92

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. 41, NO. 2, MAY 1998

Re-Inventing the Electrical Machines Curriculum

Malcolm W. Daniels, Member, IEEE, and Randall A. Shaffer, Member, IEEE
Abstract Undergraduate courses in electromechanical energy conversion are typically oriented toward the steady-state analysis of electrical machines. The advent of low-cost computer power and the availability of numerical software tools provide the opportunity to fundamentally reorient the pedagogical approach to the topic. A new approach is consistent with the developing need to emphasize the study of new machine designs and machines employed for control purposes as well as machines for use in more traditional power applications. This paper presents the results obtained from simulations developed as an integral part of an undergraduate electrical machines course at the University of Dayton. Sample simulation les are presented to demonstrate the ease with which the matrix model of the machine is transferred to the program. The matrix models and simulation results of the following machines are included: the single-phase transformer, the variable-reluctance machine, the cylindrical-rotor dual-winding machine, the symmetrical two-phase induction motor, a PWMcontrolled dc machine, and an inverter-driven brushless machine. The selected machines provide a systematic framework for analysis and simulation and present problems of increasing complexity to the student. Index Terms Electrical machines, motors, simulation.

I. INTRODUCTION

NDERGRADUATE courses in electromechanical energy conversion are often regarded by students to be historical artifacts of electrical engineering. Indeed, it has so long been considered a classical topic that many industries have noted a distinct lack of new engineers entering the eld. Those who are interested in the topic seem to be a dying breed. The motivation to re-invent the electrical machines curriculum is largely attributed to the desire to modernize the students perception of the subject. The accessibility of low-cost computing power and the availability of sophisticated numerical software tools provide the opportunity to reorient the pedagogical approach to the topic. Several factors combine to motivate a redenition of the undergraduate course: Changes in the student prole, internal competition, laboratory modernization, and changing employment prospects. The engineering profession has long been a pioneer in regard to the integration of computers in the curriculum as well as in teaching. However, computing resources have yet to be signicantly incorporated into the subject of electrical machines, as is evidenced by the nature of the textbooks that support this type of course. A brief review of current texts from the major publishers reveals that, to a
Manuscript received August 7, 1995; revised December 29, 1997. M. W. Daniels is with the Electrical Engineering Department, University of Dayton, Dayton, OH 45469-0226 USA. R. A. Shaffer is with the Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Department, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Prescott, AZ 86301 USA. Publisher Item Identier S 0018-9359(98)03511-0.

large extent, the computer is rarely considered a support tool for the study of the subject. Furthermore, many of the available texts propose a device-oriented approach to the topic rather than one based on a theoretical development. Indeed, it is difcult to nd an explanation or even a brief discussion of a general theoretical framework in which to describe the subject. There are a few notable exceptions: Krause and Wasynczuk [1], Krause, Wasynczuk, and Sudhoff [2], and the much used and revised text by Fitzgerald, Kingsly, and Umans [3] retain a somewhat generalized approach to the topic. An older text by Thaler and Wilkox [4] is also noteworthy. Todays students expect to use the computer as a tool to both understand the conceptual issues in any subject as well as to facilitate analysis and design. In the prospect of attracting students, a modernization of both the course and the supporting laboratory is essential. A recent paper by Nehrir, Fatehi, and Gerez [5] observes that the wrong impression made on students in the rst power course deters them from taking further electives in the subject. Nehrir et al. maintain that computer simulation complements the laboratory experience and stimulates interest and participation in the lecture course. Additionally, students are now increasingly likely to encounter electrical machines in nonclassical environments. Even though the majority of students will work in other areas, many of them will use machines of various types. The traditional sinusoidal and direct-current steady-state solutions will, in many instances, be inappropriate for their tasks. Indeed, the utility of the development of such solutions is, perhaps, in question. Demerdash, Luo, Alhamadi, and Mattingly [6] make this same observation in their recent paper in which they address the same topic. Developments on the integration of computing resources are reected in courses implemented at several institutions. Demerdash et al. describe the electrical machines course at Clarkson University. They argue the benets of academic computing in the teaching of electric machinery and their associated electromagnetic elds to undergraduate senior and graduate students. Their program is adventurous as it includes an integrated use of nite-element machine analysis and timedomain simulations of various machines. Riaz [7] discusses the use of MATLAB to simulate induction and synchronous machines and provides steady-state and transient solutions to the transformed machine models. Alvarado, Canizares, Keyhani, and Coates [8] discuss the issue of various declarative languages for the study of electric machines. Their discussion includes a comparison of the use of PC-MATLAB to other languages. Belmans and Geysen [9] discuss course and laboratory developments in electrical machine and machine drive design at the Katholieke University, Leuven. Chan [10]

