Natural Approach Proposer/ advocato r Goals Crashen & Terrell/ 1977

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) ?/1972

Audio-lingual Method (ALM) Charles Fries /1939

Students can acquire the target languages in a natural and communicative situation. No mother tongue

Be able to communicate with others in the target language in different situations Both mother tongue and target language

Be able to listen, speak, read, and write in the target language, with emphasis on listening and speaking Less mother tongue

Mother Tongue Merits

1. Students acquire the target 1. Students have the 1. Students can learn target language in a natural and opportunities to express language in natural order: easy way. their own thoughts and listeningspeaking 2. Teaching materials are opinions. readingwriting. designed very well. 2. Students have the 2. Students can speak the Students ca acquire opportunities to correct answers without language from easy to communicate with each thinking by overlearning. difficult, from simple to other in the classroom. complex, and from 3. Students can learn the concrete to abstract. culture of the target language because the teaching materials are related to the social environments. 4. The communicative situation makes students reconstruct their knowledge and thoughts, so students can learn to fluently speak the target language more easily.

Limits

1. Students may use the target 1. Its difficult for a language fluently, but they nonnative speaking cannot use it accurately. teacher who is not very 2. Teachers should collect proficient in the target various teaching aids and language to teach use them appropriately. effectively. Teacher 3. Special teaching designs is training and certification necessary for the students are needed. with better abilities. 2. Students pronunciation and grammatical knowledge is poor. 3. It is difficult for teachers to evaluate students expression in the learning process.

1. It fails to teach the longterm communicative proficiency. 2. Structural linguistics didnt tell us everything about language that we needed to know. 3. Its impossible and unnecessary to teach students without using native languages. 4. Its boring for students to overlearn the drills and its tiring for teachers to teach.

Teaching Aids Visual aids, such as pictures, maps, advertisement; games

(a)Interesting and meaningful Textbooks, drills, tapes, materials, such as linguistic language labs games, role plays, and problem solving materials. (b) Technologyfilms, videos, TV, computers, can be used as teaching aids.

Features

1. 5 important hypothesis 1. Language learning is 1. A. the Acquisition-Learning H learning to communicate. Students acquire language The primary function of 2. subconsciously in the language is for natural and communicative interaction and situations. communication. B. the Monitor H 2. Classroom goals are 3. Students may call upon focused on all of the learned knowledge to components of correct themselves when communicative 4. they communicate, but that competence and not conscious learning has only restricted to grammatical this function. or linguistic competence C. the Natural Order H 3. Students learn to use the The acquisition of appropriate language 5. grammatical structures forms in the different proceeds in a predictable places. order. 4. Communicative activities 6. D. the Input (i+1) H include functional Students acquire language communicative activities best by understanding input and social interaction that is slightly beyond their activities. current level of competence. 5. Teachers are assistants, E. the Affective Filter H guides, counselors and 7. Student work should center group process managers. on meaningful 6. Students are expected to communication rather than interact with each other on form; input should be rather than with the interesting and so contribute teacher. 8. to a relaxed classroom 7. Learners should take the atmosphere. responsibility of the failed ------------------------------------communication. 2. The teacher was the source 8. Language is created by of the learners input and the individual through the creator of an interesting trial and error. Correction and stimulating variety of of errors may be absent classroom activities. or infrequent. 3. Learners dont need to say 9. Students can speak anything during the silent fluently but not period until they feel accurately. ready to do so. 10. Four language skills are 4. Start with TPR commands. practiced. Reading and

New material is presented in dialogue forms Theres dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases, and overlearning. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. Theres little or no grammatical explanation. Grammar is taught by inductive analogy explanation. There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids. It is based on Behaviorist psychology. Students successful responses are immediately reinforced and their errors are corrected immediately. The teaching sequences are aural training, pronunciation training, speaking, reading, and writing. Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught one at a time.

Hypothesis
the Acquisition-Learning H

Definition
Acquisition is a unconscious and intuitive process of constructing the system of a language. Learning refers to a process in which conscious rules about a language are developed. Learning cannot lead to acquisition. Conscious learning can function only as a monitor or editor that checks and repairs the output of the acquired system. The acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable order. Errors are signs of naturalistic developmental processes and during acquisition, similar developmental errors occur in learners, no matter what their mother tongue is. People acquire language best by understanding input that is slightly beyond their current level of competence. If an acquirer is at stage or level i, the input (s)he understands should contain i+1. Input should neither be so far beyond their reach nor so close to their current stage. The ability to speak fluently cannot be taught directly; it emerges independently in time. The learners emotional state or attitudes as an adjustable filter that freely passes, impedes, or blocks input necessary to acquisition. Three kinds of affective or attitudinal variables are: (1) motivation, (2) self-confidence (3) anxiety. The best acquisition will occur in environments where anxiety is low and defensiveness absent.

the Monitor H the Natural Order H

the Input (i+1) H

the Affective Filter H

Direct Method Similarity

1. It emphasized that the principles underlying the 1. method were believed to conform to the principles of naturalistic language learning in young children. DM focuses on: 1. Teacher monologues 2. Direct repetition 3. Formal questions and answers 4. Accurate production of target language sentences

Natural Approach
It is believed to conform to the naturalistic principles found in successful second acquisition.

