Florence Yuly (110705012) Sonya Priscilia (110705032) Beby Febri Kurnia (110705054) M.

Ridho Syahputra (110705044)

CHAPTER 2 LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS Studying sociolinguistics is more likely to be interested in the functional analysis of language than structural analysis. Language used in societies functions in different ways. Bronislaw Malinowski (1923) suggested that the structure of language reflects the social functions of language. This view has been accounted further by Michael AK Halliday (1973). He is a student of John R Firth who has been a prominent linguist for his notion on language functions in the framework of what he calls Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) which is based on how language actually functions in the social contexts and how those contents can actually influence the structure and the uses of language. All uses of language, however abstract and complex the social structure with which they were associated, were to be explained in terms of certain elementary functions. Language acquisition or language development needs to be seen as the mastery of linguistic functions. (MAK Halliday, 1973) According to Halliday, childrens language acquisition should be seen as a process of using language by learning to know its functions. Childrens utterances should change to be more complex following that development of the childrens needs in communication and their language competence. Basic Language Functions In the beginning phase of a young childs life, there are 3 basic functions of language that develop : 1) The instrumental function of language We can find it at childrens uttering simple words such as mommy. The function is defined as the use of language for the purpose of satisfying the speakers needs, either in the form of having goods or services. 2) The regulatory function of language It refers to our use of language to ask someone to do what we want. It can be found in a childs early speeches. When a child says come to his (her) pal around, to mean that his (her) pal should get closer, or when he (she) says that banana, please to her
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mother, to bring a banana to him (her), the child begins to use language to this function. 3) The interactional function of language We find when we use it in interacting with others. It is developed to be more complex as a child grows older. The everyday greetings such as hi, hello, goodbye, see you around are all simple examples of the use of language to this function. Halliday pointed out that this overlapping is most obvious in the use of language by adult people. The fact utterances in the adult language are functionally complex. Every adult linguistic act, with a few broadly specifiable exceptions, is serving more than one function at once. (MAK Halliday, 1973) More Developed Language Functions They are found in the complex uses of language by older people. The functions are internalized in the abstract language system named grammar. Macro-functions of language include the ideational and the interpersonal functions. 1) The ideational functional of language It is the use of language by a speaker in order to convey new information to a listener. Included in it are more specific functions namely, personal, imaginative, and heuristic language function, which can be interpreted to be all present at once in a single utterance, such as in Ram, I see you leaving the heavenly house with that beauty, or Oh my God. This is also reffered to as the representational or informative function of language. 2) The interpersonal function of language It is another developed function of language found mostly in adult. This is closely related to the regulatory and the interactional one which if found in the uses of language to express personal or social interactions. This function is hardly ever absent from any utterances made by any individual as a member of a society. Other Language Functions The ideational function has been referred to as the proporsitional function, informative function and referential function of language. The regulatory function has been also named directive or conotative function, the interactional (basic) and interpersonal (macro) functions are referred to as the pathic function of language and the personal function has been labeled the emotive or expressive function of language. 1) The poetic function of language It refers to the use of language in the literature works, such as poetry, prose and drama scripts, in which language is used to produce some aesthetic effects, either by rhyming sounds or by arranging particular intonations.
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2) The metalinguistic function of language It is the use of language to define or describe language itself. In making a dictionary example, a lexicographer uses language to define words or phrases and when teachers are talking about English tense to their students they also use language for clarifying a language. Two other different functions of language identified by taking a different perspective are : 3) The performative function of language It can be found mainly in ceremonial, ritual, or other activities related to the expression of personal or social belief. 4) The historical-record functional of language It is found in the use of language in texts or other recording materials. Personal bankaccount-books, business-reports, historical records, are some examples in which this language function can be found. In such function there is not really a two-way communication as normally found in other language functions. Language is always found in every conscious humans behavior and is quoted as below : It is difficult to see adequately the functions of language, because it is so deeply rooted in the whole human behavior that it may be suspected there is little in the functional side of our conscious behavior in which language does not play its part. Mario Pei (1963) In the field of English learning, the term function is used to cover so many different uses of utterance. The English expression such as i am with you, you can say that again, i agree with you are identified as expressions with the function of agreeing while opening phrases such as do you know...?, could anyone tell me...?, Id like to know, are said to function as asking for information, and phrases such as goodbye, see you, catch you later, function as departing expressions. Many different types of functions such as function of English in introducing, contrasting idea, giving advice, guessing, being vague, showing preferences, making suggestions, offering help, giving warning, inviting someone, saying goodbye, etc. In its social settings our language is used for different purposes and in different forms.

