Composite Project B Tech

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION 1.1 Definition of composite material

Materials consisting of two or more distinct phases brought together, with a recognizable definite interface, the constituent materials insoluble i.e. physically separable resulting with the properties which are uniquely different compared to the constituent materials showing synergism the presence of one material will make the other to behave differently. Two or more different constituent materials are together intimately mixing them by various means which are acting together and performing together to yield enhance property and quality superior to what is promised. A substance consisting of two or more materials, insoluble in one another which, are combined to form a useful engineering material processing certain properties not possessed by the constituents. Something combining the typical or essential characteristic of individuals making up a group.
1.2 Theory of composites

Composites are considered to be any multi-phased material that exhibits significant properties of the properties of constituent phase. These are artificially made as that of naturally occurs. These are used to produce extraordinary materials (ceramics, polymers, and various materials. This combination of materials to form a new material system with enhanced material properties is well documented in history. For example, the Japanese warriors were known to use laminated metals in the forging of their swords to obtain desirable material properties. More recently, in the 20th century civil engineers placed steel rebar in cement and aggregate to make a well-known composite material, i.e. reinforced concrete. Their advantages over other materials for high-performance, lightweight applications have attracted many industries such as aerospace, automobile, infrastructure, sports and marine to explore and increase their usage. Performance of natural @ synthetic fibers reinforced epoxy composites Page No 1
1.3 The criteria to be met in composite material

1) The composite material must be man-made i.e. it should be manufactured one. 2) The composite material must be a combination or two or more physically and/or chemical distinct materials with a distinct interface separable. 3) The composite materials must have the characteristic properties, which would not be achieved by any of the constituent components acting alone, which have different properties. 4) The constituents forming the composite must be intimately mixed or dispersed and made as a homogeneous content. 5) Both constituents have to be present in reasonable proportions (at least>55%). In general, for composites the following factors are very important. 1) Position and location of reinforcement. 2) Aspect ratio of the reinforcement (shape and dimensions). 3) Bonding has to be ensured between constituent materials.
1.4 The need of composite materials

1.The demand made by diverse field as space, aeronautics, civil construction and automobiles, on materials to be forever better overall performance by one as single material. 2. Due to the continuing quest for improved performance, by various criteria including less weight more strength i.e. high strength to weight ratio and lower cost. For the advantages of a) Flexible design (for optimum design by providing fluidity to design). b) Energy consciousness. c) Extending the limit of usefulness. 3. To achieve enhanced property (or) to give the quality of product superior to that what is promised. Example of composites 1. Mud reinforced with straw (brick) Performance of natural @ synthetic fibers reinforced epoxy composites Page No 2
2. Mixture of stones, sand and cement (concrete) 3. Bamboo reapers and lake bed clay
1.5 Classification of composites
1.5.1 Fibrous composites

Fibrous composites consist of fibers of one material in a matrix of another. it may be continuous or discontinuous fibers. Example: Glass-epoxy Glass-polyester Kevlar-epoxy
Continuous & Aligned fibers
Discontinuous & Aligned fibers
Discontinuous & Randomly Aligned fibers
Figure 1: Fibrous composites
Performance of natural @ synthetic fibers reinforced epoxy composites Page No 3
1.5.2 Particulate composites

Particulate composites are composed of macro-sized particles of one material in a matrix of another, either metallic or non-metallic. Examples: Sinter aluminum powder Ceramic-composites (cermets)
Figure 2: Particulate composites
1.5.3 Laminated composites

Laminated composites are made up of different materials, including the composites of the first two types. Examples: Laminar composites Sandwich panels
Figure 3: laminated composites
1.6 Categorization of composites

Composites can be categorized by matrix characteristics, including 1. Type a. Metal b. Ceramic c. Polymeric d. Rubber 2. Ceramic nature a. Organic b. Inorganic 3. Origin a. Natural b. Artificial 4. Process ability a. Thermo set b. Thermoplastic Composites can be categorized by their fiber characteristics, including 1. Type a. Glass b. Carbon (graphite) c. Kevlar (aramid) 2. Fiber posting (or) Alignment a. Random b. Unidirectional c. Bi-directional (woven)
1.6.1 Advanced composites

There are five principal types of advanced composites material in wide use. The composite types, which includes polymer matrix composites (PMC), metal matrix composites (MMC), ceramic matrix composites (CMC), carbon-carbon (CC) and hybrid composites.
1.7 Hybrid composite materials 1.7.1 Definition

Composites containing more than one type of fiber are commonly known as hybrid composites. The term hybrid is generally used to denote the incorporation of two different types of material into one single material. And the level of mixing can be either on a small scale (fiber, tows) or on a large scale (layers, pultrusions, ribs). The purpose of hybridization is to construct a new material that will retain the advantages of its constituents but not their disadvantages. However, for most properties, the rule of mixtures (i.e. the weighted sum of the constituents properties according to the composition) is only an upper bound. For example, in the case of tensile strength, the stiffer material fails first at roughly its normal failure strain and therefore the hybrid is weaker than both its constituents. However, there are other factors such as cost, weight, post-failure behavior and fatigue performance that sometimes lead the designer to the use of hybridization in order to the exact needs of the structure under design.
1.7.2 Types of hybrids

There are several types of hybrid composites, characterized according to the way in which the constituent materials are mixed. 1. Sandwich hybrids, also known as core-shell, in which one material is sandwiched between two layers of another. 2. Intraply, or laminated, where alternate layers of the two (or more) materials are stacked in a regular manner. 3. Itraply, or tow-to-tow, in which alternative layers of the two (or more) constituent types of fiber are mixed in a regular or random manner. 4. Intimately mixed hybrids, where the constituent fibers are made to mix as randomly as possible so that no concentrations of either type are present in the material. And other kinds such as those reinforced with ribs, pultruded wires,
thin veils of fiber and combinations of the above.
1.7.3 Benefits of hybridization

1. Balance the cost with weight and performance. 2. Enhanced strain to failure as compared to pure single fiber. 3. Enhanced energy absorption to failure and hence fails gradually. 4. Improved fatigue strength. 5. Flexural strength can be improved. 6. Improved impact strength.
1.8 Advantages of composite materials

1) Light in weight. 2) High strength to weight ratio. 3) Low density. 4) Excellent directional strength. 5) Good weather resistance. 6) Greater fatigue resistance than steel or aluminum. 7) Greater design flexibility than homogeneous materials.
8) Potential for corrosion is significantly reduced. 9) Minimize part count. 10) Good electric insulation. 11) Low sound transmission. 12) Low thermal conductivity and low thermal coefficient of thermal expansion. 13) Radar transparency. 14) Non-magnetic.
1.9 Applications of composite materials

Some of the applications of composite materials in industries are as listed in the table.
Industry
Successful application
Transportation
Passenger car, highway tractors, truck body, trailers, recreation vehicles, floor for rail cars, etc.
Aircraft industry
Fuselage, wing, rotor blades, cargo pods, engine cowls, boosters, satellites, helicopters, high strength turbine blades.
Marine
Pleasure boats, workboats, commercial vessels, hovercraft, hydrofoils, and submarines.
Building Chemical Appliances and Equipment Electrical Sports
House roofs, modern structures, and tanks. Piping, ducts, hood stacks and storage tank. Tanks, air condition frames, condenser fans, valves, chasses, containers and other components. Electrical contacts, electrodes, low expansion pcb in lamps. Tennis racquets, golf club shafts, fishing rods, snow skis water skis, hokey sticks and arrows.
Medicine
Artificial limbs, dentures, etc. Table 1: General applications of composite material
Apart from these specific applications, the use of fiber reinforced plastics (FRP) composite material is also being explored in automobile industry, sports industry, windmills etc. most of the demand of modern society, which normally require material having high strength and stiffness at reduced weights and cost are being satisfied by composite materials.
Applications of composite in aerospace
Sl.No 1
Aircraft Air bus a-300
Principal components Rudder, outboard spoiler, vertical fin, cabin vertical support rods, main landing gear fairing. Horizontal stabilizer. Outboard aileron engine inlet and outlet cowl, floor panels. Fin equipped with radar, front landing door, and access and inspection doors. Rudder, vertical fin, wings.
2 3 4
Boeing 737 Boeing 747 Mirage 2000
light combat aircraft (LCA) India NALS light aircraft HANSA (India) NALS 14 seated light aircraft SARAS (India)
Complete airframe structure (gfrp-foam sandwich). Composites of flight control systems of rudder, elevator, flifs, etc.
Table 2: Applications of composite material in aircrafts
CHAPTER -2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Different forms of reinforcement

