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Washington
Booker T. Washington
Booker T. Washington
Born
Booker Taliaferro Washington April 5, 1856 Hale's Ford, Virginia, U.S. November 14, 1915 (aged59) Tuskegee, Alabama, U.S.
Died
Occupation Educator, Author, and African American Civil Rights Leader Signature
Slavery
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Booker T. Washington
Booker Taliaferro Washington (April 5, 1856 November 14, 1915) was an African-American educator, author, orator, and advisor to Republican presidents. He was the dominant leader in the African-American community in the United States from 1890 to 1915. Representative of the last generation of black American leaders born in slavery, he spoke on behalf of the large majority of blacks who lived in the South but had lost their ability to vote through disfranchisement by southern legislatures. Historians note that Washington, "advised, networked, cut deals, made threats, pressured, punished enemies, rewarded friends, greased palms, manipulated the media, signed autographs, read minds with the skill of a master psychologist, strategized, raised money, always knew where the camera was pointing, traveled with an entourage, waved the flag with patriotic speeches, and claimed to have no interest in partisan politics. In other words, he was an artful politician."[1] While his opponents called his powerful network of supporters the "Tuskegee Machine," Washington maintained control because of his ability to gain support of numerous groups including influential whites and the black business, educational and religious communities nationwide. He advised on financial donations from philanthropists, and avoided antagonizing white Southerners with his accommodation to the political realities of the age of Jim Crow segregation.[2]
Overview
Washington was born into slavery to Jane, an enslaved woman, and a white father. His father was a nearby planter, in a rural area of the Piedmont region in southwestern Virginia. After emancipation, his mother moved the family to rejoin her husband in West Virginia; there Washington worked in a variety of manual labor jobs before making his way to Hampton Roads seeking an education. He worked his way through Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute (now Hampton University) and attended college at Wayland Seminary (now Virginia Union University). In 1876, Washington returned to live in Malden, West Virginia, teaching Sunday School at African Zion Baptist Church; he married his first wife, Fannie Smith, at the church in 1881.[] After returning to Hampton as a teacher, in 1881 he was named as the first leader of the new Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. Washington attained national prominence for his Atlanta Address of 1895, which attracted the attention of politicians and the public, making him a popular spokesperson for African-American citizens. He built a nationwide network of supporters in many black communities, with black ministers, educators and businessmen composing his core supporters. Washington played a dominant role in black politics, winning wide support in the black community and among more liberal whites (especially rich Northern whites). He gained access to top national leaders in politics, philanthropy and education. Washington's efforts included cooperating with white people and enlisting the support of
Booker T. Washington wealthy philanthropists, helping to raise funds to establish and operate thousands of small community schools and institutions of higher education for the betterment of blacks throughout the South. This work continued for many years after his death. Washington argued that the surest way for blacks to gain equal social rights was to demonstrate "industry, thrift, intelligence and property." Northern critics called Washington's followers the "Tuskegee Machine". After 1909, Washington was criticized by the leaders of the new NAACP, especially W. E. B. Du Bois, who demanded a stronger tone of protest for advancement of civil rights needs. Washington replied that confrontation would lead to disaster for the outnumbered blacks, and that cooperation with supportive whites was the only way to overcome pervasive racism in the long run. At the same time, he secretly funded litigation for civil rights cases, such as challenges to southern constitutions and laws that disfranchised blacks.[3]Wikipedia:Citing sources Washington was on close terms with national republican leaders, and often was asked for political advice by presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft.[4] In addition to his contributions in education, Washington wrote 14 books; his autobiography, Up From Slavery, first published in 1901, is still widely read today. During a difficult period of transition, he did much to improve the working relationship between the races. His work greatly helped blacks to achieve higher education, financial power and understanding of the U.S. legal system. This contributed to blacks' attaining the skills to create and support the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, leading to the passage of important federal civil rights laws.
