Higher-order thinking skills

As we move to a society in which knowledge and information are ever more complex and ever more quickly redundant, it is increasingly important that students should have the skills they need to make choices and solve problems using logical reasoning. Research has also pointed to a link between generic thinking skills and achievement in subjects such as maths. Three main methods, summarised below, have been proposed to teach higher-order learning skills. Students then have specific problem-solving strategies which they can apply to any particular problem. Which problems to pose? To be effective, problems should be new activities which are meaningful to students and sufficiently different and difficult to force them to transform their methods of thinking and working and develop their understanding. Use familiar real-life contexts, as well as illustrations, to make problems easier for students.

Method 1: heuristic problem-solving strategies

This method works by splitting the problem-solving process into its constituent parts as follows: Understanding and representing the problem Students first need to disentangle what is and isn't relevant to solving the problem. This requires full linguistic understanding of the problem (both the words, and the logical structure of sentences). Teach students to unravel problems thoughtfully, reading the whole problem before deciding what the question is. Demonstrate how to work out many different kinds of examples, and teach them to recognise and categorise problem types. Ask them to explain the problem to other students, as this will help them clarify which information they consider to be relevant and irrelevant. Encourage students to look at the problem from a variety of perspectives, by asking them to offer different or unconventional solutions. Selecting or planning the solution Students now need to decide on a heuristic or general strategy which they will use to solve the problem. There are a number of these which can be taught, e.g. breaking the problem down into a number of smaller steps, working backwards from the goal to the unsolved initial problem, or using analogical thinking, which entails limiting the search for solutions to strategies already used for similar problems. Ask students to explain each step of their chosen strategy, to help them reach a clearer understanding of the problem-solving sequence. They should then be able to choose analgorithm, (a step-by-step procedure, usually subject-specific and which they will have already learned in class), for each part of the problem. Executing the plan If students have not carefully chosen their heuristic they will tend to apply algorithms indiscriminately, using methods they have seen applied to other problems without assessing whether those problems were of a similar type. If they have chosen carefully, on the other hand, then finding the actual solution to the problem is usually straightforward, simply a matter of applying the chosen algorithm. Evaluating the results The final step is to check the answer. A common sense check that's often forgotten is simply to look at whether the answer makes sense. Estimation can help here. Encourage students to check all evidence and data that could contradict (or confirm) their answer.

Method 2: the metacognitive approach

This term encompasses problem-solving using an awareness of one's own thought processes: 'what am I doing?', 'why am I doing it?', 'how is what I am doing helping to solve the problem (or not)?' Developing this awareness helps students assess the

effectiveness of their strategies, develop problem-solving and thinking skills generally, and become more conscious of their own strengths and weaknesses. A number of techniques have been suggested for teaching metacognitive skills:
1. Develop awareness of thinking processes among students. Explain why problem-solving strategies are important. Show a video of other students engaged in cooperative problem solving, so they can see others using ineffective strategies, and thus realise the importance of self-awareness. 2. Work problems through on the board by presenting the whole-problem resolution rather than just the neat solution. These first two techniques highlight the importance of metacognitive skills, but should be used sparingly. 3. Get the class as a whole to work on a problem. Play the role of moderator of student discussion. Let students choose strategies which may or may not be right, and try new solutions until the right solution has been found. Follow up by leading a debriefing. This activity encourages self-regulation. 4. Use scaffolding cards. These are cards printed with basic questions, given to students in small-group work to help them reflect on their own problem-solving. For example: 'What am I doing now?', 'Is it getting me anywhere?', 'What else could I be doing instead?' Once students have internalised metacognitive thinking, the card scaffold can be removed.

Method 3 subject-based strategies: cognitive acceleration in science and maths Thinking skills can be taught effectively in a subject-based rather than a general way. The Cognitive Acceleration in Science Education (CASE) project has been developed as a structured way of delivering training in higher-order thinking skills for specific subjects. The project provides targeted teaching material, but its five main elements are common to all subjects:
1. Students learn the necessary vocabulary and clarify the terms of the problem. 2. They are then presented with an experience which they find puzzling or which contradicts their prior knowledge or understanding. 3. There follows an activity which ensures that students go beyond their current levels of understanding and skills. The teacher helps help them build up the higher-level reasoning patterns they need to access. 4. Students reflect consciously on their problem solving (metacognition). 5. Finally, the new skills or knowledge are applied to different contexts.

This method requires good classroom-management and interactive-teaching skills, and the self-confidence to allow a lot of student direction in the lesson, although training can be accessed by those interested.