1) Strands: a collection of filaments, the basic from in which fiber is produced. 2) Yarns: twisting the strands makes yarns. 3) Roving: the collection of strands made in tape like form without twisting. 4) Unidirectional cloth: roving is aligned in warp, a mat from with minimum wet fiber. 5) Woven roving mat: roving is woven with fiber in warp and weft directions. 6) Continuous strand mat: strands are randomly oriented and bonded to other with a binder.
2.2 Different structures of woven fabrics

A fabric is material constructed of inter laced yarns, fibers or filament and is usually planer in structure. Inter lacing individually are filaments, ends, yarns and rowing makes a woven reinforced fabric. Woven reinforcements consist of orthogonal fiber. The long direction of the fibers is called the warp while the width direction of the fiber is called the fill, weft or woof. Fills are also called picks. The weave of the fabric refers how to warp yarn and weft yarn are inter laced. The fabric composites have low fiber to volume ratio, which contributes to the low elastic moduli and strength properties. The major fabric types are twill weave, stain weave, leno weave, plain weave, and triaxial weaves.
2.2.1 Plain weaves
Figure 4: Plain weaves The plain weave is the oldest and most common textile weaves. One warp end is repeatedly woven over one fill yarn and under the next. Plain weave being the most inter laced is the firmest. The most stable construction providing porosity and minimum slippage. The strength is uniform in both directions and is most resistant to in plane shear movement. Though very stable, plain weave are relatively in efficient and have poor drag i.e., they do not conform easily to surface to double curvatures.
2.2.2 Twill weaves
Figure 5: Twill weaves Twill weaves are one or more warp ends passing over and fewer than two, three or more fill pieces in regular pattern. These fabrics have characteristics diagonal patterns known as twill lines. Twill weaves are relatively stable and structurally efficient than plain weaves and have relatively good drape.
2.2.3 Stain weaves
Figure 6: Stain weaves Performance of natural @ synthetic fibers reinforced epoxy composites Page No 11
The stain weave represents a family of constructions with a minimum of inter lacing. In these the weft yarns are periodically skip or float over several warp yarns. Stain weaves can be produced as standard of 4.5 or 8 harness forms. The stain weave is more reliable than the plain weave as the floating yarns that are not woven in fabric creating a considerable suppleness and looseness. It conforms readily to compound curves can be woven into a very high density. This is because the weave produces a construction with low resistant shear distortion. This is one reason why stain weaves are preferred for many aerospace applications. But as the number of harness increases, so the float lengths and degree of looseness and sleaziness making the fabric more difficult to control during handling operations.
2.2.4 Leno weaves
Figure 7: Leno weaves To have an advantage over the very light fabrics that tend to sleazy the leno weave fabrics are introduced .in this type of construction, two or more wrap yarns cross over each other, locking fill place .the leno weaves help to prevent the un reviling during handling operations but is unsteadily for obtaining good laminate physical properties.
2.2.5 Tri axial weaves
Figure 8: Tri axial weaves A few fabrics with non-orthogonal fiber orientation have been developed. One of them is tri axial weave is called do weave .so the pattern consists of weave of weave in
a fashion with a straight yarn in between them. The major disadvantages of these constructions are that does not have stableness and tear resisting.
2.3 Fiber reinforcement

Different types of reinforced fibers are 1) Glass fibers 2) Carbon fibers 3) Kevlar fibers 4) Boron fibers
2.4 Glass fibers

Fiber of a base material such as glass is much stiffer and stronger than a bulk glass itself. This is because crystal in a fiber are aligned along the axis and have only very few internal defects such as cracks in the material. Fibers and drawing through a small die. Glass fibers are supplied in the form of slightly twisted yarns consisting of groups of parallel strands of fibers.
2.4.1 Properties
1) Superior tensile strength. 2) Perfect elasticity. 3) Attractive thermal properties. 4) Excellent moisture resistance. 5) Outstanding dimensional stability. 6) Excellent corrosion resistance. 7) Excellent electrical characteristics. 8) Low cost.
2.5 Different types of glass fiber 2.5.1 E-glass (E-electrical)

This is a lime-alumina borosilicate glass designed for electricity application. it has high bulk and surface electrical resistivity. It has a near eutectic composition of si, al2o3 and cao system e-glass developed to have, 1) High bulk electrical resistivity. 2) High surface resistivity. 3) Good fiber forming characteristics. Pyrex composition glass, has good electrical properties and suitable for general application when a combination of good strength and chemical resistance is required. Over 90% of fibreglasses used for reinforcement are e-glass type. This glass bonds well to most polymeric resins after an appropriate coupling agent is employed.
2.5.1.1 General properties of E-glass

1) Density =2.540.03gm/cm3. 2) Is very important is any glass working process and this is true in fiber drawing. 3) The temperature, at which the viscosity of glass fiber is 10 4.5 poise, is determined from rate of elongation of stressed fiber. at the strain point for e-glass is 507c. 4) Annealing point is around 657 c. 5) Youngs modulus e=10.5*10 6 psi. 6) Good tensile strength and melting history.
2.5.2 A-glass
It consists of soda-lime high alkali contents susceptible to moisture. it has limited use
2.5.3 C-glass
This has better corrosion resistance to acids than e-glass.
2.5.4 S-glass
It has higher tensile strength and modulus of elasticity than e-glass. It has got superior strength, retention at elevated temperature and high fatigue limit (high cost).
2.5.5 D-glass
Low dielectric constant and is suited for high performance electronic applications.
2.6 Natural fibers in composites

With the rise of composite materials there is a renewed interest for natural fibers. Their moderate mechanical properties prevent the fibers from using them in highperformance applications, but for many reasons they can complete with glass fibers. Natural fiber composites enjoy excellent potential as wood substitutes in building industry in view of their low cost, easy availability, saving in energy and pollution free production. Natural fibers, as a substitute for glass fibers in composite components, have gained renewed interest the last decade, especially in automotive industries. Fibers like flax, hemp or jute are cheap, have better stiffness per unit weight and have a lower impact on the environment.
2.6.1 Advantages
1) Low specific weight, which results in a higher specific strength and stiffness than glass. This is a benefit especially in parts designed for bending stiffness. 2) It is a renewable resource, the production requires little energy, and co2 is given back to the environment. 3) Producible with low investment at low cost, which makes the material an interesting product for low-wage countries. 4) Friendly processing, no wear of tooling. Better working conditions, no skin irritation. 5) Thermal recycling is possible, where glass causes problems in combustion furnaces. 6) Good thermal and acoustic insulating properties.
2.6.2 Disadvantages
1) Lower strength properties, particularly its impact strength. 2) Variable quality, depending on unpredictable influences such as weather. 3) Moisture absorption, which causes swelling of the fibers. 4) Limited maximum processing temperature. 5) Lower durability, fiber treatments can improve this considerably. 6) Poor fire resistance. 7) Price can fluctuate by harvest results or agricultural politics. 8) Irregular fiber lengths; spinning is required to obtain continuous yarns.
2.7 Jute as a fiber material