Career overview
Washington was born into slavery to Jane, an enslaved African-American woman on the Burroughs Plantation in southwest Virginia. She never identified his white father, said to be a nearby planter; he played no significant role in Washington's life. His family gained freedom in 1865 as the Civil War ended, and his mother took them to West Virginia to join her husband. As a boy of 9 in Virginia, he remembered the day in early 1865:[5] As the great day drew nearer, there was more singing in the slave quarters than usual. It was bolder, had more ring, and lasted later into the night. Most of the verses of the plantation songs had some reference to freedom... Some man who seemed to be a stranger (a United States officer, I presume) made a little speech and then read a rather long paperthe Emancipation Proclamation, I think. After the reading we were told that we were all free, and could go when and where we pleased. My Washington early in his career. mother, who was standing by my side, leaned over and kissed her children, while tears of joy ran down her cheeks. She explained to us what it all meant, that this was the day for which she had been so long praying, but fearing that she would never live to see. She and the freedman Washington Ferguson were formally married in West Virginia, and Booker took the surname Washington at school after his stepfather.[6][7] The youth worked in salt furnaces and coal mines in West Virginia for several years, then made his way east to Hampton Institute, a school established to educate freedmen, where he worked to pay for his studies. He attended Wayland Seminary in Washington, D.C. in 1878 and left after 6 months. In 1881, the Hampton president Samuel C. Armstrong recommended Washington to become the first leader of Tuskegee Institute, the new normal school (teachers' college) in Alabama. He headed it for the rest of his life.
Booker T. Washington Washington was instrumental in having West Virginia State University, founded in 1891, located in the Kanawha Valley of West Virginia. He visited the campus often and spoke at its first commencement exercise.[8] Washington was a dominant figure of the African-American community from 1890 to his death in 1915, especially after his Atlanta Address of 1895. To many he was seen as a popular spokesman for African-American citizens. Representing the last generation of black leaders born into slavery, Washington was generally perceived as a supporter of education for freedmen in the post-Reconstruction, Jim Crow-era South. Throughout the final twenty years of his life, he maintained his standing through a nationwide network of supporters including black educators, ministers, editors, and businessmen, especially those who supported his views on social and educational issues for blacks. He gained access to top national leaders in politics, philanthropy and education, raised large sums, was consulted on race issues and was awarded honorary degrees from leading American universities. Late in his career, Washington was criticized by leaders of the NAACP, a civil rights organization formed in 1909. W. E. B. Du Bois advocated activism to achieve civil rights. He labeled Washington "the Great Accommodator". Washington's response was that confrontation could lead to disaster for the outnumbered blacks. He believed that cooperation with supportive whites was the only way to overcome racism in the long run. Washington contributed secretly and substantially to legal challenges against segregation and disfranchisement of blacks.[3]Wikipedia:Citing sources In his public role, he believed he could achieve more by skillful accommodation to the social realities of the age of segregation.[2] Washington's work on education problems helped him enlist both the moral and substantial financial support of many major white philanthropists. He became friends with such self-made men as Standard Oil magnate Henry Huttleston Rogers; Sears, Roebuck and Company President Julius Rosenwald; and George Eastman, inventor and founder of Kodak. These individuals and many other wealthy men and women funded his causes, including Hampton and Tuskegee institutes. The schools Washington supported were founded primarily to produce teachers. However, graduates had often returned to their largely impoverished rural southern communities to find few schools and educational resources, as the state legislatures consistently underfunded black schools in their segregated system. To address those needs, Washington enlisted his philanthropic network to create matching funds programs to stimulate construction of numerous rural public schools for black children in the South. Working especially with Julius Rosenwald from Chicago, Washington had Tuskegee architects develop model Sculpture of Booker T. Washington at the National school designs. The Rosenwald Fund helped support the Portrait Gallery in Washington, D.C. construction and operation of more than 5,000 schools and supporting resources for the betterment of blacks throughout the South in the late-19th and early-20th centuries. The local schools were a source of communal pride and were priceless to African-American families when poverty and segregation limited severely the life chances of the pupils. A major part of Washington's legacy, the model rural schools continued to be constructed, with matching funds from the Rosenwald Fund, into the 1930s. Washington also helped with the Progressive Era by forming the National Negro Business League.[9]Wikipedia:Citing sources His autobiography, Up From Slavery, first published in 1901[10], is still widely read today.
Booker T. Washington
Booker T. Washington with his third wife Margaret and two sons.