CHAPTER 3 LANGUAGE VARIETIES Referring to general linguists attitude towards language varieties, sociolinguists use the term asocial view of linguistics as found in the following quotation. While many linguists would like to view any language as a homogenous entity and each speaker of that language as controlling only a single style, so that they can make the strongest possible theoretical generalizations, in actual fact that language will be seen to exhibit considerable internal variation, a single-style speakers will not be found. (Ronald Wardhaugh, 1986) Classification on Language Varieties The varieties can be divided into 2 types: 1) Individual language varieties

2) Societal language varieties (including the region where the language is used and the period when it is used. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The way it is used: Spoken variety Written variety The formality: Formal language varieties Informal language varieties Social stratification of the society where language is spoken: High Middle Lower Gender: Men language variety Women language variety The ethnics who use a language : various ethnic varieties of language. The field with which the lexicon of the language is normally associated:
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Business variety Medical variety Military variety

Individual and Societal Language Varieties The language used by a community is abstract but the one used in every individual in the community is concrete. The individual language variety is referred to as speech or idiolect. Every idiolect or speech is a realization of the abstract language associated to a society. Practically any idiolect (speech) can only be understood through some knowledge about the society of which the individual speakers belong to as members. In regard to the concrete idiolect no one can be said to speak exactly the same language. Any individual is free to certain degree to use or not to use the norms or rules they think exist in the language. All speakers of English can talk to each other and for the most part understand each other; yet no two speak exactly alike. Some differences are due to age, sex, state of health, size, personality, emotional state and personal idiosyncrasies. That each person speaks somewhat differently from all others is shown by our ability to recognize acquaintances by hearing them talk. (Victoria Fromklin, et al, 1990) Personal favorite expressions are a sign of identifiable idiolects. Different ways of pronouncing, speed of speaking, unclear articulation or unusual accent, are also features of individual language variety. These linguistic behaviors may indicate individuals attitude either towards the other individuals in the communication or towards the topics found in the speech-events. A societal language variety refers to a variety of a language that is shared by every individual as members of a speech-community. A speech community is a community whose members share at least a single variety and the norms for its appropriate use. The variety of language that is shared and spoken by members of a particular speechcommunity is known as dialect or sociolect. A sociolect often develops following several factors found in the society, such as cultural innovation, political situation, technological invention, and people immigration. There are two major societal language varieties, namely regional varieties and temporal varieties. Regional and Temporal Language Varieties Different speech communities living in different regions normally speak different language. However, the same language can be also spoken in different regions. In this situation, the regional varieties of language then exist. Regional varieties of a language have been referred to as dialects. A specialized study on dialects is also known as dialectology.

The best known regional Malay varieties are the ones spoken in Indonesia and Malaysia. Some of the differences found in the two have been due to different linguistic and cultural influence following the colonization ages. The list below compares some words of each of varieties. Malaysian Malay Variety Pijat-pijat Rawan Rayu Indonesian Malay Variety Kutubusuk Melankolis petisi

The three words in Malay variety above can be also found in Indonesia but with different meanings. In Indonesian variety, pijat-pijat means massage, rawan, means risky and rayu means flatter. English spoken by American and British men are considered different from one another. One of the different features still recognized between these two varieties is the pronunciation of r. There are three major regional varieties of English spoken in American land, namely north variety, midland variety, and south variety. The following list presents the differences between American and British English variety.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Spelling Name Pronunciation Form/structure

British English Variety Colour Autumn Cat /kat/ Have you got it?

American English Variety Color Fall Cat /kt/ Do you have it?

The difference between the ways Americans speak their English from the British people also involves variations in stressed syllable, tone, and speed. British and American English regional varieties may e both referred to as the poles of standard English, and distinguished from the other varieties such as Australian English, Scottish English, Irish English, Canadian English and included several new regional varieties called New Englishes. In most case the variation between regional English varieties might be so subtle. The subtleness can be found for instance, in the case of the Canadian English. The following quotation reports this situation.

