Pre-Calculus Reference

Lines
Definitions
Increment: the change in coordinates Slope: the change in vertical distance divided by the change in horizontal distance; frequently thought of as Rise over Run Parallel Lines: two or more lines that never intersect; lines have the same slope Perpendicular Lines: two lines that intersect at a 90angle. The product of their slopes will equal 1.

Relations and Functions

Definitions
Function: a rule that assigns exactly one element y in a set B (called the range) to each element x in a set A (called the domain) Independent Variable: the number belonging to the set A Dependent Variable: the number belonging to the set B Vertical Line Test: If a vertical line intersects a curve at more than one point for any x, then the curve does not represent a function Rate of Change: the amount a function changes over a certain interval x Vertical asymptote: the line x = a where the function f(x) approaches infinity as x approaches the value a Horizontal asymptote: the line y = b where the function f(x) approaches the value b as x approaches infinity Maximum: point on the curve where the function changes from increasing to decreasing Minimum: point on the curve where the function changes from decreasing to increasing

Formulas

Ax + By = C

Slo pe m

Equation of a line (Point-slope form) y = m (x x1 )+ y1 Equation of a line (General form) Equation of a line (slope-intercept form)

Slope of a line
m= y 2 y1 x2 x1

B(x2,y 2)

y=y 2-y 1

Algebraic Functions: a function where x is a constant; includes polynomial and rational functions A(x ,y ) 1 1 y = mx+ b Polynomial Functions: a function in which x is raised to a power Rational Functions: a function in which one polynomial is divided by a Conic Sections second (non-zero) polynomial Definitions Absolute Value Functions: a function that takes the absolute value of a Circle: the set of all points on a plane that are equidistant from the variable center. Inverse Functions: a function where x and y are switched; noted as f -1 Ellipse: the set of all points on a plane who distances from two fixed Even Functions: a function is even if f(-x)=f(x) points in the plane have a constant sum. Odd Functions:a function is odd if f(-x)=-f(x) Hyperbola: the set of all points on a plane who distances from two fixed Parametric Equations: a set of equations where the functions x and y points in the plane have a constant difference. are dependant on a common variable t Parabola: the set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a given One-To-One Functions: a function in which each value of the domain is fixed point and a given fixed line in the plane. mapped to only one value of the range Semimajor axis, a: half the distance across an ellipse along the longest Parts of a Function of the three principles axes. Semiminor axis, b: half the distance across an ellipse along the Polynomial Function Rational Function shortest of the three principles axes. f ( x ) = an x n + a n 1 x n 1 +an 2 x n 2 + ... + a0 p( x ) Foci, F: the fixed point related to the construction and properties of a f ( x) = q( x ) conic section. Inverse Function Eccentricity, e: the distance from the center of the conic section to the Absolute Value Parametric Functions f 1 ( y ) = x focus point divided by the length of the semimajor axis. Function Circle
F + 2 = 1 a2 a e = 0 a F 1(-c,0) x
2

x=x 2-x 1

Types of Functions

Ellipse

+ 2 = 1 a2 b 0 < e < 1

y2

f ( x ) = g( x )

if and only if f (x)= y

x = f (t ) y = g( t )

a F 2(c,0)

Parabola

x2 4p e =1 y=
F(0,p)

Hyperbola

x2

a2 b2 e > 1
F 1(-c,0) F 2(c,0)

y2

Domain: the set of numbers for which x is defined Range: the set of numbers for which y is defined X-Intercept: the point where the function intersects the x-axis Y-Intercept: the point where the function intersects the y-axis Solution or Zero: the value of x where the function equals zero Asymptote: a line that the function approaches but never touches Points of Discontinuity: values of the function that are not defined

= 1

Transformation of Functions

Transformation on x: The curve will shift left or right along the x-axis by the amount of the transformation Transformation on y: The curve will shift up or down along the y-axis by the amount of the transformation

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Sequences and Series

Definitions
Sequence: a function whose domain is a set of integers Series: the sum of sequences Summation Notation: the sum of all terms beginning with i and ending with the nth term

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Definitions
Exponential function : a function defined as a constant b raised to the power x; the most common exponential function is the case where b is the special number e. Logarithmic function: a function defined as logb of x where b is the base Natural logarithmic function: a logarithmic function where the base is the number e, written as ln(x)

an = a 0 + a 1 + a2+ ...+ an
i=0

Infinite series: a series where the number of terms is infinite Geometric series: each term is obtained from the previous term by multiplying by a constant, r Arithmetic series: a series where the difference between terms is a constant; an arithmetic series will be a straight line P-Series: a sequence in which n is raised to the power of a negative integer, p Alternating Series: a series in which each term alternates between positive and negative Convergence: a sequence converges if it has a limit S as n approaches infinity Divergence: a sequence diverges if it does not have a limit S as n approaches infinity Recursive sequence: a sequence where each term is related to the preceding term by a formula

Graphs of Functions
x

Exponential Function y

Natural Logarithmic Function y

f (x ) = e
x

f ( x ) = lnx
x

Domain: [ ; +] Range: [ 0; +]
y = bx x = logb y

Domain: [ 0; + ]

Range: [; + ]
loga ax = x

Types of Series

Relationship between Log and Exponential Functions

y = e x x = lny

Geometric Series

Arithmetic Series P-Series

Alternating Series

ln e = x

ar n 1 =

a 1r

i =1

( an + b )
i =0

1 n
p

n =1

u ( 1)
n =1 n

alog a x = x

n +1

Polar Coordinates and Complex Numbers

Definitions
Polar Coordinates: system of coordinates defined by a radius r , and an angle . Complex Number: a number defined as z=x+iy, where x is the real component, y is the imaginary component and i is defined as i2 =-1

Determining Convergence
Ratio Test
Let an be a series with positive terms and lim
i =1 n

a n +1 an

Then, the series converges if < 1, the series diverges if > 1 and the test is inconclusive if = 1

= .

Relationships between Polar and Cartesian Coordinates

x = cos
y = sin x 2 + y2 = r 2

Limit Comparison Test

If lim If lim
an bn an bn an bn
n

y = tan x

Different Forms of Complex Numbers

Cartesian Form
z = x + iy

> 0 then

an and bn both converge or both diverge.

Polar Form
z = re
i

Trigonometric Form
z = r ( cos + i sin )

= 0 and bn converges then an converges. = and bn diverges then an diverges.

If lim

Rules
Addition Rule
Let z 1 = x 1 + iy 1 and z2 = x 2 + iy 2 Then z1 + z2 = ( x1 + x 2 ) +i ( y1 + y 2 )

Multiplication Rule
Let z1 = x 1 + iy 1 and z2 = x 2 + iy 2 Then z1 gz2 = x1 ( x2 + iy 2 ) + y1 ( x2 + iy 2 )

Direct Comparison Test

Let

an
i= 1

be a series with no negative terms.

DeMoivres Theorem
For any positive integer, n z n = r ( cos + i sin )
with a n d n

an converges if there is a convergent seri es cn with an c n an diverges if there is a divergent series dn

= r n cos ( n ) + i sin( n )

Other Notes

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