Booker T. Washington In 1893 Washington married Margaret James Murray. She was from Mississippi and had graduated from Fisk University, a historically black college. They had no children together, but she helped rear Washington's children. Murray outlived Washington and died in 1925.
Booker T. Washington exhibition expressed African Americans' positive contributions to American society.[] Washington privately contributed substantial funds for legal challenges to segregation and disfranchisement, such as the case of Giles v. Harris, which went before the United States Supreme Court in 1903.[24]Wikipedia:Citing sources
Henry Rogers
A representative case of an exceptional relationship was Washington's friendship with millionaire industrialist and financier Henry H. Rogers (18401909). Henry Rogers was a self-made man, who had risen from a modest working-class family to become a principal of Standard Oil, and had become one of the richest men in the United States. Around 1894 Rogers heard Washington speak at Madison Square Garden. The next day he contacted Washington and requested a meeting, during which Washington later recounted that he was told that Rogers "was surprised that no one had 'passed the hat' after the speech." The meeting began a close relationship that was to extend over a period of 15 years. Although he and the very-private Rogers openly became visible to the public as friends, and Washington was a frequent guest at Rogers' New York office, his Fairhaven, Massachusetts summer home, and aboard his steam yacht Kanawha, the true depth and scope of their relationship was not publicly revealed until after Rogers' sudden death of an stroke in May 1909.
Booker T. Washington
9 A few weeks later Washington went on a previously planned speaking tour along the newly completed Virginian Railway, a $40-million enterprise which had been built almost entirely from Rogers' personal fortune. As Washington rode in the late financier's private railroad car, "Dixie", he stopped and made speeches at many locations, where his companions later recounted that he had been warmly welcomed by both black and white citizens at each stop. Washington revealed that Rogers had been quietly funding operations of 65 small country schools for African Americans, and had given substantial sums of money to support Tuskegee and Hampton institutes. He also disclosed that Rogers had encouraged programs with matching funds requirements so the recipients had a stake in the outcome.
Anna T. Jeanes
In 1907 Philadelphia Quaker Anna T. Jeanes (18221907) donated one million dollars to Washington for elementary schools for black children in the South. Her contributions and those of Henry Rogers and others funded schools in many poor communities.
Julius Rosenwald
Julius Rosenwald (18621932) was another self-made wealthy man with whom Washington found common ground. By 1908 Rosenwald, son of an immigrant clothier, had become part-owner and president of Sears, Roebuck and Company in Chicago. Rosenwald was a philanthropist who was deeply concerned about the poor state of African-American education, especially in the Southern states, where their schools were underfunded.[] In 1912 Rosenwald was asked to serve on the Board of Directors of Tuskegee Institute, a position he held for the remainder of his life. Rosenwald endowed Tuskegee so that Washington could spend less time fundraising and more managing the school. Later in 1912 Rosenwald provided funds for a pilot program to build six new small schools in rural Alabama. They were designed, constructed and opened in 1913 and 1914 and overseen by Tuskegee; the model proved successful. Rosenwald established the Rosenwald Fund. The school building program was one of its largest programs. Using architectural model plans developed by professors at Tuskegee Institute, the Rosenwald Fund spent over $4 million to help build 4,977 schools, 217 teachers' homes, and 163 shop buildings in 883 counties in 15 states, from Maryland to Texas.[25] The Rosenwald Fund made matching grants, requiring community support and fundraising. Black communities raised more than $4.7 million to aid the construction.[26] These schools became informally known as Rosenwald Schools. By 1932, the facilities could accommodate one third of all African-American children in Southern U.S. schools.
