FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPUTERS

Fundamentals of Performance Evaluation of Computer and Telecommunication Systems uniquely presents all techniques of performance evaluation of computers systems, communication networks, and telecommunications in a balanced manner. Written by the renowned Professor Mohammad S. Obaidat and his coauthor Professor Noureddine Boudriga, it is also the only resource to treat computer and telecommunication systems as inseparable issues. The authors explain the basic concepts of performance evaluation, applications, performance evaluation metrics, workload types, benchmarking, and characterization of workload. This is followed by a review of the basics of probability theory, and then, the main techniques for performance evaluationnamely measurement, simulation, and analytic modeling with case studies and examples.

Contains the practical and applicable knowledge necessary for a successful performance evaluation in a balanced approach

Reviews measurement tools, benchmark programs, design of experiments, traffic models, basics of queueing theory, and operational and mean value analysis

Covers the techniques for validation and verification of simulation as well as random number generation, random variate generation, and testing with examples

Features numerous examples and case studies, as well as exercises and problems for use as homework or programming assignments

Fundamentals of Performance Evaluation of Computer and Telecommunication Systems is an ideal textbook for graduate students in computer science, electrical engineering, computer engineering, and information sciences, technology, and systems. It is also an excellent reference for practicing engineers and scientists

Hardware and Computer Organization is a practical introduction to the architecture of modern microprocessors for students and professional alike. It is designed to take practicing professionals "under the hood" of a PC and provide them with an understanding of the basics of the complex machine that has become such a pervasive part of our everyday life. It clearly explains how hardware and software cooperatively interact to accomplish realworld tasks.

Instead of simply demonstrating how to design a computer's hardware, it provides an understanding of the total machine, highlighting strengths and weaknesses, explaining how to deal with memory and how to write efficient assemble code that interacts with and takes best advantage of the underlying hardware.

Additionally, the book has a unique emphasis on facilitating the ability to make real engineering decisions in industry when working with anything from simple 8-bit microprocessors in embedded applications to PCs and workstations. It demystifies the link between the behaviour of the code and the operation of the machine, while helping engineers and students to better understand the limitations imposed by finite speed and resources.

P1 (086) First-Generation Processors

The first generation of processors represents the series of chips from Intel that were found in the first PCs. IBM, as the architect of the PC at the time, chose Intel processors and support chips to build the PC motherboard, setting a standard that would hold for many subsequent processor generations to come.

8088 and 8086 Processors

Intel introduced a revolutionary new processor called the 8086 back in June of 1978. The 8086 was one of the first 16-bit processor chips on the market; at the time virtually all other processors were 8-bit designs. The 8086 had 16-bit internal registers and could run a new class of software using 16-bit instructions. It also had a 16-bit external data path, which meant it could transfer data to memory 16 bits at a time.

The address bus was 20 bits wide, meaning that the 8086 could address a full 1MB (220) of memory. This was in stark contrast to most other chips of that time that had 8-bit internal registers, an 8-bit external data bus, and a 16-bit address bus allowing a maximum of only 64KB of RAM (216).

Unfortunately, most of the personal computer world at the time was using 8-bit processors, which ran 8-bit CP/M (Control Program for Microprocessors) operating systems and software. The board and circuit designs at the time were largely 8-bit as well. Building a full 16-bit motherboard and memory system would be costly, pricing such a computer out of the market.

The cost was high because the 8086 needed a 16-bit data bus rather than a less expensive 8-bit bus. Systems available at that time were 8-bit, and slow sales of the 8086 indicated to Intel that people weren't willing to pay for the extra performance of the full 16-bit design. In response, Intel introduced a kind of crippled version of the 8086, called the 8088. The 8088 essentially deleted 8 of the 16 bits on the data bus, making the 8088 an 8-bit chip as far as data input and output were concerned. However, because it retained the full 16-bit internal registers and the 20-bit address bus, the 8088 ran 16-bit software and was capable of addressing a full 1MB of RAM.

For these reasons, IBM selected the 8-bit 8088 chip for the original IBM PC. Years later, IBM was criticized for using the 8-bit 8088 instead of the 16-bit 8086. In retrospect, it was a very wise decision. IBM even covered up

the physical design in its ads, which at the time indicated its new PC had a "high-speed 16-bit microprocessor." IBM could say that because the 8088 still ran the same powerful 16-bit software the 8086 ran, just a little more slowly. In fact, programmers universally thought of the 8088 as a 16-bit chip because there was virtually no way a program could distinguish an 8088 from an 8086. This allowed IBM to deliver a PC capable of running a new generation of 16-bit software, while retaining a much less expensive 8-bit design for the hardware. Because of this, the IBM PC was actually priced less at its introduction than the most popular PC of the time, the Apple II. For the trivia buffs out there, the IBM PC listed for $1,265 and included only 16KB of RAM, while a similarly configured Apple II cost $1,355.

The original IBM PC used the Intel 8088. The 8088 was introduced in June 1979, but the IBM PC did not appear until August 1981. Back then, there was often a significant lag time between the introduction of a new processor and systems that incorporated it. That is unlike today, when new processors and systems using them are often released on the same day.

The 8088 in the IBM PC ran at 4.77MHz, or 4,770,000 cycles (essentially computer heartbeats) per second. Each cycle represents a unit of time to the system, with different instructions or operations requiring one or more cycles to complete. The average instruction on the 8088 took 12 cycles to complete.

Computer users sometimes wonder why a 640KB conventional-memory barrier exists if the 8088 chip can address 1MB of memory. The conventional-memory barrier exists because IBM reserved 384KB of the upper portion of the 1,024KB (1MB) address space of the 8088 for use by adapter cards and system BIOS. The lower 640KB is the conventional memory in which DOS and software applications execute.