Jute is a lingo-cellolosic best fiber obtained from the bark of two cultivated species of the genus corchorus capsular is and of the family tiliaceae.jute is cultivated in the alluvial plains in the tropical and sub-tropical zones of south Asian region jute textiles are mainly used as packing materials because of their low cost, high strength and stiffness. Jute has the advantage of being both renewable by agro-effects and environment friendly due to bio-degradability. Non-traditional applications envisaged for jute include decorative and furnishing fabrics, floor coverings woven and non-woven geo thermal and sound insulation media and reinforced plastics and composites. Although the tensile strength and youngs modulus of jute are lower than those of glass fibers, the specific modulus of jute fiber is superior to that of glass and on a modulus per cost basis, jute is for superior. The specific strength per unit cost of jute, too, approaches that of glass. Therefore, where high strength is not a priority, jute may be used to fully or new partially replace glass fiber without entailing the introduction of new techniques of composite fabrication. The need for using jute fibers in place of the traditional glass fiber partly or fully as reinforcing agents in composites stems from its lower specific gravity (1.29) and higher specific modulus (40 Gpa) of jute compared with those of glass (2.5&30 Gpa
respectively). Apart from much lower cost and renewable nature of jute, much lower energy requirement for the production of jute (only 2 per cent of that for glass) makes it attractive as a reinforcing fiber in composites. The jute composites may be used in everyday applications such as lampshades, suitcases, paperweights, helmets, shower and bath units. They are also used for covers of electrical applications, pipes, post boxes, roof tiles, grain storage silos, panels for partition & false ceilings, bio-gas containers, and in the construction of low cost, mobile or prefabricated buildings which can be used in times of natural calamities such as floods, cyclones, earthquakes, etc.
2.7.1 Properties of jute

1) Jute is very stiff fiber with very low extensibility. 2) Its co lour ranges from golden brown to dirty grey depending upon the quality of the fiber. 3) It is lustrous in appearance and generally has a rough feel. Jute fibers contain variable number of cells along their length. Hence, the value of filament strength with in a sample varies widely. 4) Jute has a moisture regain value of 11%at 65% humidity. This is because of presence of hemi-cellulous in jute. Jute is mildly acidic in nature.
2.7.2 Effect of moisture

A major draw back associated with the application of jute fibers for reinforcement of resin matrices. Due to presence of hydroxyl and other polar groups in various constituents of jute fiber, the moisture uptake is high (approx. 12.5 percent at 65 percent relative humidity &20deg c) by dry fiber and 14.6 percent by wet fiber.
All this leads to (i) poor wet ability with resin and (ii) weak interfacial bonding between jute fiber and the relatively more hydrophobic matrices. Environmental
performance of such composites is generally poor due to delamination under humid conditions. In order to develop composites with better mechanical properties and environmental performance, it is necessary to impart hydrophobicity to the fibers by chemical reaction with suitable coupling agents or by coating with appropriates resins. Following means can do modification of jute and other natural cellulosic fibers; chemical means, coating with polymeric solutions and graft copolymerization. The hydroxyl groups of jute are blocked when chemically treated making the fibers more hydrophobic. Polymeric coating of jute fiber is highly effective in enhancing the reinforcing character of jute fiber, giving as high as 20-40 percent improvements in flexural strength and 40-60 percent improvements in flexural modulus. These modifications improve the fiber-matrix resin wet ability and lead to improve bonding. Jute can be graft copolymerized with vinyl monomers. Grafting of polyacrylonitrile (10-25 percent) imparts 10-30 percent improvements in flexural strength and flexural modulus of the composites.
2.7.3 Need for pre-treatment

The jute has property to absorb moisture. The moisture so absorbed can be seriously being detrimental to the bonding of atoms between the polyester resins and surface of the jute layers. This will lead to decreased strength of the finished laminate. This is because the matrix has to effectively transfer maximum load onto the fibers. If there is a premature cracking or failure of matrix material, then the failure of matrix material, then there will be a failure of the interface mechanism leading to premature failure of matrix material. The jute layers, which are cut to the required size, are weighed using an electronic weigh balance. The temperature of oven is maintained at 80 deg for a period of one hour. After one hour oven is switched off and the jute layers are taken out and again weighed in Performance of natural @ synthetic fibers reinforced epoxy composites Page No 18
electronic balance. The new weight is noted down. The difference in initial weight and new weight gives moisture content present in jute. The % of moisture is calculated using the relation. Moisture content =initial weight final weight/final weight Thus the moisture % by weight present in jute is determined.
CHAPTER-3
THERIOTICAL ANALYSIS 3.1 Matrix materials

Polymers are the most used for matrix than metal or ceramics. They are very poor inductors of heat and electricity and are generally more resistant to ceramicals than metals. Polymers are giant chain like structures of molecules with conveniently bonded carbon atom forming the backbone of chain. The process of making large molecules (polymers) from small ones (monometers) is called polymerization.
3.2 Functions of the matrix phase

1) It binds the fibers together and acts as a medium by which an externally applied stress is transmitted and distributed to the fibers; only a very small proportion of an applied load is sustained by the matrix phase. 2) The matrix material should be ductile. 3) The matrix should protect the individual fibers from fiber damage as a result of mechanical abrasion and chemical corrosion with environment. 4) The matrix separates the fiber layers and by the virtue of its relative softness, prevents crack propagation from fiber which otherwise may lead to premature failure of the composite. The adhesive bonding force between the fiber pullout and adequate bonding is essential for the effective transmittance of stress from weak matrix to the strong reinforcement.
3.3 Catalyst and Accelerators

Catalysts are materials, which initiate the chemical reaction that cause the resin to undergo phase transformation from liquid to solid. Accelerator increases the speed of the catalytic action. The pot life and gel time depends upon the quantity of accelerator and catalyst taken. A wide range of catalysts, accelerators, systems are available for use with polymers resin. The selection of proper catalyst and amount to use for applications Performance of natural @ synthetic fibers reinforced epoxy composites Page No 20
depends on the resin, the curing temperature, required working or pot life and the gel time. The most commonly catalyst is benzoyl peroxide, which is efficient, easy to handle, readily soluble in monomeric styrene storable for long periods of the time without the loss of activity and stable at room temperature. Cobalt naphtha late is used as accelerator.
3.4 Resin systems

Any resin system for use in a composite material will require the following properties 1) Good mechanical properties. 2) Good adhesive properties. 3) Good toughness properties. 4) Good resistance to environmental degradation.
3.4.1 Mechanical properties of the resin system
Figure 9: Stress-strain curve for an ideal resin system The figure below shows the stress / strain curve for an ideal resin system. The curve for this resin shows high ultimate strength, high stiffness and a high strain to failure. This means that the resin is initially stiff but at the same time will not suffer from brittle failure. Performance of natural @ synthetic fibers reinforced epoxy composites Page No 21
It should also be noted that when a composite is loaded in tension, for the full mechanical properties of the fiber component to be achieved, the resin must be able to deform to at least the same extent as the fiber. The figure below gives the strain to failure for e-glass, s-glass, aramid and high-strength grade carbon fibers on their own. Here it can be seen that, for example, the s-glass fiber, with an elongation to break of 5.3%, will require a resin with an elongation to break of at least this value to achieve maximum tensile properties.
Figure 10: Selection criteria for the ideal resin system for a fiber
3.4.2 Adhesive properties of the resin system

High adhesion between resin and reinforcement fibers is necessary for any resin system. This will ensure that the loads are transferred efficiently and will prevent cracking or fiber / resin debonding when stressed.
3.4.3 Toughness properties of the resin system

Toughness is a measure of a materials resistance to crack propagation, but in a composite this can be hard to measure accurately. However, the stress /strain curve of the resin system on its own provides some indication of the materials toughness. Generally the more deformation the resin will accept before failure the tougher and more crackresistant the material will be. Conversely, a resin system with a low strain to failure will Performance of natural @ synthetic fibers reinforced epoxy composites Page No 22
tend to create a brittle composite, which cracks easily. it is important to match this property to the elongation of the fiber reinforcement.
3.4.4 Environmental properties of the resin system

Good resistance to the environment, water and other aggressive substances, together with an ability to withstand constant stress cycling, are properties essential to any resin system. These properties are particularly important for use in a marine environment.
3.5 Resin types