00189359/98$10.00 1998 IEEE

DANIELS AND SHAFFER: RE-INVENTING THE ELECTRICAL MACHINES CURRICULUM

93

also reports the use of spreadsheet packages to automate machine calculations, although the technique is primarily oriented toward steady-state solutions. The integration of computers to electric machines laboratories has been reported by several universities: Krein and Sauer [11] at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Mohammed and Gordon [12] at Florida International University, and Kasten, Kent, Mako, and Turner at Ohio State University [13] all describe recent upgrades and renovations of their electric machines and power systems laboratories. In an effort to address the need to modernize the machines curriculum, this paper presents the numerical solutions to machine models used to support an undergraduate electromechanical machines course in the School of Engineering at the University of Dayton. The objective is to provide a systematic method for simulation of the transient and steady-state operation of different machines. These solutions are developed directly from the generalized machine matrix models. Reference frame transformations on the models are circumvented, which reduces the complexity of the theoretical presentation and facilitates the study of the topic at the undergraduate level. The course parallels the approach developed in [1]. The following machines are considered: The single-phase transformer, the elementary reluctance machine, the dualwinding machine, the symmetrical two-phase induction machine, the shunt-wound dc machine, and the brushless machine. The simulations illustrate the reluctance and alignment torque mechanisms that result from spatially varying airgaps and distributed windings. Practical simulations illustrate the transient and steady-state response and operation of various machines controlled by modern techniques. Machine operation from pulsewidth-modulated (PWM) dc supplies, frequencycontrolled inverters, and other common circuit topologies are readily addressed. The solutions to the generalized machine equations are obtained from the RungeKutta integration algorithms in MATLAB [14]. The selection of MATLAB as an appropriate tool is justied by student familiarity, ease of use, accessibility, and availability of a student version of the software, retention of a declarative programming environment, and the clarity and similarity of the software solution to the theoretical problem. The theoretical simplicity of the generalized machine approach is maintained by a systematic numerical solution of coupled nonlinear differential equations. The solution algorithm avoids matrix inversion and other numerical difculties. The simulations include plots of the rotor and stator currents, stator voltages, rotor position and velocity, and the torquespeed characteristic of the machine.

in which is the winding supply voltage vector, is the winding current vector, and are square matrices whose elements represent resistive and inductive parameters, respectively, and is the generated back electromotive force (emf). With the exceptions of the transformer and the brushless machine, the elements of the resistance and inductance matrices generally vary with time. Also, the back emf is zero for all machines considered except the brushless machine. In addition to the electromagnetic equations, a second-order differential equation is assumed to model the mechanical characteristics of the machine (2) in which and are the effective inertia and damping is the load torque. coefcients, respectively, and The solution of the machine equations is obtained after an elementary reorganization of the model equations. With the derivative of the current vector expressed in terms of the winding voltage sources and the lumped model parameters, the state-space model becomes (3) The mechanical equation of the machine is expressed in state-variable form as (4)

(5) The current vector of the machine and the state variables and comprise the entire state vector which must be solved for by the integration routine. When practical, is determined algebraically to reduce the simulation time and to avoid ill-conditioned matrices. In addition to the solution of the state vector, the electromagnetic torque of the machine must also be computed as the machine equations are solved. The book by Krause and Wasynczuk provides a particularly lucid introduction to the matrix modeling approach to machine analysis and is perhaps the only introductory machines text which does so. Accordingly, the following summary machine descriptions are deduced from the generalized models developed in [1]. A. Single-Phase Transformer

II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK With familiar assumptions in regards to the magnetic linearity of materials used in machine construction, a state-space model for each machine is developed in the form of a series circuit (1) (6) (7) (8)

94

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. 41, NO. 2, MAY 1998

B. Variable-Reluctance Machine (26) (9) (10) (11) C. Dual-Winding Machine

(27)

(28)

(12) (13)

F. Brushless Machine

(29) (14) is formulated the same as (8). rotor machine. for the cylindrical (30) D. Symmetrical Two-Phase Induction Machine

(15) (16) (17) (18)

(31) (32) (33)