Many British people identify a Canadian accent as American; many Americans identify it as British. Canadians themselves insist on not being identified with either group, and certainly the variety does display a number of unique features. (David Crystal, 1997) The development of communication technology has mainly caused the subtle differences between one language variety and the other. One of the important factors that help the development of the English regional varieties is the view towards English as a neutral language; English has been regarded as a language which is not associated with any particular native ethnic or regional group. English firmly associated with advanced education and international interaction and global power, as well as a language with the status of an international tongue. Varieties of a language that are based on different periods of time of its uses are named chronological language varieties or chronolect. The chronological change the language results from social contacts, cultural transformation, political situation, and technological invention. The historical account of the Indonesian for instance, divides the development of the language into five chronological varieties, namely the old Malay period, the classical Malay period, the period before the 20th century, the period before the national independence and the post independence period. Each period is associated with the influence of other languages, mainly Sanskrit, Arabic, Portuguese, Dutch, and English. English chronological variety has been historically divided into three major periods, namely, the Old English, Middle English, and Modern English. The Old English has been so different from the Modern English in many sides. Native and Non-native Language Varieties The term native speakers refer to people who normally have a natural command upon a language because it is the language introduced to them and used commonly in the social settings. Native language is developed by a community since its first settlement in a land and then used through its generation. The native varieties of English for instance, refer to the ones spoken by Americans, British men, Canadians, Australians, and New Zealanders. The non-native language variety is the language that is in command after it is learned formally, informally, or non-formally. In some ways the English spoken in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Philippine, and Singapore are considered as the non-native varieties. Spoken and Written Language varieties The spoken variety is basically distinguished from the written one as it involves supra segmental features, such as pronunciations, intonations, stress, tempo as well as the nonverbal ones, such as gestures and facial expressions. In non-formal contexts the variety is usually more flexible than the written one. The written variety is colored with punctuation marks, capitalization of letters, and spacing. In speaking we stress a word by making it sound louder or raising the pitch, in writing we do underlining, italicizing, and bold-typing for the same purpose.
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Regarding the technology of the mobile phone-message-texting and internet chatting, several written forms appear to be variety that could be distinguished from the standard ones. In cellular or net texting, vowels are more likely to be deleted and number or singles letters may replace phrase and words. For example, at (@), for (4), etc.

Formal and informal language The formal language variety is referred to the variety used in writing official letters, government documents, research reports, business meetings, college lectures, academic seminars, etc. Some Indonesia words are not normally used in informal everyday conversation.the use of the question word mengapa (why), the conjunction words dan (and), maka (so that), sementara (while;whereas), will sound too formal to most people in casual conversations are normally felt to be formal in such context some words may also express different meaning in a different variety. In the formal and standard Indonesian the word orang will mean person or man as in orang itu sedang membaca (that person is reading). Informal talks, under the influence of Javanese use of wong, orang will not mean men as can be heard in an utterance such as orang aku ndak baca ( I am not reading, to tell the truth ). The texting codes described before are also more likely to be used in the informal contexts than in the formal ones. In English uses the complete forms such as I am, he is, we are, they will, you have, you cannot, can be more formal than the use of contractions such as Im, hes, were, theyll, youve, and you cant. The question words are all also regarded as examples of using formal English variety. The informal English variety is sometimes referred to as the casual or colloquial style. Casual or colloquial English words are more common in the spoken than in the written English variety. In the written, Informal variety is only used in personal correspondence but avoided in official or legal letters. In spoken English variety it is normal to use contraction instead of full forms. The difference between formal and informal language variety should not be deemed as two contrasting poles. According to the formality of its uses, language may alternatively be classified into five varieties, that is namely frozen, formal, consultative, casual, and intimate. Standard and non-standard language varieties According to whether it is perceived to be correct or not, the terms standard and non-standard variety of a language are applied. A standard language is developed as a result of a sociopolitical process. It is not entirely the same as the formal variety of a language, includes both formal and informal or colloquial variety. In regard to the occasion where the variety is used, the standard language variety might be associated with the formal variety.

In English, a definition of the standard variety has been once as quoted below.

Standard English is that variety of English which is usually used in print, and which is normally taught in schools and to non native speakers learning the language. It is also the variety which is normally spoken by educated people and in news broadcasts and other similar situations. (Peter Trudgill, 1978)

From the quotation above, two criterions to identify Standard English are suggested. First, Standard English is printed (written variety). Second, it is taught to non-native speakers in schools. The difference between standard and non-standard English sentence structures can also be spotted. For example my sister, she works and she lives out with the town is obviously a non-standard English as it is filled with the use of a non-standard preposition, but my sister works and she lives outside the town is standard and such a sentence can be found with most English users. The former one is common only to speakers of Scottish English. The Standard English variety also refers to the uses of Standard English accent, called Received Pronunciation (RP). The British and American English varieties in general are regarded at the Standard English varieties compared to the other English regional varieties, to point at an exact spot where in the range of the British areas or American land the Standard English is actually spoken will be very difficult. The English Spoken by its native users in London in fact shows that even with the Londoners non-standard English pronunciation is obviously found as it is described in the quotation below.