The resins that are used in the fiber-reinforced composites can also be referred to as polymers. All polymers exhibit an important common property in that they are composed of long chain like molecules consisting of many simple repeating units .man made polymers are generally called synthetic resins or simply resins. Polymers can be classified under two types thermoplastic and thermosetting according to the effect of heat on their properties. Thermoplastics, like metals, soften with heating and eventually melt, hardening again with cooling. This process of crossing the softening or melting point on the temperature scale can be repeated as often as desired without any appreciable effect on the material properties in either state. Typical thermoplastics include nylon, polypropylene and abs, and these can be reinforced, although usually only with short, chopped fibers such as glass. Thermosetting materials, or, thermo sets, are formed from a chemical reaction in situ, where the resin and hardener or resin and catalyst are mixed and then under go a non-reversible chemical reaction to form a hard, infusible product. In some thermo sets, such as phenolic resins, volatile substances are produced as by-products. Other thermosetting resins such as polyester and epoxy, by mechanisms that do not produce any volatile by products and thus are much easier to process. Once cured, thermo sets will not
become liquid again if heated, although above a certain temperature their mechanical properties will change significantly. This temperature is known as the glass transition temperature (Tg), and varies widely according to the particular resin system used, its degree of cure and whether it was mixed correctly. Above the Tg, the molecular structure of the thermo set changes from that of a rigid crystalline polymer to a more flexible, amorphous polymer. This change is reversible on cooling back below the Tg. Above the Tg properties such as resin modulus drop sharply, and as a result the compressive and shear strength of the composite does too. Other properties such as water resistance and color stability also reduce markedly above the resins Tg. Although there are many different types of resin in use in the composite industry, the majority of structural parts are made with three main types, namely polyester, vinyl ester and epoxy.
3.5.1 Polyester resins

Polyester resins are the most widely used resin systems, particularly in the marine industry. By far the majority of dinghies, yachts and workboats built in composites make use of this resin system. Polyester resin is the preferred material in marine industries marine due to its superior. Polyester resin is the preferred material in marine industries marine due to its superior water resistance. Polyester resins are of the unsaturated type. Unsaturated polyester resin is a thermo set, capable of being cured from a liquid or solid state when subject to the right conditions. It is usual to refer to unsaturated polyester resins as polyester resins, or simply as polyesters. There is a whole range of polyesters made from different acids, glycols and monomers, all having varying properties. For use in molding polyester resin requires the addition of several ancillary products. These products are generally a catalyst, an accelerator and additives such as pigments and fillers.
3.5.2 Epoxy resins

The large family of epoxy resins represents some of the highest performance resins of those available at this time. Epoxies generally out-perform most other resin types in terms of mechanical properties and resistance to environmental degradation, which leads to their almost exclusive use in aircraft components. As a laminating resins their increased adhesive properties and resistance to water degradation make these resins ideal for use in applications such as boat building. Here epoxies are widely used as a primary construction material for high-performance boats or as a secondary application to sheath a hull or replace water-degraded polyester resins and gel coats. The term epoxy refers to a chemical group consisting of an oxygen atom bonded to two carbon atoms that are already bonded in some way. the simplest epoxy is a threemember ring structure known by the term alpha-epoxy or 1,2-epoxy. The idealized chemical structure is shown in the figure below and is the most easily identified characteristic of any more complex epoxy molecule.
Figure 11: Idealized chemical structure of a simple epoxy (ethylene oxide) Usually identifiable by their characteristic amber or brown coloring, epoxy resins have a number of useful properties. Both the liquid resin and the curing agents form low viscosity easily processed systems. Epoxy resins are easily and quickly cured at any temperature from 5c to 150c, depending on the choice of curing agent. One of the most advantageous properties of epoxies is their low shrinkage during cure, which minimizes fabric print-through, and internal stresses. High adhesive strength and high mechanical properties are also enhanced by high electrical insulation and good chemical rsistance. Epoxies find uses as adhesives, caulking compounds, casting compounds, sealants, varnishes and paints, as well as laminating resins for a variety of industrial applications. Performance of natural @ synthetic fibers reinforced epoxy composites Page No 25
Epoxy resins are formed from a long chain molecular structure similar to vinyl ester with reactive sites at either end. In the epoxy resin, however, epoxy groups instead of ester groups form these reactive sites. The absence of ester groups means that the epoxy resin has particularly good water resistance. The epoxy molecule also contains two ring groups at its center which are able to absorb both mechanical and thermal stresses better than linear groups and therefore give the epoxy resin very good stiffness, toughness and heat resistant properties.
3.6 Typical structural matrix resins
Resin Thermo sets Epoxy Bismaleimide Polyamide Thermoplastic Polynylene Polyetheretherketon
Tensile strength (Mpa)
Tensile modulus (Mpa)
Tg (k)
103.4 82.7 137.9
4.1 4.1 4.8
463 547 630
65.5 70.3
4.3 1.1
366 400
Table 3: Typical structural matrix resins
CHAPTER-4
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
4.1 Fabrication techniques of composite materials

Various processes are available for making composite materials. The different processes available for the fabrication of fiber-reinforced composites are 1) Hand lay-up 2) Vacuum bag moulding 3) Pressure bag moulding 4) Autoclave moulding:
4.1.1 Hand lay-up

Hand lay-up is the simplest process for making the composites laminates. The selected fibers are wetted with resin and placed in the mould and entrapped air is removed with rollers. Layers of glass and resin are added to build up to desired thickness and it is normally allowed to cure at room temperature.
Figure 12: Hand lay-up process
4.1.2 Vacuum bag moulding

In this method vacuum is used to eliminate voids and force out entrapped air and excess resin. The component is first lay up in the mould with the resin, over the layers. A series of bleeders is placed, to provide a permeable space between lay-up and bag for escape of evacuated air. A suitable sealing material such as cellophane of nylon is placed over the lay-up and sealed at the edges. Vacuum is draw-in on the bag formed by the film, and a laminate is formed. In this technique pressure less than atmosphere is possible.
4.1.3 Pressure bag moulding

In pressure bag moulding, usually a rubber bag is placed over the lay-up and then at the pressure is applied to eliminate voids; force out entrapped air and squeezes the excess resin. In pressure bag moulding higher pressure of the order of 100-mpa are possible. Laminate with better mechanical properties are obtained.
4.1.4 Autoclave moulding

Autoclave moulding is similar to vacuum bag moulding and it is a modification of pressure bag moulding. Autoclave moulding refers to the process of lying of reinforcing materials and resin matrix in required shape and quantity in suitable open moulds and effecting the polymerization of the product with simultaneous application of pressure, heat and vacuum. The entire operation is carried out in special equipment called autoclave, which is essentially a pressure vessel with heating and evacuating equipment. The autoclave moulding can be employed where, Large contoured, odd shaped parts are moulded. Preparation of moulds or dies are difficult to make or expensive in construction.
4.2 Method adopted for fabrication

Usually the laminates can be prepared by lay-up techniques. But, the laminates produced will have voids, cracks and may delaminate easily, applying pressure or applying vacuum can overcome this. This can be achieved through by bagging the laminates. This process is called vacuum bagging. A vacuum bag provides both pressure up to 14.7psi, depending on your altitude and vacuum.
4.3 Accessories 4.3.1 Peel ply

One the laminate is in place; its time to apply the bag the first item to go down is a peel ply. Peel plies are a tightly woven fabric, often nylon, and impregnated with some type of release agent. The peel ply will stick to the laminate, but it will pull away without to much difficulty.
Peel ply is optional. Most often it is used to give the laminate a rough, rather than smooth, finish. Many engineers consider this a bondable finish, and it usually passes a wet out test. If peel ply is used, it will absorb a small amount of resin, and this must be accounted for. A net resin prepared may end up too dry. Peel ply specs should say how much resin would be absorbed, in ounces per squire foot, or grams per squire meter.
Figure 13: Modeling methods and tooling
4.3.2 Release film