(34) (19) (20) (35) (21) (22) (23) In the generalized machine models, the spatial variations of the inductive parameters are assumed negligible. The inclusion of more complex inductance proles would require, for example, a nite-element approach to the modeling problem. III. DISCUSSION
OF

COMPUTED RESULTS

(24) E. Shunt-Wound DC Machine

(25)

The rst program developed by the students is a transient simulation of a single-phase transformer. The transformer is familiar to the students from previous classes in circuit theory and from practical exposure to the device in the laboratory. The development of the matrix model of the transformer provides a convenient vehicle to introduce matrix models of machines as well as the mechanics of their solution using MATLAB. The example also provides a gentle introduction to the simulation problem. A range of test results can be developed from the solution of only one or two differential equations. Typical

DANIELS AND SHAFFER: RE-INVENTING THE ELECTRICAL MACHINES CURRICULUM

95

(a)

(b)

(c)
T

(d)

0:1, LA = 0:1, LB = 0:1, Lls = 0:01, J = 0:001, Rs = 10, V = 120, Fig. 1. Transient simulation of the variable-reluctance machine. Bm L = 0. Initial rotor position 45 (solid line) and 350 (dashed line). (a) Winding current. (b) Rotor angular velocity. (c) Torquespeed characteristic. (d) Rotor angular position.

results obtained from simulations include the standard opencircuit and short-circuit tests, load tests, and instantaneous short-circuit tests under loaded conditions. The steady-state solutions are developed from an analysis of the equivalent circuit of the transformer to verify the numerical solution of the equations. One of the major advantages of the use of dynamic simulations in the introductory course is the ability to illustrate fundamental concepts associated with machine operation. A study of the elementary reluctance machine and the dual-winding machine illustrates the two major torque mechanisms on which most machines depend, specically, reluctance torque and alignment torque. The elementary reluctance machine, comprising a single winding on the stator and a salient rotor, is simulated with different initial rotor positions. The simulation results for initial rotor positions of 45 and 350 are shown in Fig. 1. The results illustrate the development of torque when the rotor is unaligned with the minimum-reluctance positions. The action of the torque is to align the rotor and, consequently, minimize the stored energy in the magnetic eld of the machine at the equilibrium positions 90 and 270 . The cylindrical rotor dual-winding machine consists of two

interacting windings, one on the stator and the other on the rotor. The dual winding machine simulations illustrate the development of torque when the principle magnetic axes of the rotor and stator windings are unaligned. The action of the developed torque is to rotate the rotor of the machine to produce alignment. Other results can be readily obtained from the simulations such as the use of ac and dc sources and the addition of rotor saliency. For the dual-winding machine, the student solves four coupled nonlinear differential equations via MATLAB with only a minor increase in programming complexity from the transformer simulation program. One principle advantage of the use of MATLAB is that it permits a nearly direct translation of the machine models from their mathematical expressions to the simulation program. The facility of the translation is illustrated in the simulation les for the dual-winding machine given in the Appendix. In the function le, the elements of matrices (12) and (13) are readily visible, as are (3), (4), (8), and (14). The use of the MATLAB ode45 function (not shown) makes the method of integration virtually transparent. The rst practical machine investigated by the student is the two-phase symmetrical induction motor. The advantages

96

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. 41, NO. 2, MAY 1998

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

0, J = 0:026, Lr = 0:0361, Ls = 0:0361, Lm = 0:0352, Fig. 2. Transient simulation of two-phase symmetrical induction machine. Bm P = 2, Rr = 0:201, Rs = 0:295, TL = 0 (initially), TL = 5 for t > 0:6: (a), (e) Stator current, phase A. (b), (f) Rotor current, phase A. (c), (g) Rotor speed. (d), (h) Torquespeed characteristic.

of the use of a matrix formulation of the equations become apparent with the induction motor because the machine model and the associated mechanical load are described by a set of six equations. The simulation is accomplished directly from the generalized machine model without the use of variable transformations to facilitate the solution. In contrast, Alvarado et al. [8], in their comparison of different languages for use

in machine simulations, use the transformed model in their evaluation. As with the transformer simulation, a range of results is readily developed with minor program changes such as the effects of source voltage imbalance and load torque variations. A transient simulation of the machine started from stall is shown in Fig. 2(a)(d). The simulations reveal many of the pertinent characteristics of induction machine operation

DANIELS AND SHAFFER: RE-INVENTING THE ELECTRICAL MACHINES CURRICULUM

97

(a)

(b)

(c) Fig. 3. Bm 6:04E-6, J = 1, LAA = 0:012, LAF = 1:8, LFF = 120, Ra = 0:6, Armature voltage. (b) Armature current. (c) Rotor speed. (d) Torquespeed characteristic.