Difference
NA focuses on: 1. Exposure input 2. Optimizing emotional preparedness for learning 3. Listening & Reading

Total Physical Response (TPR) Proposer/ advocator Goals Asher/ 1964

Community Language Learning (CLL) Counseling Learning Method Curran/1961

Be able to respond To get the language competence and performance by asking physically to the sentences questions. made in the target language. No mother tongue 1. Both mother tongue and the target language Each student lowers the defenses that prevent open interpersonal communication. The anxiety caused by the educational context is lessened by means of the supportive community. The teachers presence is not perceived as a threat, but as a counselor. It provides rapid and 1. rather permanent language gains on early 2. levels, so students can remember the learned 3. vocabulary for a long time. Students respond actively and feel interested in the learning processes. Its easy for teachers to teach students verbs.

Mother Tongue Merits

2.

3.

Limits

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5.

Its difficult to teach the abstract content with TPR Students pronunciation is poor. Teachers have to do obvious actions carefully or students would be confused and be misled by the unnecessary hints. TPR has been an experimental model with volunteer students; its, not useful for the inactive students. TPR is especially effective in the beginning levels of language proficiency, but then loses its distinctiveness as learners advance in their competence.

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2.

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4. 5.

The counselor-teacher can be too nondirective. Some intensive inductive struggle is a necessary component of second language learning. Learning by being told is much better. Translation is an intricate and complex process that is often easier said then done. If subtle aspects of language are mistranslated, there could be a less than effective understanding. The training is required for an ideal knower. (s)he would have a perfect command of the foreign language and would have to be professionally competent in both psychology and linguistics. It has limitations in a large-group situation with one teacher. Theres a need for clients who speak a common language.

Teaching Aids

No text. Body language and Various materials for different purposes; colored coded practical materials. signals; tapes; recorders

Features

1.

Based on 3 important hypothesis: (A) the Bio-program H Children, in learning their first language, appear to do a lot of listening before they speak, and their listening is accomplished by physical responses. (B) the Brain Lateralization H Motor activity is a rightbrain function that should precede left-brain language processing speaking. (C) Reduction of Stress H An important condition for successful language learning is the absence of stress. 2. Imperative() drills are the major classroom activity in TPR. 3. Commands are easy first, and then become more and more complex. 4. Students are listeners and performers. They do a lot of listening and acting until they master the commands. They are required to respond both individually and collectively. 5. Students respond to the commands physically. No verbal response is necessary.

1.

The sense of belonging needed by both students and teachers. 2. Both teachers and students have the responsibility for the learning activity. 3. In a good knower-client relationship, there quickly develops a warm, sympathetic attitude of mutual trust and respect. The client emulates the language and person of the knower; the knower is fulfilled and enriched through the counseling-teaching experience. 4. More important to learners is the freedom and initiative they are permitted. 5. The most basic ingredient in CLL is a mutual interest, respect and concern of teachers for students and students for students. 6. A group of ideas concerning the psychological requirements for successful learning are collected under the acronymSARD. (S-security, A-attention and aggression, R-retention and reflection, D-discrimination) 7. The teaching procedure: (a) The students sit in a circle, and the teacher(s) is(are) outside the circle. (b) During the first stage, a tape recorder is normally used. The only voices taped are those of the student-clients when they are speaking in the target language. (c) The students initiate the conversation in their native language and the knower Translates it into the target language. They then repeat in the target language what they have heard the knower said. (d) Students assist each other and they use the teacher when there is a need. The knower provides translation only when someone signals by raising his/her hand. (e) Color coded signals are used. If red is flashed, an error has been made. If amber, there is a more suitable idiom and a better way. If green, the utterance is acceptable. Blue indicates native expertise. 8. Students developmental stages: (a) The Embryonic Stage () Students are totally dependent on the teacher. (b) The Self-assertion Stage() The student-clients begin to show some independence and tries out the language. (c)IThe birth Stage ()

The Silent Way Proposer/ advocato r Goals Gattegno/ 1972

Suggestopedia / Suggestology Lozanov/ 1978

Let students use the target language to express their own thoughts and feeling independently and develop the ability to correct their errors by themselves

Conduct the many negative suggestions or fears which inhibit learning feelings of incompetence and fear of making mistakes, and make students learn the target language in a relaxing atmosphere. Both mother tongue and the target language

Mother Tongue Both mother tongue and the target language

Features

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8.