After the peel ply comes a layer of release film. This is a thin plastic, which has been treated so it wont bond to the laminate. It is highly stretchable so it can conform to complex geometries. Peel ply can be either a solid sheet, or it can have perforations (in the latter case, it is often called peel ply). The perforations might be like pin pricks, or they might be small holes, which are punched out. The spacing can also vary from 2 inches to 8 inches. Choose spacing based on the amount of resin that needs to be bled out: wet lay-ups can use close spacing; prepared manufactures can recommend spacing for their particular products; and net resin systems of course use imperforated release films. Not all release films are compatible with every resin system. a few years ago, they were preparing some cyan ate-ester test coupons, and the release film we normally used for epoxies bonded to the coupons. You can also get release film treated so it will bond to the laminate (bondable one side, bos, or bondable both sides, bbs). Bos can be used to create a permanent release layer on composites tools, or as a moisture barrier on laminates.
4.3.3 Bleeder and Breather

At least one layer of bleeder cloth goes above the release film. Bleeder is a thick, felt like cloth. It purposes is to absorb excess resin. The bleeder also acts as a breather, providing a continuous air path for pulling the vacuum. If the bag wrinkles agent against the hard lament, it will trap air. The breather prevents this from happening. The breather must be thick enough so that it does not become fully saturated with resin. a thick breather is also desirable to keep resin from coming in contact with the bag. It does not hurt anything if that happens, but preventing it makes the bag easier to remove.
4.3.4 Bag
The bag is the last item to be placed. Its a relatively thick plastic layer, available in different amount of conformability. The bag is usually applied along one edge at a time. Start at one corner and press the bag in to the other corner, removing the release paper from the tape. As you move along the edge. Be careful not to get any wrinkles in the bag or it will leak. Plates will be required for anything but flat or simply curved structures. Make sure you remember to attach the vacuum port (not shown in the figure) before closing the bag. The base of the port goes inside the bag; cut a small cross in the bag for the attachment flange to fit through. If the tool has an area for the port, make sure there is a breather path from the port to the part. If the port goes on the part itself, put several layers of breather under the port to prevent print through.
CHAPTER-5
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 5.1 Introduction to testing

Depending up on the method of load application as a function of time, mechanical testing can be divided into static, dynamic and fatigue testing. Static and dynamic are primarily to the study of the extended effects of forces on rigid bodies, i.e. the bodies for which the change in shape can be neglected. In static tests, the load on the test specimen is either increased slowly and progressively or maintained constant for a long time, with the result that the rate of test piece strain is very low In dynamics tests, the test piece is subjected to loading at considerable speeds, so that the rate of strain is high. In case of fatigue tests, the piece is subjected to repeat loading, which may vary in magnitude only or in magnitude and directions. Mechanical tests differ also in the methods of load application. Tests in tension, compression, bending, and torsion etc. are carried out to estimate the mechanical strength or at high or low temperature, depending on the service conditions of the metals tested.
5.2 Purpose of testing

1) To access the quality of the material in order to prove a competitive marketing for consumer goods. 2) Evaluate and optimize materials. 3) Evaluate and optimize marketing process variables. 4) To establish engineering design information.
Figure 14: Stress- strain diagram
5.3 Test procedure

1. The parameters specified for the compression, tensile inter laminar and flexural specimens are prepared according to the geometry. 2. Store the specimen in the conditioned environment until test time, if the testing area environment is different than the conditioning environment. 3. Apply the load to the specimen at the specified rate until failure, while recording data. 4. Record load verses strain continuously, or at frequent regular intervals. 5. Record the mode and the location of failure of the specimen. 6. Re-examine the means of load introduction in to the material if a significant fraction of failures in a sample population occur with in one specimen width of the tab or grip.
5.3.1 Sampling
Test at least 5 specimens per test conditions unless valid results can be gained through the use of fewer specimens, such as in the case of a design experiment.
5.3.2 Labeling
Label the coupons so that they will be distinct from each other and traceable back to the raw material and in a manner that will both be unaffected by the test and not influence the test.
5.4 Apparatus 5.4.1 Micrometers

A micrometer with a 4to5mm nominal diameter double-ball interface shall be used to measure the thickness of the specimen. A micrometer with a flat anvil interface shall be used to measure the width of the specimen. The accuracy of the instruments shall be suitable for reading to within 1% of the sample width and thickness.
5.4.2 Testing machine

The testing machine shall be in conformance with practices e4, and shall satisfy the following.
5.4.2.1 Testing machine heads

The testing machine shall have both an essentially stationary head and a movable head.
5.4.2.2 Drive mechanism

The testing machine drive mechanism shall be capable of imparting to the movable head shall be capable of being regulated.
5.4.2.3 Load indicator

The testing machine load-sensing device shall be capable of indicating the total load being carried by the specimen. This device shall be essentially free from inertia-lag at the specified rate of testing and shall indicate the load with accuracy over the load range(s) of interest of within 1% of the indicated value. The load range (s) of interest may be fairly low for modulus evaluation, much higher for strength evaluation, or both.
5.5 Standard test methods for tensile properties of polymer matrix composite material ASTM D 3039/D 3039-00 5.5.1 Scope
This test method determines the in-plane tensile properties of polymer matrix composite materials reinforced by high modulus fibers. The composite material forms are limited to continuous fiber or discontinuous-fiber reinforced composites in which the laminate is balanced and symmetric in respect to the test direction.
Figure 15: Standard test specimen details for tensile test
5.5.2 Summary of test method

A thin flat strip of material having a constant rectangular cross-section is mounted in the grips of a mechanical testing machine and monotonically loaded in tension while recording load. The ultimate strength of the material can be determined from the maximum load carried prior to failure. If the coupon strain is monitored with strain or displacement transducers then the stress-strain response of the material can be determined, from which the ultimate tensile strain, tensile modulus of elasticity, Poissons ratio, and transition strain can be derived.
5.5.3 Significance and use

This test method is designed to produce tensile property data for material specifications, research and development, quality assurance, and structural design and analysis. Factors that influence the tensile response and should therefore be reported include the following: Material, methods of material preparation and lay-up, specimen stacking sequence, specimen preparation, specimen conditioning, environment of testing, time at temperature. Void content, and volume percent reinforcement properties, in the test direction, which may be obtained from this test method include the following: Ultimate tensile strength, Ultimate tensile strain, Tensile chord modulus of elasticity, Poissons ratio, and Transition strain.
5.5.4 Calculations
The tensile strength of the laminate can be calculated by using the relation, f=p/bd Where f=Tensile strength in N/mm2 p= Max. load in N b=Breadth of the tensile specimen in mm d=Thickness of the tensile specimen in mm
Overall Fiber Orientation 0 Unidirectional 90 Unidirectional Balanced and Symmetric Random Discontinuous 25 250 2.5 25 250 2.5 25 175 2.0 Width mm 15 Length mm 250 Thickness mm 1.0
Tab Length mm 56
Tab Thickness mm 1.5
Tab Bevel Angle 7 or 90
25
1.5
90
emery cloth emery cloth
-----
-----
-----
-----
Table 4: Tensile specimen geometry recommendations
Type of test
ASTM designation
Length * width
Thickness Range 2-3 mm 2-3 mm 2-3 mm 2-3 mm 2-3 mm
Tensile Compressive Flexural In-plane shear Interlaminar shear
d 3039/d 3039-00 d 3410-75 d 790-98 d 4255/d 4255m-83 d 2344-84
250 * 25.0 mm 120 * 12.5 mm 127 *1 2.7 mm 130 * 25.0 mm 020 * 10.0 mm
Table 5: ASTM standards used for testing the laminates
5.6 Standard test method for compressive properties of polymer matrix composite material ASTM D 3410/D 3410M 5.6.1 Scope
This test method determines the in-plane compressive properties of polymer matrix composite materials reinforced by high modulus fibers. The composite materials are limited to continuous fiber or discontinuous fiber re enforced composites in which the laminate is balanced.
Figure 16: Standard test specimen details for compression test
5.6.2 Summery of test method

A flat strip of material having rectangular cross section is mounted in the grip of the mechanical testing mission and monotonically loaded in compression while recording load. The ultimate compressive strength of the material can be determined from the maximum load carried to failure. If the coupon strain is monitored with strain or displacement transducers than the stress stain of the response of the material can be determined, from which the ultimate compressive strain, compressive modulus of elasticity, Poissons ratio and transition strain can be determined.
5.6.3 Significance and use