(d)
R

= 240,

= 240, 50% duty cycle,

= 240. (a)

without the pursuit of a steady-state equivalent circuit. The simulation is continued in Fig. 2(e)(h) in which a 5 N m 0.6 s. The results step-change in load torque occurs at illustrate the dependence of the steady-state operating speed on the load conditions. Also illustrated is the concept of slip, shown by the difference in the frequencies of the rotor and stator currents. The potential for a departure from the traditional machines curriculum is possible with minor simulation program changes. Many of the operating characteristics of the newer machines can be deduced from appropriate simulations. It is also possible to preview more complicated operating conditions, particularly those associated with power electronically controlled supplies. Once the students investigate the operating characteristics of the shunt-connected dc machine supplied by a dc source, the operation of the motor from a PWM-controlled supply is considered next. The transient response of the dc machine under PWM-control is shown in Fig. 3. The results illustrate the relationship between duty cycle and average rotational speed of the motor. Also revealed in the results is the highfrequency ripple content in the armature current, and consequently in the electromagnetic torque, which illustrates one of the disadvantages of modern machine control techniques.

Finally, the brushless machine operated from a variablefrequency supply is investigated. After an investigation of the characteristics of the machine under sinusoidal excitation, the students simulate the inverter-driven brushless motor. Results of the inverter-supplied machine simulation are shown in Fig. 4. The results illustrate how the brushless machine, which is actually a permanent-magnet synchronous motor, behaves like a dc shunt motor in that the operating speed is directly proportional to the source voltage. IV. CONCLUSION The availability of modern computing resources makes the update of the machines curriculum not only possible, but also necessary, in order for schools to remain competitive and meet the expectations of the modern student. The subject of electrical machinery can no longer be limited to the study of equivalent circuits and steady-state operating characteristics. The use of MATLAB and the method whereby the matrix models of the machines are directly translated to the simulation environment have been very successful in the course and have been well received by the students. The systematic method provides a mechanism for machine simulation directly from the generalized models of the machine, while the essential

98

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. 41, NO. 2, MAY 1998

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g) Fig. 4. B current phase

(h)

m = 0, J
A.

= 0:0001,  = 0:0826, L = 0:0121, L = 0:011, (c), (g) Rotor speed. (d), (h) Torquespeed characteristic.

ss

ms

P = 4 , R s = 3 :4 :

(a), (e) Stator voltage, phase

A.

(b), (f) Stator

structure of each model is retained in the associated simulation program. The simulation exercises also demonstrate the tradeoff between numerical accuracy and computation time. In some cases, particularly where the machine is supplied by a highfrequency switched source, the simulation times can be fairly long. In these instances, the students are encouraged to increase the error tolerance, especially during the debugging stage of programming. The students are also encouraged to

save the simulation data for certain types of postprocessing, such as cubic spline interpolation and the use of custom plotting routines. A logical extension to the course would be to include more complex expressions for the inductive parameters in the machine models. A nite-element toolbox, in conjunction with MATLAB, would be appropriate to extend the conceptual issues covered in the course and allow spatial variations to be considered in the model parameters.