Fink is an example of a form of pronunciation typical of London and the south east of England (though also spreading to other urban centers). The th in words like three, think, Kath, or Arthur is pronounced as f, giving free, fink, Kaff, Arfer. (Jason Jones)

The standard variety of a language should refer to a particular regional variety. Standard English, and the standard variety of other language, should refer to the variety of language normally found, for example in the educational domain, taught in schools, or in printed official document. To some Indonesian speakers, such a use of structure and words can be still considered standard, only perhaps it is colloquial, therefore it should be normally used in informal situations.

Upper and Lower-Class Language Varietes The term diglossia is used to refer to a situation where a language is formally stratified ( or perceived to be so) into an upper and lower variety. There is also sometimes a middle variety more than two stratified varieties are found the term polyglossia may be applied. The Baliness and Javaness vernaculars are two languages with polyglossia. In Baliness or Javaness the traditional speakers of the languages are socially stratified into social-classes and their language into the speech-leveled varieties. Sociolinguistics introduces two types of diglossia. A formal diglossia is associated with the formally stratified status of the users. The non-formal doglossia is associated with the social or economic condition of the users. The formal diglossia is also sometimes referred to as the traditional diglossia and the informal one as the modern diglossia. In an informal diglossia situation the urban people with relatively high educational background and better economic living may be assumed to speak the upper-class variety, which is also termed as acrolect. While those who are less educated are more likely to be associated with the lower-class variety, which is also named basilect.

Women and Mens Language Varietes Language is sometimes believed to be accordance with the gender, namely mens language variety and womens language variety. Differences between men and women ways of pronouncing their language have been also reported among speakers of English. The issue of the works on anthropological ethnographers, some biological factor is assumed to influence the difference between mens and womens language. An examination claimed that there is different part in men and womens brain that is involved in processing a language input. In a recent set of studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging, phonological processing in males was shown located in the left half of the brain and in females to involve both left and right parts of the brain. (bernard Spolsky, 2001) The gender language varieties have been long time considered by some as merely stereotypes, for example still hold that women talk more than men, though modern technology uses report it is totally wrong, that womens speech display more variety in intonation than mens, women use euphemisms more than men, women make more use indirect and polite, better grammar and fewer colloquialisms, and tend to be collaborative rather than competitive, are among the most often cited differences between the two varieties. American women have been also said to be more consistent in using forms that are closer to the standard and the higher-class accents. In mixed-genders conversations, men have been said to interrupt more often than women. A social perspective sees for instance, that discriminated access to formal education for women and men in some societies has been
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possibly influential to the varieties. Another view considers the difference in the traditional role of women and men as the reason. This situation then believed to contribute to the different function of the gender function of the gender in the language innovation (change). Restricted and Elaborated Language Varieties Language may be seen to be varied in accordance with how far the users share assumption and use the context to make the utterances meaningful. In regard to this distinction, two types of languages have been introduced, namely the restricted and elaborated code (varieties). A restricted language variety is the one which is more context-dependent. It is characterized with use of simpler and shorter expressions. Informal and friendly talks, talks among people who work in the same field, or talks that are part of routine activities, are usually restricted. Thus, when they are found to be exchanged between a waiter (waitress) and a customer in a restaurant table, a question such as an iced tea? and then with sugar? We be of restricted forms, for the context, the short questions an iced tea? and with sugar? are readily understood then as would you like an iced tea with sugar? A football-match reporter does a game to the TV audience in a restricted language variety. As reporting it, a reporter may only say short expressions such as fault, Klinsmann to Matthaus, shot it, goal, instead of producing a complete sentence Klinsmann was fault, now, Matthaus is ready to take the free kickhe has taken a positionrunning and shot the ball, the goalkeeper jumps but he cannot catch the ballit is a goal. The use of short and restricted language variety obviously demand some prior knowledge about the context. An elaborated variety, by contrast is contextually low. It is used and found when the users of a language seem to depend so much on the use of the words and structures to make the utterances meaningful and properly understood. The variety is filled with carefully selected words, often longer expressions, and clearly defined prosodic features. It is filled with expressions that can stand on its own; a highly explicit variety of language. The language used in writing legal documents and in court sessions should be explicitly elaborated; it should communicate meanings as clearly as possible. A legal letter describing a sale and purchase agreement may states something such as the appearer of the first party declare that he sells and delivers to the appearer of the second party who explains that he buys and receives, which is perfectly detailed, avoiding no misinterpretations of anyone reading it. An observation to peoples daily routines in western countries shows that westerners tend to use more the elaborated variety than the restricted one. This can be seen particularly in the use of language in public notices. In a public bus in German for example, the passengers may find a notice that tells them to not talk to the bus driver. According to a study, the working class people have been found to use more the restricted code, whereas the middle class speakers tend to use of both the restricted and
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elaborated codes. Although this is obviously arguable, theorists suggested that there must be a correlation between social class and the use of either elaborated or restricted code.