This test method is designed to produce the compressive property data for material specification, research and development and quality assurance, and structural design and analysis. Properties in the test direction, which may be obtained from this test method, include the following Ultimate compressive strength Ultimate compressive strain Modulus elasticity Poissons ratio Transition strain
5.6.4 Geometry
Fiber Orientation Width mm Gauge Length mm 0 Unidirectional 90 Unidirectional Specially Orthotropic 25 10-25 65 140-155 1.5 25 10-25 65 140-155 1.5 10 10-25 65 140-155 1.5 Tab Length mm Overall Length mm Tab Thickness mm
Table 6: Compression specimen geometry recommendations Design of mechanical test coupons, especially those using end tabs remains to a large extent. Each major composite testing laboratory has developed gripping methods for the specific material systems and environments commonly encountered with in that
laboratory. The compression tensile specimen geometry recommendations are shown in the following table.
5.6.5 Calculations
The compressive strength of the laminate can be calculated by using the relation f=p/bd Where f=Compressive strength in N/mm2 p= Max. load in N b=Breadth of the tensile specimen in mm d=Thickness of the tensile specimen in mm
5.7 Standard test method for flexural properties of polymer matrix composite material ASTM D 790-98 5.7.1 Scope
These methods cover the determination of flexural properties of plastics and insulating materials. They may be in the form of rectangular bars moulded directly or cut from sheets, plates, or moulded shapes. These methods are applicable to rigid and semirigid materials. However, that does not fail in the outer fibers.
Flexural properties determined are especially useful for quality control and specification purposes. a three-point loading technique is adopted which is depicted in the diagram. At the point of loading, the top surface of the specimen will be in a state of compression, whereas the bottom surface will be in tension. Stress is computed from specimen thickness. The maximum tensile stress exists at the bottom surface of the specimen directly below the point of application of the load. The stress at fracture using this flexure test is known as flexure strength.
Flexural properties
11 The flexural strength of the composites was measured by using their print-binding test according to ASTM (American standard test methods) D790. The hybrid composites specimens of size 100*12.5 mm are tested using support span of 81.8mm at a crosshead of 2 mm/min.
Figure 17: Standard test specimen details for flexural test
5.7.3 Calculations
The flexural strength S of the specimen is given by the formula S=3pl/2bd2 Where S=Stress in the outer fires at midspan in N/mm2 p=Load at a given point on the load-displacement curve in N l=Support span in mm b=Width of the beam tested in mm. d=Depth of the specimen in mm.
5.8 Standard test method for inter laminar shear properties of polymer matrix composite material ASTM D 2344 5.8.1 Scope
This test has been used for determining interlaminar shear strength of bidirectional laminate specimens. It is believed applicable for any constant temperature at which the constituent materials are structurally stable. Creep effects are neglected. Polymeric composites with a laminated and fibrous structure have typical shortcoming in their low shear resistance, especially in the planes where the properties of the materials are determined by the matrix (resin). Hence shear strength gives the properties of resin used. The ILSS is used to determine the adhesive force at the matrix reinforcement interface and tangential stresses acting at that interface therefore in the experimental determination of ILSS, it is important to know the actual magnitude of tangential stresses which can lead to the failure of the specimen. Because of its simplicity, it is used as a quality control tool. It involves a three-point flexure specimen with the span to depth ratio l/h, chosen to produce interlaminar shear failure. A complexity is presented by the short beam shear method when used for laminated materials. In particular, the ILSS will be parabolic within each layer, but a discontinuity in slope will occur at the ply interfaces, as a result the maximum shear stresses will not necessarily occur at the center. Laminated beam theory is hence required to calculate the stresses. Thus, the short beam method is applicable only to polymeric and composite materials, which can be treated as homogenous. Practical experience showed that interlaminar shear failures are difficult to attain at higher span to depth ratios. A specimen width maximum thickness of 6.4 mm is required by ASTM standards. There is no such minimum thickness specified, hence specimens as thin as 2.9 mm have been used.
Figure 18: Standard test specimen details for flexural test
5.8.2 Interlaminar shear strength (ILSS)

The inter facial adhesion between the fiber and matrix resin was measured by shunt beam there product binding test (ASTM D2344). The width of the specimen was 10 mm and the length was 20-mm. the crosshead speed for the test was 2 mm/min
5.8.3 Procedure
According to ASTM standards D-2344-76 the thickness and width of the specimen is measured (to nearest 0.025) at the midpoint and the overall length of the specimen is 20mm and width is 10mm. The test specimen is placed in the test fixture and aligned so that its midpoint is centered and long axis is perpendicular to the cylindrical axis or under the loading nose push the side support into the span previously determined. (10mm). Apply the load to the specimen at a crosshead rate of 2mm/min.the load to fracture the specimen (maximum load, displacement on the indicating mechanism) is recoded.
5.8.4 Calculations
The inter laminar shear strength S is calculated by using the formula, S= (3/4) (w/ab) S=Inter laminar shear strength in kg/mm2 w=Breaking load in kg a=Width of the specimen in mm b= Thickness of specimen in mm
BLISS UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

Capacity: 1-50 KN
Figure 19: universal testing machine
FLEXURAL TEST
TENSILE TEST
COMPRESSION TEST
CHAPTER-6
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 6.1 Laminating procedure

1. First the slab was cleaned thoroughly with acetone. 2. Then sealant was put around the required area to be kept under vacuum. 3. Wax was applied within the area enclosed with sealant. 4. The fabric was cut considering the required size and number of layers. 5. The weight of fabric was weighted and noted (wf). 6. The weight of matrix required (wm) was calculated based on the weight of fabric and the fibre weight fraction. 7. The resin and hardener were mixed appropriately and the time was noted. 8. Teflon mat slightly bigger than the laminate being prepared was put in the area enclosed with sealant and it was wet a little resin. 9. A single layer of the cut fabric was put on the Teflon mat and wet thoroughly. 10. This process was repeated until the required number of layers was wet (within the gel time of matrix). A Teflon mat was put over the wet layers. 11. Some waste fabric was put on it to absorb the excess resin. 12. This arrangement was covered with a polythene sheet. 13. A breather was put over the polythene sheet and covered with the vacuum bag. 14. Then vacuum was applied just before gelling for two hour. 15. Curing: the laminate was left overnight after removing the vacuum to cure at room temperature. 16. Post curing: this was done by putting it in an oven at 85oc for two hours. 17. The specimens were cut according to the required size using band saw. Then they Were ground and polished to the required dimensions. They were stored in airtight Polythene bags and sent for testing.
6.2 Fabrication details of JRP 6.2.1 Specifications of jute reinforced plastics

Materials Reinforcement fibers: Jute fibers of 1 feet * l feet Matrix: Resin LY 556 and Hardener HY 951
Process: Hand lay-up and Vacuum bagging at room temperature. Number of layers: 6 layers of jute fibers.
6.2.2 Reinforcement details of jute reinforced plastics

Thickness of the jute fiber ply No. of jute fibers Total thickness of the jute fiber ply = 0.4 mm =6 = 6*0.4 mm =2.4 mm
Weight of the jute fiber ply No. of jute fibers Total weight of the jute fiber ply
= 44 gms =6 = 6*44 gms = 264 gms
For 0.55 weight fraction of jute The weight of the laminate = 264 gms
6.2.3 Stacking sequence of jute reinforced laminate
Figure 20: Stacking sequence of jute reinforced laminate
6.2.4 Matrix system details of jute reinforced plastics

For 0.45 weight fraction of matrix system The weight of the matrix system =0.45*264/0.55 = 216 gms
Weight ratio of resin to hardener
=100:12
Weight of the resin only
=100*216/112 =193 gms
Weight of the hardener only
=12*216/112 =23 gms
6.2.5 Time schedule for jute reinforced plastics