DANIELS AND SHAFFER: RE-INVENTING THE ELECTRICAL MACHINES CURRICULUM

99

APPENDIX Main Program (Filename: dwmac.m; type dwmac at the MATLAB prompt) close all, clear all, clc global Bm J LA LB Lls Lr Lsr P Rr Rs % Machine parameters Bm = 0.05; J = 0.001; LA = 0.1; LB = 0; Lls = 0.01; Lr = 1; Lsr = 0.1; P = 2; Rr = 10; Rs = 10; % Simulation X0 = [0; 0; 0; pi/4]; tspan = [0 0.4]; [t, X] = ode45(dualwind, tspan, X0); % Extract machine variables and save in file called dwmdata Is = X(:, 1); Ir = X(:, 2); wr = X(:, 3); thr = X(:, 4); Te = Lsr Ir Is cos(thr); save dwmdata t Ir Is Te thr wr % Plot the results subplot (2, 2, 1), plot (t, Ir, t, Is), title (Winding Currents) xlabel (t (sec)), ylabel ((A)), grid subplot (2, 2, 2), plot (t, wr), title (Rotor Velocity) xlabel (t (sec)), ylabel ((rad/s)), grid subplot (2, 2, 3), plot (t, thr), title (Rotor Position) xlabel (t (sec)), ylabel ((rad)), grid subplot (2, 2, 4), plot (wr, Te), title (Torque-Speed Characteristic) xlabel (wr (rad/s)), ylabel ((Nm)), grid Function File (Filename: dualwind.m) function dX = dualwind (t, X) global Bm J LA LB Lls Lr Lsr P Rr Rs Is = X(1); Ir = X(2); wr = X(3); thr = X(4); I = [Is; Ir]; % Machine equations Vr = 120; Vs = 120; V = [Vs; Vr]; TL = 0; wr LB sin(2 thr); R11 = Rs + 2 R12 = wr Lsr cos(thr); R = [R11 R12; R12 Rr]; LB cos(2 thr); L11 = Lls + LA L12 = Lsr sin(thr); D = L11 Lr L12 L12; Li = 1/D [Lr L12; L12 L11]; [V R I]; dI = Li Te = Lsr Ir Is cos(thr); dwr = P/(2 J) (Te TL) (Bm/J) wr; dX = [dI; dwr; wr];

100

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. 41, NO. 2, MAY 1998

REFERENCES
[1] P. C. Krause and O. Wasynczuk, Electromechanical Motion Devices. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1986. [2] P. C. Krause, O. Wasynczuk, and S. D. Sudhoff, Analysis of Electric Machinery. New York: IEEE Press, 1995. [3] A. E. Fitzgerald, C. Kingsley, and S. D. Umans, Electric Machinery. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990. [4] G. J. Thaler and M. L. Wilcox, Electric Machines: Dynamics and Steady State. New York: Wiley, 1966. [5] M. H. Nehrir, F. Fatehi, and V. Gerez, Computer modeling for enhancing instruction of electric machinery, IEEE Trans. Educ., vol. 38, pp. 166170, May 1995. [6] N. A. Demerdash, Z. Luo, M. A. Alhamadi, and B. T. Mattingly, Teaching electrical machinery and associated electromagnetic eldsA case for the benets of academic computing, IEEE Trans. Educ., vol. 36, May 1993. [7] Riaz, Computer-aided teaching of electric machines using MATLAB, in Proc. Int. Aegean Conf. on Electric Machines, May 1992. [8] Alvarado, Canizares, Keyhani, and Coates, Instructional use of declarative languages for the study of machine transients, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 6, no. 1, 1991. [9] R. Belmans and W. Geysen, Impact of the computer developments on the education of engineering graduates in electrical machines and drives, presented at MELECON89, 1989. [10] T. F. Chan, Analysis of electrical machines using symphony, IEEE Trans. Educ., vol. 35, Feb. 1992. [11] Krein and Sauer, An integrated laboratory for electric machines, power systems, and power electronics, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 7, no. 3, 1992. [12] Mohammed and Gordon, Analysis of rotating machine concepts in the energy conversion laboratory from experimental data, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 6, no. 2, 1991. [13] Kasten, Kent, Mako, and Turner, Modernization of machines laboratory, in Proc. Amer. Power Conf., 1992, vol. 54, p. 1. [14] MATLAB Manual, The Mathworks, 1994.

Malcolm W. Daniels (M86M91) received the B.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical and electronic engineering from the University of Strathclyde, Scotland, U.K., in 1979 and 1983, respectively. After working in the industrial control area, he joined the Industrial Control Center at the University of Strathclyde, where he worked on Backup Roll Eccentricity Control problem in the steel industry. He joined the University of Dayton, Dayton, OH, in 1986 and has since been involved in research and teaching in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering. His current interests are industrial control problems related to electrical machines, VSC control systems, and educational philosophy.

Randall A. Shaffer (A90M91S94M96) received the B.Sc. degree in electrical and electronic engineering from California State University at Sacramento in 1984, the Master of Engineering degree from California Polytechnic State University at San Luis Obispo in 1989, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the University of Dayton, Dayton, OH, in 1996. He is currently an Assistant Professor at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Prescott, AZ. His interests are in power electronics, motor and charge control, and variable-structure systems as well as sliding-mode control. Dr. Shaffer is a member of IEEE Societies on Automatic Control, Control Systems Technology, Power Electronics, and Education.