Learning is facilitated if the learner 1. discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to be learned. The learners should develop independence, autonomy and responsibility. Learners in a classroom must cooperate with each other in the process of solving language problems. Teachers provide single-word stimuli, or 2. short phrases and sentences once or twice, and then students must refine their understanding and pronunciation 3. themselves. Teachers utilize a set of Cuisinere rods small colored wooden rods of varying lengths to introduce vocabulary, verbs and syntax, especially about the spatial relationships and related prepositions as well as every aspect of language ranging from comparisons to tense, the conditional 4. and the subjunctive. Teachers use a series of colorful wall charts to introduce pronunciation models, grammatical paradigms. The teacher is silent as much as possible, 5. and make students work out solutions themselves. Four language skills are emphasized and 6. students are encouraged to read and write the sentences they have heard and spoken. Students correct the errors themselves and teachers view these errors as the responses to the teaching and give students some hints and help.

In a relaxing atmosphere with carpeted floor, easy chairs and classic music Baroque, integrated the use of music, the element of lecture and theater, through the reputation of the method and the instructor, students language competence, confidence and wills to communicate are reinforced. Students are encouraged to be as childlike as possible, yielding all authority to the teacher. Every student is provided a new name and a new role within the target language on the first day of class. They live with a new identity rather than struggle with a foreign language. The new names also contain phonemes from the target language culture that learners find difficult to pronounce. The dialogues are presented to the students in three phases: (a) explicative reading (b) intonational reading (c) concert Students engage in interaction activities to review the material and involve new utterances as much as possible. The teacher maintains a solemn attitude towards the session and shows absolute confidence in the method.

Merits

1.

Students interact not only with teachers but 1. Students are willing and able to also with each other. communicate in the target language and students learn the target language in a relaxing atmosphere. 2. Easy grammatical explanation helps students learn the target language more easily.

Limits

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2. 3.

4.

Teachers must know their teaching objectives clearly and make use of the teaching aids effectively. Students may be confused with the symbols of the colored wooden rods. Students waste too much time struggling with a concept that would be easily clarified by the teachers direct guide. It is difficult for teachers to evaluate students progress in their learning process.

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Students dont concentrate on the language learning because eof the music. Students speech is somewhat inaccurate grammatically and phonologically. All students need to share a common native language. Teachers must be proficient not only in the target language but also I students native language. Not all teachers are skilled in acting, singing and choosing the appropriate music and not all students can appreciate the music.

Teaching Aids Cuisinere rods, phonic charts, transparencies

A carpet, sofas, classic music tapes, flowers and pictures

Grammar-Translation Method (G-T) Proposer/ advocator Goals 1840~1940 To learn a language in order to read its literature or in order to benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual development that result from foreign language study. Both mother tongue and the target language 1 2 Students learn the target language 1. indirectly. Students just learn the knowledge of books not the common language, so they may have trouble applying their knowledge to the real social 2. situations. Students have poor listening and 3. speaking ability because they seldom practice listening and speaking.

Direct Method (Natural Method) ? Students can understand the target language without translation

Mother Tongue Limits

No mother tongue It overemphasizes and distorts the similarities between naturalistic first language learning and classroom foreign language learning and it fails to consider the practical realities of the classroom. It lacks a rigorous basis in applied linguistic theory. It requires teachers who are native speakers or who have native like fluency in the foreign language. It is largely dependent on the teachers skill, rather than on a textbook, and not all teachers are proficient enough in the foreign language to adhere to the principles of the method. Sometimes a simple brief explanation in the students native tongue would have been a more efficient route to comprehension. Students can learn the target language directly and systematically. Students can pronounce correctly. Students can learn to use both the written form and oral form of the target language. Students can have interest in learning.

4.

Merits

With translation of the native language, students can read and write the target language I an easy and meaningful way. Students can learn the grammars of the target language with a systematic and correct way.

1 2 3 4

Teaching Aids Textbooks and grammar books

Pictures and articles related to the textbooks

Features

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3. 4. 5. 6.

Reading and writing are the major focus; little or no systematic attention is paid to speaking or listening. Vocabulary is based on the reading text used, and words are taught through bilingual word lists, dictionary study and memorization. The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. Accuracy is emphasized. Grammar is taught deductively. The students native language is the medium of instruction.

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Classroom instruction is conducted exclusively in the target language. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught. Oral communication skills are built up in a carefully graded progression organized around question and answer exchanges between teachers and students in smallintense classes. New teaching points are introduced orally before students see the written form. Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration objects and pictures; abstract vocabulary is taught by association of ideas. Both speech and listening comprehension are taught. Correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasized; grammar is taught inductively. Students have to offer the interesting materials to draw students curiosity to learn the target language.