Resin mixed at Lay-up started at Lay-up completed at Vacuum applied (on) at Vacuum release (off) at =10.02 AM =10.08 AM =10.40 AM =10.45 AM =12.50 AM
6.3 Fabrication details of GJRP 6.3.1 Specifications of glass jute reinforced plastics
Material Reinforcement: Glass cloth E-grade (uni-directional), Jute fiber of 1 feet* 1 feet Matrix: Resin LY 556 and Hardener HY 951
Process: Hand lay-up and Vacuum bagging at room temperature. Number of layers: 5 layers of Glass cloth and 4 layers of Jute cloth. Mill used: 8 mill
6.3.2 Reinforcement details of hybrid

Thickness of the jute fiber ply No. Of jute fibers Total thickness of the jute fiber ply = 0.4 mm =4 = 4*0.4 mm =1.6 mm Thickness of the glass fiber ply No. Of glass fibers Total thickness of the jute fiber ply = 0.17 mm =5 = 5*0.17 mm =0.85 mm
6.3.3 Stacking sequence of Hybrid laminate
Figure 21: Stacking sequence of glass jute reinforced laminate
6.3.4 Weight details of Hybrid

Weight of the jute fiber ply No. Of jute fibers Total weight of the jute fiber ply = 44 gms =4 = 4*44 gms = 176 gms _________ R1 Weight of the glass fiber ply No. Of glass fibers Total weight of the jute fiber ply = 13.1 gms =5 = 5*13.1 gms = 65.5 gms __________R2 Total weight of the reinforcement =R1+R2 =176+65.5 =241.5 gms For 0.55 weight fraction of (jute+glass) The weight of the laminate = 241.5 gms
5.3.5 Matrix system details of hybrid

For 0.45 weight fraction of matrix system The weight of the matrix system =0.45*241.5/0.55 = 197.5 gms Weight ratio of resin to hardener Weight of the resin only =100:12 =100*197.5/112 =176.5 gms Weight of the hardener only =12*197.5/112 =21 gms
6.3.6 Time schedule for glass jute reinforced plastics (Hybrid)

Resin mixed at Lay-up started at Lay-up completed at Vacuum applied (on) at Vacuum release (off) at =1.07 PM =1.10 PM =1.50 PM =1.51 PM =4.10 PM
Figure 22: E glass cloth of 8 mill
Figure 23: Jute fibers
Figure 24:Container consists of Epoxy resin &Hardener
Figure 25: Initial
layout
Figure 26: Setup for Vacuum Bag Process
Figure 27: Bourdon pressure gauge
Figure 28: Opened
laminate setup
Figure 29: Fabricated
laminate
Figure 30: Sample ID: JRP Flexural Specimens 1-3
Figure 31: Sample ID: GJRP Flexural Specimens 4-6 (Hybrid)
Figure 32: Sample ID: JRP Tensile Specimens 1-3
Figure 33: Sample ID: GJRP Tensile Specimens 4-6(Hybrid)
Figure 34: Sample ID: JRP ILSS Specimens 1-2
Figure 35: Sample ID: GJRP ILSS Specimens 3-4 (Hybrid)
Graph 01: Sample ID: JRP Flexural Specimen-1
JRP Flexural Specimen-1

0.01 0
Load (KN)
-0.01 -0.02 -0.03
10
15
20
25
Load Vs Displacement -0.04 -0.05 Displacement (mm)

0.01 0 -0.01 0
Load (KN)
10
15
20
25
-0.02 -0.03 -0.04 -0.05 -0.06 Displacement (mm) Load Vs Displacement


0.01 0 -0.01 0
Load (KN)
10
15
20
25
-0.02 -0.03 -0.04 -0.05 -0.06 Displacement (mm) Load Vs Displacement
Graph 04: Sample ID: GJRP Flexural Specimen-4

GJRP Flexural Specimen-4

0.01 0 -0.01 0
Load (KN)
10
15
20
25
-0.02 -0.03 -0.04 -0.05 -0.06 -0.07 Displacement (mm) Load Vs Displacement
GJRP Flexural Specimen-5

0.01 0 -0.01 0
Load (KN)
10
15
20
25
-0.02 -0.03 -0.04 -0.05 -0.06 -0.07 -0.08 Displacement (mm) Load Vs Displacement
GJRP Flexural Specimen- 6

0.01 0 -0.01 0
Load (KN)
10
15
20
25
-0.02 -0.03 -0.04 -0.05 -0.06 -0.07 Displacement (mm) Load Vs Displacement
Graph 07: Sample ID: JRP Tensile Specimen-1
JRP Tensile Specimen-1

7 6 5
Load (KN)
Load Vs Displacement
4 3 2 1 0 -1 -1 0 1 2 3 4 Displacement (mm)

7 6 5
Load (KN)
4 3 2 1 0 -0.5 -1 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 Displacement (mm)

7 6 5
Load (KN)
4 3 2 1 0 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Displacement (mm)
Graph 10: Sample ID: GJRP Tensile Specimen-4
GJRP Tensile Specimen- 4

12 10 8
Load (KN)
6 4 2 0 -2 0 1 2 3 Displacement (mm) 4 5 6
GJRP Tensile Specimen-5

12 10 8
Load (KN)
6 4 2 0 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Displacement (mm)
GJRP Tensile Specimen-6

12 10 8
Load (KN)
6 4 2 0 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Displacement (mm)
Graph 13: Sample ID: JRP ILSS Specimen-1
JRP ILSS Specimen-1 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0
Load vs Displacement
Load (Kgf)
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Displacement (mm)
Graph 14: Sample ID: JRP ILSS Specimen-2
JRP ILSS Specimen-2 100 80

Load (KGf)
Load vs Displacement
60 40 20 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 Displacement (mm)
Graph 15: Sample ID: GJRP ILSS Specimen-3
GJRP ILSS Specimen-3 100 80

Load (KGf)
Load vs Displacement 60 40 20 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 Displacement (mm) 2 2.5 3
Graph 16: Sample ID: GJRP ILSS Specimen-4
GJRP ILSS Specimen-4 100 80

Load (KGf)
Load vs Displacement 60 40 20 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 Displacement (mm) 2 2.5 3
Table 7: Sample ID: JRP Flexural Specimens 1-3
Specimen No
Width (mm)
Thickness (mm)
Weight fraction of jute (wf) 0.40
Direction
Load carried (KN) 0.046
Maximum strength (MPa) 79.8
12.5
2.9
Warp
12.5
2.9
0.40
Warp
0.047
81.54
12.5
2.9
0.40
Warp
0.051
88.48
Table 8: Sample ID: GJRP Flexural Specimens 4-6 (Hybrid)
Maxim Specimen Width Thickness Weight Weight Direction Load (mm) (mm) fraction fraction carried um No of jute of glass (KN) strength (wf) (wf) (MPa) 4 12.5 2.9 0.40 0.15 Warp 0.062 107.57
12.5
2.9
0.40
0.15
Warp
0.065
112.75
12.5
2.9
0.40
0.15
Warp
0.061
105.83
Table 9: Sample ID: JRP Tensile Specimens 1-3
Specimen No
Width (mm)
Thickness (mm)
Direction
Maximum strength (MPa) 82.7
25.0
2.9
Warp
25.0
2.9
0.55
Warp
6.5
89.6
25.0
2.9
0.55
Warp
5.75
79.3
Table 10: Sample ID: GJRP Tensile Specimens 4-6(Hybrid)
Specimen Width Thickness Weight Weight Direction Load (mm) (mm) fraction fraction carried No of jute of jute (KN) (wf) (wf) 4 25.0 2.9 0.40 0.15 Warp 9.9
Maximu m strength (MPa) 136.6
25.0
2.9
0.40
0.15
Warp
10.3
142.06
25.0
2.9
0.40
0.15
Warp
9.95
137.3
Table 11: Sample ID: JRP ILSS Specimens 1-2
Specimen No
Width (mm)
Thickness (mm)
Direction
Maximum strength (MPa) 22
10
2.9
Warp
10
2.9
0.40
Warp
82.02
20.8
Table 12: Sample ID: GJRP ILSS Specimens 3-4 (Hybrid)
Maxim Specimen Width Thickness Weight Weight Direction Load (mm) (mm) fraction fraction carried um No of jute of glass (KN) strength (wf) (wf) (MPa) 3 10 2.9 0.40 0.15 Warp 94.12 23.84
10
2.9
0.40
0.15
Warp
86.08
21.18
CHAPTER-7
SUMMARY, CONCLUSSIONS& RECOMENDATIONS
7.1 Analysis of Flexural Test Results of Jute Reinforced Plastics