80186 and 80188 Processors

After Intel produced the 8086 and 8088 chips, it turned its sights toward producing a more powerful chip with an increased instruction set. The company's first efforts along this linethe 80186 and 80188were unsuccessful. But incorporating system components into the CPU chip was an important idea for Intel because it led to faster, better chips, such as the 286.

The relationship between the 80186 and 80188 is the same as that of the 8086 and 8088; one is a slightly more advanced version of the other. Compared CPU to CPU, the 80186 is almost the same as the 8088 and has a full 16-bit design. The 80188 (like the 8088) is a hybrid chip that compromises the 16-bit design with an 8-bit external communications interface. The advantage of the 80186 and 80188 is that they combine on a single chip 15 to 20 of the 80868088 series system componentsa fact that can greatly reduce the number of components in a computer design. The 80186 and 80188 chips were used for highly intelligent peripheral adapter cards of that age, such as network adapters.

8087 Coprocessor

Intel introduced the 8086 processor in 1976. The math coprocessor that was paired with the chipthe 8087 often was called the numeric data processor (NDP), the math coprocessor, or simply the math chip. The 8087 is designed to perform high-level math operations at many times the speed of the main processor. The primary advantage of using this chip is the increased execution speed in number-crunching programs, such as spreadsheet applications

COMMONLY USED CPU.

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) or the processor is the portion of a computer system that carries out the instructions of a computer program, and is the primary element carrying out the computer's functions. This term has been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s [1]. The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed dramatically since the earliest examples, but their fundamental operation remains much the same.

Early CPUs were custom-designed as a part of a larger, sometimes one-of-a-kind, computer. However, this costly method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of mass-produced processors that are made for one or many purposes. This standardization trend generally began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit (IC). The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers. Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of these digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in everything from automobiles to cell phones and children's toys.

Input device

A hardware device that sends information to the computer. Without any input devices a computer would simply be a display device and not allow users to interact with it, much like a TV. To the right is a Logitech trackball mouse and an example of an input device. Below is a listing of all the different types of computer input devices found on a computer.

Barcode reader Digital camera Gamepad Joystick Keyboard

Microphone MIDI keyboard Mouse (pointing device) Scanner Webcam

Microphone

Sometimes abbreviated as mic, a microphone is a hardware peripheral originally invented by Emile Berliner in 1877 that allows computer users to input audio into their computers. To the right is a visual example of a USB headset from Logitech with a microphone. A popular solution for computer gaming.

See our connection dictionary definition for listing of other connections on a computer and a visual example of the sound card microphone port. See our microphone help page for additional help with microph

Optical scanner

Hardware input device that allows a user to take an image and/or text and convert it into a digital file, allowing the computer to read and/or display the scanned object. A scanner is commonly connected to a computer USB, Firewire, Parallel or SCSI port. To the right is a picture and an example of a flatbed photo scanner, the Epson V300.

Other types of scanners include: sheetfed scanner, which is a scanner that scans paper fed into it, handheld scanner, which is a scanner that is held and drag over a page to scan it, and a card scanner, which is a small scanner capable of scanning business cards.

See our scanner help page for additional help and information on computer scanners.

Keyboard
One of the main input devices used on a computer, a PC's keyboard looks very similar to the keyboards of electric typewriters, with some additional keys. Below is a graphic of the Saitek Gamers' keyboard with indicators pointing to each of the major portions of the keyboard.

Finally, today most users use the QWERTY style keyboards. Below is a graphic illustration of where each of the keys are on a U.S. QWERTY style keyboard.

Additional information and help with computer keyboards can be found on our keyboard help page.

Also see: ALT, Arrow keys, Control keys, CTRL, Delete, Enter, Function keys, Home row keys, Input device, Keyboard definitions, Keypad, Numeric keypad, Shift, Spacebar, Tab, Windows key

Output device

Any peripheral that receives and/or displays output from a computer. To the right is a picture of an inkjet printer and a good example of an output device. Below is a listing of all the different types of computer output devices found on a computer.

Monitor Printer Projector Sound card Speakers Video card

Also see: Input device, Input/output device, Output, Printer definitions, Video definitions

Monitor

1. Also called a video display terminal (VDT) a monitor is a video display screen and the hard shell that holds it. In its most common usage, monitor refers only to devices that contain no electronic equipment other than what is essentially needed to display and adjust the characteristics of an image.

Like most TVs, the computer monitor has a CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) that is found inside the computer monitor as illustrated in the picture to the right. The CRT is the main component and most expensive part within your computer monitor.

Additional information and help with computer monitors can be found here.

2. To view or watch over someone or something. Also see: Display, Flat screen, Output device, RGB monitor, Security definitions, Video definitions, CRT

Sound card
Also known as a sound board or an audio card, a sound card is an expansion card or integrated circuit that provides a computer with the ability to produce sound that can be heard by the user either over speakers and/or headphones. Below is an image of the

Creative Sound Blaster X-Fi Xtreme Audio sound card and an example of what a sound card may look like.

To the right is an example of what a generic sound card may look like from the back of your computer and the connector symbols usually found next to each of the connections. With almost every sound card you'll have four connections: sound out or line out, sound in or line in, Microphone, and MIDI (Joystick). You may also find that these ports are color coded as seen in the above picture of a computer sound card. If you're using speakers or other audio peripherals that are also color coded you can easily identify what port to use by matching the colors. Below is a listing of some of the functions of a computer sound card. Games Audio CDs Watch movies Audio conferencing Creating and playing Midi Educational software Business presentations Record dictations Voice recognition

Additional technical support and help with sound cards can be found on our sound card help page.

Also see: Connection, Output device, Line in, Line out, MIDI, Sound, Speakers, Sound definitions