levels should be below 100 CFU per ml and if in excess of 1000 CFU per ml, superchlorination should take place.

Research Despite these guidelines, the Association of Port Health Authorities (APHA) and HPA produced a collaborative study in the UK in 2005. The study concluded that of 950 potable water samples taken from various outlets onboard 342 ships docking in UK ports; 49% contained less than the regulatory minimum chlorine concentration of 0.2mg/l. This illustrates how poorly maintained the chlorine levels onboard ships are and highlights alarming health implications for passengers and crew onboard ships, from trawlers to liners. The potential risks are disproportionate to the minimal effort required to safeguard onboard water systems; for example a chlorine test takes approximately 15 seconds and traffic light testing on an 100ml sample for bacteria is fast and fool-proof. Simple regular testing of systems for chlorine and micro-organisms like coliforms, E. coli and pseudomonas will safeguard against contamination, reduce risks and help protect the health of crew and passengers. In short, no fuss for peace of mind and a safe vessel. Testing for chlorine and bacteria The presence of chlorine biocide is critical to potable water safety, as if absent, water is open to carrying bacteria that can cause dangerous health problems. Chlorine levels at the water outlet should remain above 0.2ppm, as if there is no chlorine present at the water outlet, this denotes that the network through which the water is flowing is not safe. Tank levels should remain above 1ppm and can be easily maintained through the addition of effervescent chlorine tablets. In addition to monitoring chlorine levels, measuring and screening for harmful bacteria including coliform and E. coli is another way to indentify general contamination. Coliform is an easy bacteria to test and, if identified, suggests that other problematic bacteria are likely to also be present. Crucially, the WHO sets E. coli limits at zero, so if present, water is definitely unsuitable for drinking. It is sometimes assumed that taking water onboard from a reputable and trustworthy source ensures that it is safe. However it is the distribution network once tanked that introduces an additional threat. The ships pipe network can represent subsequent risk; if the lid is left off the holding tank and a dead seagull or rat falls in, the water that comes out of the tap could be contaminated. According to the HPA, best practice is to monitor chlorine levels once a watch. However safety can be significantly increased by undertaking chlorine and microbiological testing every time water is taken onboard and tanked, especially when taken from lesser developed areas of the world. Thereafter weekly chlorine checks and monthly bacteria tests would make a good basis for a monitoring programme.

The investment of time and money required to ensure regulations are adhered to and the health of crew and passengers and crew is safeguarded is small. Especially when compared to the potential cost of downtime and reputational impact if a vessel is inflicted with st one of these waterborne diseases. It may be the 21 first century and the days of mass disease transposition a remnant of a bygone era, but onboard infection remains a potentially disastrous hazard that must be carefully guarded against. Parker Kittiwake offer condition monitoring systems