The flexural strength composites were measured by using their point bending binding test according to ASTM (American Standard Test Methods) D790.The Flexural strength of 83.2 MPa was recorded at 40% of fiber content by weight.
7.2 Analysis of Hybridization (Flexural Test)

The strength of hybrid laminate containing 40% of jute fibers and 15% of glass fibers was recorded as 108.7 MPa .This attributed to the presence of glass fibers which are inherently stiffer than jute fibers. The strength obtained from hybridization was increased by 23.3%, this is due to the presence of glass fibers.
7.3 Analysis of Tensile Test Results of Jute Reinforced Plastics

The test results obtained by testing the tensile specimen the tensile specimens showed at 0.55 wf of jute fibers, 0.45 wf of resin system, where the matrix is on Performance of natural @ synthetic fibers reinforced epoxy composites Page No 83
a lower weight fraction side and the reinforcement fiber is on a higher weight fraction side, the tensile strength recorded was 83.8 MPa. The failure occurred at mid span indicating the correctness of the test specimen geometry. The failure occurred due to the fiber fracture. The load displacement graph indicates that mode of fracture is brittle in nature.
With the increase in fiber weight fraction (i.e. more than .55wf), there will be increase in strength by some percentage over the previous weight fraction .since the jute is a natural fiber ,therefore the resin absorption is high and the weight fraction of jute fibers could not be used more than .55wf as the layers could not be wetted properly.
7.4 Analysis of Hybridization (Tensile Test)

In the process of hybridization, the glass fiber used was 15% by its weight and, the jute fiber used was 40% by its weight. The combined weight used was 55% by its weight fraction. The results obtained by testing the hybrid specimens showed that the tensile strength recorded was 138.7 MPa.
This implies that the tensile strength was increased by 39.4 %. This is so called hybrid effect. Visual inspection of failed specimens showed that the glass fibers were not fully fractured implying that the specimen has failed due to matrix shortage. If at all the hybridization could have been carried out at lesser weight fraction of the reinforcement, it would have resulted in better load transfer by matrix to reinforcement resulting in better strength of the hybrid composite.
7.5 Analysis of ILSS Test Results of Jute Reinforced Plastics
This test is carried out mainly to test the bonding forces that exist between the reinforcement and the matrix. This showed that at 40% weight of jute fiber, the strength obtained was 21.4 MPa .this test basically defined matrix properties.
7.6 Analysis of Hybridization (ILSS Test)

The inter laminar shear strength for hybrid composites were recorded and it was found that there was absolutely no significant improvements in the strength in comparison with simple jute composites ,the strength was 22.8 Mpa. This shows that fiber content in a composite has got very little contribute to the interlaminar shear strength and providing that it is a matrix dominated property.
8. Conclusions
From the results obtained, it can be concluded that tensile strength increases as fiber weight fraction increases.
By introducing just 15 % by weight glass fibers into the jute composite, a 40 %increase in tensile strength was achieved. By introducing just 15 % by weight glass fibers into the jute composite, a 23 %increase in flexural strength was achieved. Flexural strength marginally increased on hybridization
Interlaminar shear strength being a matrix dominated property it did not shows any significant changes when subjected to hybridization.Incase of requirements of enhanced strength and performance from the jute composites, a phenomenal 40 % increase in tensile strength would be achieved by going in for hybridization
Applications
By using less number of glass layers along with jute a non structural components can be made. Performance of natural @ synthetic fibers reinforced epoxy composites Page No 85
Floor boards Partition boards Any commercial packing materials Battery trolleys and trolley floors.
CHAPTER-8
REFERENCES/ BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. SELECTION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND ADHESIVES Lawrence W.Fisher, P.E.Taylor Francis Publishers 2. PROCEEDING OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR COMPOSITES F.A.Breton, W.G.Knauss Tehomic Publishers 3. COMPOSITE BASICS Andrew C Marshall Marshall consulting 4. COMPOSITE MATERIALS Performance of natural @ synthetic fibers reinforced epoxy composites Page No 86
S.C.Sharma Narosa publishing house 5. THE JOURNAL OF THE HYBRID EFFECT DOES IT EXIST? L.N.Philips 6. THE JOURNAL OF A REVIEW OF THE TENSILE, COMPRESSIVE, FLEXURAL AND SHEAR PROPERTIES OF HYBRID FIBER-REINFORCED PLASTICS G.Kretsis (Imperial college of science and technology, UK) 7. THE JOURNAL OF HYBRID LAMINATES OF GLASS/CARBON FIBERS-1 Donald R. Loell, Dlc, Ceng, Ficheme
8. THE JOURNAL OF HYBRID LAMINATES OF GLASS/CARBON FIBERS-2 Donald R. Loell, Dlc, Ceng, Ficheme
9. THE JOURNAL OF HYBRIDS-A REVIEW PART 1. TECHNIQUES, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION D.Short and J.Summerscales
10. THE JOURNAL OF HYBRIDS-A REVIEW PART 2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES D.Short and J.Summerscales
11. THE JOURNAL OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF JUTE-GLASS HYBRID FIBER COMPOSITES
R.Mohan kishore Department of metallurgy, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India M.K.Shridar, R.M.V.G.K.Rao Material science division, National Aerospace Laboratories, Bangalore, 560017, India
12. THE JOURNAL OF INTERLAMINAR STRESS CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DESIGN OF LAMINATED COMPOSITE STRUCTURES
S.Vellachamy Project engineer Aeronautical development agency NAL Campus, Bangalore-560037
13. ASTM: D 3039/D 3039M-95
14. ASTM: D 3410/D 3410M-94
15. ASTM: D 2344-85
16. ASTM: D 790-92
17. ASTM: D 2584-94
18. www.goole.com

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CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION 1.1 Definition of composite material

1.2 Theory of composites

1.3 The criteria to be met in composite material

1.4 The need of composite materials

1.5 Classification of composites

1.5.1 Fibrous composites

Continuous & Aligned fibers

Discontinuous & Aligned fibers

Discontinuous & Randomly Aligned fibers

Figure 1: Fibrous composites

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1.5.2 Particulate composites

Figure 2: Particulate composites

1.5.3 Laminated composites

Figure 3: laminated composites

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1.6 Categorization of composites

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1.6.1 Advanced composites

1.7 Hybrid composite materials 1.7.1 Definition

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1.7.2 Types of hybrids

thin veils of fiber and combinations of the above.

1.7.3 Benefits of hybridization

1.8 Advantages of composite materials

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1.9 Applications of composite materials

Pleasure boats, workboats, commercial vessels, hovercraft, hydrofoils, and submarines.

Building Chemical Appliances and Equipment Electrical Sports

Artificial limbs, dentures, etc. Table 1: General applications of composite material

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Applications of composite in aerospace

Aircraft Air bus a-300

Boeing 737 Boeing 747 Mirage 2000

Table 2: Applications of composite material in aircrafts

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REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Different forms of reinforcement

2.2 Different structures of woven fabrics

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2.2.1 Plain weaves

2.2.2 Twill weaves

2.2.3 Stain weaves

2.2.4 Leno weaves

2.2.5 Tri axial weaves

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2.3 Fiber reinforcement

2.4 Glass fibers

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2.5 Different types of glass fiber 2.5.1 E-glass (E-electrical)

2.5.1.1 General properties of E-glass

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2.6 Natural fibers in composites

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2.7 Jute as a fiber material

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2.7.1 Properties of jute

2.7.2 Effect of moisture

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2.7.3 Need for pre-treatment

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THERIOTICAL ANALYSIS 3.1 Matrix materials

3.2 Functions of the matrix phase