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When Washington's autobiography, Up From Slavery, was published in 1901, it became a bestseller and had a major impact on the African American community, its friends and allies. One of the results was a dinner invitation to the White House in 1901 by President Theodore Roosevelt. Eventual Governor of Mississippi James K. Vardaman and Senator Benjamin Tillman of South Carolina indulged in racist personal attacks in response to the invitation. Vardaman described the White House as "so saturated with the odor of the nigger that the rats have taken refuge in the stable",[29][30] and declared "I am just as much opposed to Booker T. Washington as a voter as I am to the cocoanut-headed, chocolate-colored typical little coon who blacks my shoes every morning. Neither is fit to perform the supreme function of citizenship."[31] Tillman opined that "The action of President Roosevelt in entertaining that nigger will necessitate our killing a thousand niggers in the South before they will learn their place again."[] Austro-Hungarian ambassador to the United States Ladislaus Hengelmller von Hengervr, who was visiting the White House on the same day, claimed to have found a rabbit's foot in Washington's coat pocket when he mistakenly put on the coat; The Washington Post elaborately described it as "the left hind foot of a graveyard rabbit, killed in the dark of the moon".[32] The Detroit Journal quipped the next day, "The Austrian ambassador may have made off with Booker T. Washington's coat at the White House, but he'd have a bad time trying to fill his shoes."[32][33]
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Death
Despite his travels and widespread work, Washington remained as principal of Tuskegee. Washington's health was deteriorating rapidly; he collapsed in New York City and was brought home to Tuskegee, where he died on November 14, 1915, at the age of 59. He was buried on the campus of Tuskegee University near the University Chapel. His death was believed at the time to have been a result of congestive heart failure, aggravated by overwork. In March 2006, with the permission of his descendants, examination of medical records indicated that he died of hypertension, with a blood pressure more than twice normal, confirming what had long been suspected.
At his death Tuskegee's endowment exceeded $1.5 million. Washington's greatest life's work, the education of blacks in the South, was well underway and expanding.
Booker T. Washington was honored on a 'Famous Americans Series' Commemorative U.S. Postage stamp, issue of 1940.
Booker T. Washington In 1984 Hampton University dedicated a Booker T. Washington Memorial on campus near the historic Emancipation Oak, establishing, in the words of the University, "a relationship between one of America's great educators and social activists, and the symbol of Black achievement in education."[37] Numerous high schools, middle schools and elementary schools[38] across the United States have been named after Booker T. Washington. At the center of the campus at Tuskegee University, the Booker T. Washington Monument, called "Lifting the Veil," was dedicated in 1922. The inscription at its base reads: He lifted the veil of ignorance from his people and pointed the way to progress through education and industry. On October 19, 2009, West Virginia State University dedicated a monument to the memory of noted African American educator and statesman Booker T. Washington. The event took place at West Virginia State University's Booker T. Washington Park in Malden, West Virginia. The monument also honors the families of African ancestry who lived in Old Malden in the early 20th Century and who knew and encouraged Booker T. Washington. Special guest speakers at the event included West Virginia Governor Joe Manchin III, Malden attorney Larry L. Rowe, and the president of WVSU. Musical selections were provided by the WVSU "Marching Swarm".[39]
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Books
The Future of the American Negro - 1899 The Negro in the South - with W.E.B. Du Bois - 1907 Tuskegee & Its People - (editor) - 1905 Up from Slavery - 1901 Working With the Hands - 1904
Notes
[2] Harlan 1983, p.359. [3] Meier 1957. [4] Norrell 2009, pp.4, 130. [5] Washington 1901, pp.1921. [7] Washington 1901, p.34. [9] Anderson 1998. [10] Washington 1901. [11] . [12] . [13] Harlan 1972. [14] Harlan 1983. [15] Bauerlien 2004, p.106. [16] Pole 1974, p.888. [17] Du Bois 1903, pp.4159. [18] Pole 1974, p.107. [19] Crouch 2005, p.96. [20] Du Bois 1903, p.189. [21] Pole 1974, p.980. [22] . [23] Washington 1972, p.68. [24] Harlan 1971. [25] . [26] . [27] Harlan 1983, p.290. [28] . [31] . [32] .
Booker T. Washington
[33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] . . . . . .