Ethnic Language Varieties A language is as directly passed from parents to children as ethnicity. When there are several ethnics living as one nation in a country, the language will normally develop into several ethnic varieties, known also in sociolinguistics as ethnolects. Any ethnolect is regarded as an identity of the speakers and a symbol of their culture as well. The varieties are more observable when different ethnic groups live in separate regions. As its speakers can be found in so money countries across the world, English perhaps the language that is spoken by the largest numbers of different ethnics. In Singapore for instance, English is spoken by at least three large ethnic groups, namely Chinese, Malay, and Indians. The English in Singapore can also then also some ethnic varieties. Among so many different ethnic varieties of English, the most well known ones are perhaps the English of white and black ethnics. The existence of these varieties is obvious and also controversial as describe in the following quotation.

In the English-speaking world as a whole one of the most striking examples of linguistic ethnic-group differentiation, and one where the postulated role of some kind of substratum effect is a controversial subject-is the difference we have already noted between the speeches of black and white Americans (Peter Trudgill.1974)

The phrase the speeches of black and white Americans found above indicates the presence of ethnic varieties in the English-speaking world, especially among the Americans. The English spoken by the black Americans, has been popularly called as the Black Vernacular English (BVE). The origin of the variety is related to the history of the slavery in 1700s until 1800s. During the period there was a need for communication between the well-off Americans and lots of poor African people who were brought to the land for the plantation labors. Two other English varieties that are often cited are the English spoken by SpanishMexican descendants in the US and the one spoken by the Aboriginal ethnic in Australia land. Professional-Field-Language Varieties The language used among members of a professional field is usually different from ones used in other fields. The difference is recognized especially with the use of jargons, the specific words exclusively used in particular field. The term register is sometime used by some linguists to refer to this variety. Thus, in English for instance, the words such as

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epidemics, prescription, contagion are found to be used by the medical professional, whereas bridge, radar, commander, are used in military field. Specialty words or jargons like these may be used by professionals for different purposes. They can be used to show some for their expertise, to put others as outsiders, or even to confuse laypeople. The variety of a language based on the profession of the users is not only recognized from its jargons. Some phonological aspects (pronunciation) is also sometimes found to be distinctive.

Secret Language Varieties In a community there are sometimes people who arrange a group and use a special code (language variety) when communicate among the members. The special code is a variety of an ordinary language and because the purpose of its creation and is use usually for a secret one, it is classified as a secret language variety. One of the secret language varieties is called argot. A form of argot is known as cant (sometimes defined as a cryptolect) which is associated with criminals, such as thefts, tramps, pickpockets, robbers, and other secret groups. But the variety may be also found among gypsies, gays, prisoners, organized beggars, and other socially marginalized communities. Argot or cant is commonly used to identify whether someone is one of the members of such circles or outsiders, as well as to promote feelings of security, isolation, and camouflage of members. In different case, the words used in argots or cants have very different meaning when they are used as ordinary one by public. The study of cryptolect is sometimes known as cryptology. Instead of studying criminals secret language, cryptologist also study secret codes (language) used for secret military purposes. They analyze the way to break the codes (decoded) in order to reveal the secret message being delivered. For this there is usually a manual book that helps the code breakers. Another variety also purposely created as a secret one is known as language games. Language games are systematically transformations from ordinary languages that they often seem to be merely made for fun. A different language game named spoonerism. The game basically applies swapping of phonemes to the effect that the phrases or sentences of which the phonemes are exchanged may sound as if they are ordinary words. For example, the pig is sick becomes the sig is pick. Another language game is called eggy-peggy or aygo-paygo. In eggy-peggy every syllable is added combination of phonemes that could be consonant or vowel. For example, where are you going becomes wheref aref youf goingf. The rules applied to a secret language can be so extreme that the variety is unreadable to ordinary speakers. But the rules in a secret language may be altered if is needed. The alternation reflects the language arbitrariness, the creativity, as well as the sociolinguistic competences of the users as they are always in contacts.
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