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References
Secondary sources
Anderson, James D (1988), The Education of Blacks in the South, 18601935 (http://www.questia.com/PM. qst?a=o&d=54406292). Bauerlein, Mark (Winter 2004), The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (http://www.jstor.org/stable/ 4133693), 46, JSTOR Boston, Michael B (2010), University Press of Florida; 243 pp. A revisionist study that emphasizes the content and influence of his philosophy as an entrepreneur. Brundage, W Fitzhugh, ed. (2003), Booker T. Washington and Black Progress: Up from Slavery 100 Years Later. Friedman, Lawrence J (Oct 1974), "Life 'In the Lion's Mouth': Another Look at Booker T. Washington" (http:// www.jstor.org/stable/2717315), Journal of Negro History (JSTOR) 59 (4): 33751. Harlan, Louis R (1972), Booker T. Washington (biography), 1: The Making of a Black Leader, 18561901. (1983), Booker T. Washington (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=78995092) (scholarly biography), 2: The Wizard of Tuskegee 19011915. (1988), Booker T. Washington in Perspective (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104404815) (essays), Questia. (1971), "The Secret Life of Booker T. Washington" (http://www.jstor.org/pss/2206948), Journal of Southern History (JSTOR) 37 (2). Documents Booker T. Washington's secret financing and directing of litigation against segregation and disfranchisement. (Oct 1970), "Booker T. Washington in Biographical Perspective" (http://www.jstor.org/stable/ 1850756), American Historical Review (JSTOR) 75 (6) McMurry, Linda O (1982), George Washington Carver, Scientist and Symbol (http://www.questia.com/PM. qst?a=o&d=106358296). Meier, August (May 1957), "Toward a Reinterpretation of Booker T. Washington" (http://links.jstor.org/ sici?sici=0022-4642(195705)23:2<220:TAROBT>2.0.CO;2-F), The Journal of Southern History (JSTOR) 23 (2): 22027. Documents Booker T. Washington's secret financing and directing of litigation against segregation and disfranchisement. Norrell, Robert J (2009), Up from History: The Life of Booker T. Washington, Belknap Press/Harvard University Press, ISBN978-0-674-03211-8, favorable scholarly biography. Smith, David L (1997), "Commanding Performance: Booker T. Washington's Atlanta Compromise Address", in Gerster, Patrick; Cords, Nicholas, Myth America: A Historical Anthology, II, St. James, NY: Brandywine Press, ISBN1-881089-97-5. Smock, Raymond (2009), Booker T. Washington: Black Leadership in the Age of Jim Crow, Chicago: Ivan R Dee. Wintz, Cary D (1996), African American Political Thought, 18901930: Washington, Du Bois, Garvey, and Randolph (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104912065). Pole, JR (Dec 1974), "Review: Of Mr. Booker T. Washington and Others; The Children of Pride" (http://www. jstor.org/stable/2638562), The Historical Journal (JSTOR) 17 (4). Strickland, Arvarh E (Dec 1973), "Booker T. Washington: The Myth and the Man" (http://www.jstor.org/ stable/2701723), Reviews in American History (JSTOR) 1 (4): 559564.
Booker T. Washington Zimmerman, Andrew (2012), Alabama in Africa: Booker T. Washington, the German Empire, and the Globalization of the New South, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
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Primary sources
DuBois, WEB (1903), "3" (http://www.bartleby.com/114/3.html), The Souls of Black Folk, Bartleby. Washington, Booker T (Sep 1895), The Atlanta Cotton States Exposition Address (http://historymatters.gmu. edu/d/39/), History matters, GMU. (September 1896), "The Awakening of the Negro" (http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/ 1969/12/the-awakening-of-the-negro/5449/), The Atlantic Monthly 78 (1901). Up from Slavery: An Autobiography (http://docsouth.unc.edu/fpn/washington/washing.html). Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Documenting the American South. Other online full-text versions available via Project Gutenberg (http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2376), UNC Library (http:/ /docsouth.unc.edu/fpn/washington/menu.html) (December 1906). "A Farmers' College on Wheels" (http://books.google.com/ books?id=3IfNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA8352). The World's Work: A History of Our Time XIII: 835254. Retrieved 2009-07-10. (October 1910). "Chapters From My Experience I" (http://books.google.com/ books?id=HsrkfU461xAC&pg=PA13505). The World's Work: A History of Our Time XX: 1350522. Retrieved 2009-07-10. (November 1910). "Chapters From My Experience II" (http://books.google.com/ books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13627). The World's Work: A History of Our Time XXI: 1362740. Retrieved 2009-07-10. (December 1910). "Chapters From My Experience III" (http://books.google.com/ books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13783). The World's Work: A History of Our Time XXI: 1378494. Retrieved 2009-07-10. (January 1911). "Chapters From My Experience IV" (http://books.google.com/ books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13847). The World's Work: A History of Our Time XXI: 1384754. Retrieved 2009-07-10. (February 1911). "Chapters From My Experience V" (http://books.google.com/ books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA14032). The World's Work: A History of Our Time XXI: 1403239. Retrieved 2009-07-10. (April 1911). "Chapters From My Experience VI" (http://books.google.com/ books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA14230). The World's Work: A History of Our Time XXI: 1423038. Retrieved 2009-07-10. Washington, Booker T; Harlan, Louis R; Blassingame, John W (1972), The Booker T Washington Papers (http:// www.historycooperative.org/btw/volumes.html), University of Illinois Press, ISBN0-252-00242-3, retrieved February 4, 2009; fourteen volume set of all letters to and from Booker T. Washington. "cumulative index" (http://www.historycooperative.org/btw/Vol.14/html/), BTW, 14, History cooperative.
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External links
An Autobiography: The Story of My Life and Work (http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/washstory/menu.html), Toronto, ON, CA, Naperville, IL, US: JL Nichols & Co, c. 1901. Booker T. Washington (http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/btwashington/) (online resources), Library of Congress Frederick Douglass (http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/doug1906/menu.html), London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1906. My Larger Education: Being Chapters from My Experience (http://docsouth.unc.edu/fpn/washeducation/ menu.html), Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page & Co, 1911. "Up from Slavery: An Autobiography" (http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/WASHINGTON/cover.html), American Studies, University of Virginia Up from Slavery: An Autobiography (http://multiracial.com/site/content/view/308/27/), The Multiracial Activist. From Slave to College President:Being the Life Story of Booker T. Washington at Project Gutenberg Booker T. Washington at Project Gutenberg, by Emmett J. Scott The Booker T. Washington papers digital archive (http://www.historycooperative.org/btw/), University of Illinois Press, searchable index to complete annotated text of all important letters to and from Washington and all his writings. Dubois, WEB, A Criticism of the Atlanta Compromise (http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/DUBOIS/ch03. html), Virginia. Washington, Booker T (1895), Compromise (http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/39/) (speech), Atlanta: American Social History Project; Center for Media and Learning (Graduate Center, CUNY) and the Center for History and New Media (George Mason University). Booker T. Washington (http://www.dcmemorials.com/index_indiv0008405.htm) (statue), Tuskegee University. Abbott, Lyman (October 5 1921). "Snap-Shots of My Contemporaries: Booker T. Washington" (http://books. google.com/?id=sVroBrOJL64C&pg=PA181). The Outlook (NY, US) 129: 18182. Retrieved 2009-07-30. "Booker T. Washington's West Virginia Boyhood" (http://www.wvculture.org/history/journal_wvh/wvh32-1. html), WVH (WV culture) 32 (1). Works by Booker T. Washington (http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Booker+T.+Washington) at Project Gutenberg Booker T. Washington's 1909 Tour of Virginia on the newly completed Virginian Railway (http://www. historycooperative.org/btw/Vol.10/html/128.html), 10, History cooperative. "Comments about Henry Rogers" (http://www.historycooperative.org/btw/Vol.10/html/122.html), Dr. Booker T. Washington papers, 10. Booker T. Washington Birthplace (http://www.nps.gov/bowa/), National Park Service. "Introduction" (http://www.cr.nps.gov/museum/exhibits/tuskegee/intro.htm), Legends of Tuskegee, NPS. "Booker T. Washington" (http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=1073). Educator and social reformer. Find a Grave. Jan 01, 2001. Retrieved Aug 18, 2011. "Washington & Du Bois" (http://www.americanwriters.org/writers/washington.asp), American Writers: A Journey Through History, C-SPAN. The short film What's A Heaven For? (1966) (http://www.archive.org/details/gov.ntis.ava02140vnb1) is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more] Images of the Half Dollar 1947 coin depicting Booker T. Washington (http://www.allnumis.com/coin/ united-states-of-america/half-dollar-1947-booker-t-washington-from-slave-cabin-to-hall-of-fame-24061)
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License
License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
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